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In the Name of Allah, the Most Merciful and the Most Compassionate

Junior Two Grammar

Clause: A group of related words containing a subject and a verb is called clause. A clause can be
meaningful or meaningless.

There are two main kinds of clauses:

Clause

Independent Clause Dependent Clause

Noun Clause Adjective Clause Adverb Clause

1. Independent/Main/Complete/Result/Meaningful/Non-Needy Clause: A clause that can

stand by itself and make sense. An independent clause could be its own a sentence, but is often part of
a larger structure, combined with other independent and dependent clauses.

2. Dependent/Subordinating/Incomplete/Meaningless/Adverb/Needy Clause: A clause that

can not stand by itself. It depends on independent clause for its full meaning.
9 I will have done my homework before he comes.
Independent Clause Dependent Clause

Note: Why is dependent clause meaningless?

It is meaningless because dependent clauses have subordinating conjunctions before their subject.
Subordinating conjunctions make it meaningless.
9 She called me. (Independent clause)
9 If she called me, (Dependent clause)
9 When she called me,
9 Before she called me,

Conditional Sentences:
A conditional sentence is one which includes a conditional clause and a result clause.
Or a conditional clause is a kind of adverbial clause which is introduced by the subordinating conjunction
"if".

If/Conditional/Doubtful/Predicted/Anticipated Clause: is used to show an action which has

prediction, figment or reality which is true or untrue.

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Conditional sentences have two parts: conditional clause and the main or result clause.
9 If I have time, I will teach you.
Conditional Clause Main or result clause

Conditional clause can come either before or after the main clause. If it comes before main clause, we put a
comma at the end of the conditional clause. If it comes after the main clause, no comma is used.
9 I will teach you if I have time.
Main or result clause Conditional Clause

There are two main kinds of conditionals: real and unreal.

Real conditional describes real-life situations. Unreal conditional describes unreal imaginary situations.

There are five types of conditionals:

1. Type 1/First Conditional
2. Type 2/Second Conditional
3. Type 3/Third Conditional
4. Mixed Conditional
5. Zero Conditional

1. Type 1/First Conditional: Future Real Conditional

If + subj + present indefinite tense + , + subj + future indefinite tense.
Prediction Result of Prediction
The future real conditional describes that a speaker predicts about a said condition; if it happens, its result
will happen according to speaker's prediction. We are thinking about a particular condition and its result
in the future. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen.
9 If it rains, I will stay at home.
9 If you don't hurry, we will miss the class.

Uses of Type 1 Conditional:

1. To predict the result of a condition.
9 If you help me, I will succeed.
2. To predict the state of a person, thing, etc.
If + subj + is, am, are + com + , + subj + future indefinite tense.
9 If he is intelligent, he will pass.
3. To predict the possession of someone.
If + subj + has/have + noun + , + subj + future indefinite tense.
9 If she has money, she will buy a car.

How to Change Type 1 Conditional into Passive Voice?

If + subj + is, am, are + past participle + by + object + , + subj + will + be + past participle + by + obj.
9 If Sahil helps me, I will buy a car. (Active Voice)
9 If I am helped by Sahil, a car will be bought by me. (Passive Voice)

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 2. Type 2/Second Conditional: Present Unreal Conditional
If + subj + past indefinite tense + , + subj + would + base form of a verb + comp/obj.
The above structure is used to talk about unreal or impossible situations now or in the future.
9 If I knew her name, I would tell you.
9 What would you do if you lost your job?

Uses of Type 2 Conditional:

1. To imagine something which is impossible or less important to happen.
9 If I became the president of Afghanistan, I would restore peace in the country.
2. To imagine the state of someone or something which is improbable to happen and it is not in our hand
and control.
If + subj + were + comp + , + subj + would + base form of a verb + comp/obj.
9 If I were a girl, I would marry him.

Note: We often use were instead of was after if. This is common in both formal and informal styles. In a
formal style, it is much more common than was and many people consider it more correct, especially in
American English. The grammatical name of this use of were is 'subjunctive'.
9 If I were rich, I would spend all my time traveling.
9 If I were you, I would marry her.

3. To imagine the possession of someone, we say that if somebody had this/that thing, its result would
happen like this or that.
If + subj + had + noun + , + subj + would + base form of a verb + comp/obj.
9 If I had a car, I would reach on time.

How to Change Type 2 Conditional into Passive Voice?

If + subj + was/were + past participle + by phrase + , + subj + would + be + past participle + by phrase.
9 If she called me, I would tell you.
9 If I was called by her, you would be told by me.

3. Type 3/Third Conditional: Past Unreal Conditional

If + subj + had + past participle + obj/comp + , + subj + would + have + past participle + comp/obj.
We use third conditional to talk about past unreal situations. The third conditional is also like a dream,
but with no possibility of the dream coming true.
9 If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.

Uses of Type 3 Conditional:

1. To imagine a past action, we say that if it had happened like this, its result would have happened
like this/that.
9 If I had gone there, I would have met her.
2. To imagine the possession of someone, we say that if somebody had had this/that thing, its result
would have happened like this/that.
If + subj + had had + noun + , + subj + would + have + past participle + comp/obj.
9 If I had had money, I would have bought her a car.

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 3. To imagine the state of somebody or something, we say that if somebody or something had been like
this/that, its result would have happened like this/that.
If + subj + had been + comp + , + subj + would + have + past participle + comp/obj.
9 If she had been single, I would have proposed her.

How to Change Type 3 Conditional into Passive Voice?

If + subj + had + been + past participle + by phrase + , + subj + would + have + been + past participle + by
phrase.
9 If I had studied English, I would have taught you.
9 If English had been studied by me, you would be have been taught by me.

4. Mixed Conditional:
Mixed conditional is used when a speaker says if this/that action had happened like this/that, its result
would happen/would be happening/might be happening like this/that.
Sometimes unreal conditional sentences are 'Mixed'. This means that the time in the if-clause is not the
same as the time in the result.
9 If I had studied English, I would have a better job now.

Uses of Mixed Conditional:

1. To imagine against the past and present facts, we say if something had happened like this/that, its
result would happen like this/that.
9 If I had studied hard, I would be in Junior Two now.
2. To imagine against the past and present facts, we say if something had happened like this/that, its
result would be happening like this/that. It means if one action had been done in the past, another
action would be in progress now.
If + subj + had + past participle + comp/obj + , + subj + would + be + verb + -ing + comp/obj.
9 If I had learned English, I would be working as a translator now.
3. To imagine against the past and present facts, we say if something had happened like this/that, its
result might be happening like this/that or we can use may/might in main clause.
If + subj + had + past participle + comp/obj + , + subj + may/might + be + verb + -ing + comp/obj.
9 If I had not cheated during exam, I might be studying in senior.

How to Change Mixed Conditional into Passive Voice?

If + subj + had + been + past participle + by phrase + , + subj + would + be + past participle + by phrase.
9 If I had studied English, I would teach you now.
9 If English had been studied by me, you would be taught by me now.

5. Zero Conditional: Certainty

If + subj + present indefinite tense + , + subj + present indefinite tense.
We use zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true. Zero conditional always has the
same result and it is often used to refer to general truths and conditions that are generally true.
Zero conditional expresses automatic results; it means action always happens automatically because of
another action.
9 If you heat ice, it melts.
9 If you don't eat, you get hungry.
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Uses of Zero Conditional:
1. To express present habits of someone:
9 If he has free time, he watches TV.
2. To express past habits of someone:
If + subj + past indefinite tense + , + subj + past indefinite tense.
9 If he had free time, he watched TV.
3. Human Nature:
9 If you have something, you don't like it.
4. To talk about facts:
9 If the temperature falls zero, water freezes.
5. Natural Law:
9 If you don't water plants, they don't grow.
6. Automatic Actions (Present):
9 If police don't take serious measures, social crimes increase.
7. Automatic Actions (Past):
9 If police didn't take serious measures, social crimes increased.

How to Change Zero Conditional into Passive Voice?

If + subj + is, am, are + past participle + by phrase + , + subj + is, am, are + past participle + by phrase.
9 If you do your homework, the teacher gives you marks.
9 If your homework is done by you, you are given marks by the teacher.

Omission of If in If-clauses: Formal Inversion – Structures:

If can be removed or omitted from if-clauses with no change in meaning. When we omit if from if-clauses, it
looks like a question, but it is not. It is common in formal and literary styles because an auxiliary verb comes
before the subject. This happens with were, had and should; very rarely with other auxiliary verbs.
9 If I were a doctor, I would treat you. = Were I a doctor, I would treat you.
9 If you had invited me, I would have come. = Had you invited me, I would have come.
9 If you should change your mind, I will meet you. = Should you change your mind, I will meet you.

Omission of If of Type 1: Conversional:

If is sometimes left out at the beginning of a sentence in a conversational style, especially when the speaker
is making conditions or threats.
9 If you study hard, you will pass the test. = Study hard, you will pass the test.
9 If you touch me again, I will kick your teeth in. = You touch me again, I will kick your teeth in.

Do/does + subj + mind + if + subj + present indefinite tense + ?

Would + subj + mind + if + subj + past indefinite tense + ?
The above structures are used to ask for permission politely. They are also used to ask general questions
about people's feelings and request in the most polite way.
Positive and polite answers are: Not at all, no of course not, no certainly not, Never
9 Do you mind if I ask you a question?
9 Does she mind if I ask her a personal question?
9 Would you mind if I asked you a question?
9 Would you mind if you closed the door?
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We can use various tenses in the main clause of Zero Conditional when we want to know the reason or result
of an action by the help of 'why'.
In this case, it is a real sentence, not a conditional sentence.
If + present indefinite tense has present meaning.
9 If you study hard, why do you fail?
why did you fail?
why have you failed?
why will you fail?

If + past indefinite tense has past meaning.

9 If she helped him, why does he still have problems?
why did he have problems?
why has he had problems?
why will he have problems?

Will and would are not normally used in if-clause except in some cases:
1. Stressed will can be used in if-clause to express the idea of insistence.
9 If you will drink cold water, you will feel ill.
2. Will can be used in if-clause when we advise someone who rejects doing something.
9 If you will not drive carefully, you will have accident again.
3. Will/would can be used in if-clause to express willingness.
9 If she will attend the party, I will also attend it.
4. Will/would can be used in if-clause to make arrangements.
9 If you will wash the dishes, I will clean the room.
5. 'Would like to' can be used in if-clause to express wishes or desires.
9 If you would like to teach at MELI, I will help you.
6. Will can be used in if-clause to express polite request. In this case, will is not a future auxiliary;
it means (are willing to). Would can be used to make a request even more polite.
9 If you will/would help me, I will be thankful to you.
7. To suggest that something is unlikely or not particularly probable, we use (should) in if-clause of
Type 1 and main clause is usually in imperative order. This pattern is often used in written
instructions. Should has the same meaning as Present Indefinite Tense in if-clause, but it is more
formal.
9 If you should need my help, inform me. (Formal)
9 If you need my help, inform me. (Informal)
9 If you should meet Laila, give her my best wishes. (Formal)
9 If you meet Laila, give her my best wishes. (Informal)

Progressive Tenses in If-Clauses:

We can use progressive tenses in all types of if-clauses. When we use progressive tenses in if-clauses, we
predict about the result of a said condition; we say if this/that thing is/was/had been happening like this/that,
its result will/would be/would have been like this/that.
9 If you are studying at MELI, you will learn English.
9 If you were studying at MELI, you would learn English.
9 If you had been studying at MELI, you would have learnt English.
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Perfect Tenses in If-Clauses:
We can use perfect tenses in if-clauses.
9 If she has studied hard, she will pass the test.
9 If she had studied hard, she would have passed the test.

Be able to in if-clauses:
We use (is, am, are able to/were able to/had been able to) in all types of if-clauses to predict about the result
of a said condition; we say if someone is/were/had been able to do this/that thing, its result will/would/would
have happened like this/that.
9 If she is able to speak English, she will get the job.
9 If she were able to speak English, she would get the job.
9 If she had been able to speak English, she would have got the job.

Be able to in main clauses:

Be able to can be used in all main clauses to express ability.
9 If you study hard, you will be able to pass the test.
9 If you studied hard, you would be able to pass the test.
9 If you had studied hard, you would have been able to pass the test.

Be + Infinitive: Type 1:
Is, am, are to/were to/had been to: can be used in if-clause to express a pre-planned action. In this case, we
use should or imperative order with second person in the main clause.
9 If you are to top the class, you should try hard / try hard.
9 If she is to teach at MELI, she should get preparation.
Type 2:
9 If you were to top the class, you should have studied hard.
Type 3:
9 If you had been to top the class, you should have studied hard.

Be + Infinitive in main clause:

Be + infinitive can be used in main clauses to express a pre-planned action.
9 If you are to attend the party, they are to attend it too.
9 If you were to attend the party, they were to attend it too.

Have to/Has to/Had to in if-clauses:

9 If you have to study hard, I will have to pass you.
9 If you had to study hard, I would have to pass you.

True Present:
9 If she has to work hard, I have to work hard too.

True Past:
9 If she had to work hard, I had to work hard too.
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 9 If I she has much homework to do, I will have much homework to do too.
9 If she had much homework to do, I would have much homework to do too.
9 If she had had much homework to do, I would have had much homework to do too.

Full Infinitive in If-clauses:

9 If she wants to teach English, she can teach.
9 If she wanted to teach English, she could teach.
9 If she had wanted to teach English, she could have taught.

Can/Could/Could have in if-clauses:

9 If she can go to the Presidential Palace, she will meet the president.
9 If she could go to the Presidential Palace, she would meet the president.
9 If she could have gone to the Presidential Palace, she would have met the president.

Can/Could/Could have in main-clauses:

9 If you get good preparation, you can pass the entry test of Kabul University.
9 If you got good preparation, you could pass the entry test of Kabul University.
9 If you had got good preparation, you could have passed the entry test of Kabul University.

™ Could can be used for polite requests.

9 If you have time, could you teach me?

™ Imperative order is used in main clauses to express instructions and suggestions.

9 If you don't attend the class, inform the office.
9 If you go to the market, buy some fruit.

™ Must is used in main clauses to express advice/order.

9 If you want to learn English perfectly, you must join MELI.

™ Had better is used in main clause of Type 1 to express strong advice. It is more urgent than should and
ought to.
9 If you want to pass to Senior, you had better work hard.

™ Should/should have/ought to/ought to have in main clauses: to express advice.

9 If you want to be respected, you should/ought to respect others.
9 If you wanted to be respected, you should have/ought to have respected others.

™ May/might/might have in main clauses: to express possibility.

9 If she comes here, I may/might meet her.
9 If she came here, I might meet her.
9 If she had come here, I might have met her.

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What if:
What if is used to express supposition, suggestion and fear.
Supposition:
9 What if she proposes to marry you, what will you do? = Suppose she proposes to marry you,
what will you do?
9 What if you lose your job, what will you do? = Suppose you lose your job, what will you do?
Suggestion:
9 What if we play cricket instead of football?
9 There aren't any chairs in the classroom what if you bring one from outside?
Fear:
9 Let's not go to the class today. What if we are expelled?
Note: We can use both present indefinite and past indefinite tenses in what if-clauses. Present Indefinite
Tense makes the supposition, suggestion and fear more probable and definite while past indefinite tense
makes them less probable and definite.
9 What if she insulted you?

Even if:
Even if shows a result that is unexpected based on the condition in the even if-clause. Even if is used for
emphasizing that although something might happen, the situation will not change.
9 Even if my parents disagree, I will marry her.
9 Even if the office fires me, I will not teach this class.

Or else/Otherwise:
We use otherwise/or else after stating a situation or fact to say what the result would be if this situation or
fact were not the case.
Note: They are usually preceded by imperative order and followed by present indefinite and future
indefinite tenses.
9 Don't miss the class, or else/otherwise you will be expelled.
9 Pay the bill, or else/otherwise your electricity connection will be cut off.
9 Hurry up, or else/otherwise we will miss the lecture.

When in if-clause:
We can use when instead of if in conditional sentences of type 1 to talk about something that we think will
definitely happen.
9 When I meet her, I will tell her. = I am sure I will meet her.
We use if to say that something might possibly happen.
9 If I meet her, I will tell her. = I am not sure whether I will meet her or not.
Note: If gives the meaning of when in Zero Conditional.
9 If/when you heat water, it boils.
Note: We use present indefinite tense in when-clause to give future meaning.

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Conditional Sentences in Indirect Speech:
The following points shall be taken into account while changing conditional sentences from direct speech
into indirect speech:
⇒ If reporting speech is in the present and future tenses, the tenses of if and main clauses do not change.
9 He says, "If I see her, I will give her your message."
He says that if he sees her, he will give her my message.
9 She will say, "If they have time, they will arrange a party."
She will say that if they have time, they will arrange a party.
⇒ If the reporting speech is in the past, the following changes will occur in Type 1:
o Type 1 is changed to Type 2.
o Present indefinite tense of if-clause changes into past indefinite tense.
o Will of main clause changes into would.
o That comes between two speeches.
o If of the conditional clause remains in its own place.
9 He said, "If I have time, I will teach you."
He said that if he had time, he would teach us.
⇒ The following changes will occur in Type 2:
o Type 2 is changed to Type 3.
o Past indefinite tense of if-clause can be changed into past perfect tense.
o Would + base form of a verb can be changed into would + have + past participle.
o That comes between tow speeches.
o If of the conditional clause remains in its own place.
o Sometimes Type 2 remains unchanged in a very informal way.
9 She said, "If they studied hard, they would pass the test."
She said that if they had studied hard, they would have passed the test.
She said that if they studied hard, they would pass the test.
⇒ Type 3 remains unchanged.
9 Sahil said, "If Laila had known English, she would have got the job."
Sahil said that if Laila had known English, she would have got the job.
⇒ Mix Conditional remains unchanged.
9 He said, "If I had tried, I would be in Junior Two now."
He said that if he had tried, he would be in Junior Two then.
⇒ Zero Conditional remains unchanged.
9 He said, "If you don't eat, you get hungry."
He said that if I don't eat, I get hungry.

How to Change Imperative Sentences of Conditional Sentences into Indirect Speech?

o Reporting verb changes into told/asked/ordered to report a command/order.
o Reporting verb changes into requested; please and would are omitted to report a request.
o Reported verb changes into full infinitive.
o Main clause comes before if-clause.
o That is not used.
o One tense goes back.
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 9 He said to me, "If you have time, call him."
He asked me to call him if I had time.

9 He said to me, "If you have time, please fix the chair."
He requested me to fix the chair if I had time.
9 She told me, "If you see Sahil, give my regards to him."
She told me that if I saw Sahil, I was to give him her regards.

How to Change (Why don’t you) into Indirect Speech?

o Why don't you: is used for advice.
o Reporting verb changes into advised.
o Why don't you is omitted.
o Reported verb changes into full infinitive.
o Main clause comes before if-clause.
9 He told me, "If you want to learn English, why don't you join MELI?"
He advised me to join MELI if I wanted to learn English.

How to Change Interrogative Sentences into Indirect Speech?

o Reporting verb changes into asked.
o Interrogative order changes into affirmative.
o Question mark changes into full stop.
o If there is a WH-Word, 'that' is not used.
o If there is no WH-Word, if/whether is used.
9 She said to me, "What will you do if he doesn't give you money?"
She asked me what I would do if he didn't give me money.
9 She told me, "Will you call me if you have time?"
She asked me if I would call her if I had time.

Clauses:
Kinds of Dependent Clauses:
1. Adjective Clause
2. Adverb Clause
3. Noun Clause
4. Finite Clause
5. Non-Finite Clause
6. Comment Clause
7. Participle Clause
8. Verb less Clause
9. Elliptical Clause

Finite Verb:
A verb which is limited by the subject, number and tense of the sentence is called a finite verb.
9 wants, am, came, is, goes, etc.

Finite Verb Phrase:

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A verb phrase in which the first or the only word is a finite verb is called finite verb phrase.
9 wants to play, killed the man

Non-Finite/Infinite/Infinitive Verb:
A non-finite verb or infinitive is not limited by the subject, number and tense of the sentence.
9 She wants to learn English.
9 I can speak Arabic.

Non-Finite Verb Phrase:

A verb phrase in which the first or the only word is infinitive is called non-finite verb phrase.
9 To teach English is difficult.
9 To ride a horse is dangerous.

1. Finite Verb Clause/Finite Clause:

A clause whose first verb is a finite verb is called finite clause.
9 He swims in the pool.
9 I am teaching them.
9 While he was eating, I arrived.

2. Non-Finite Verb Clause/Non-Finite Clause:

A clause whose first verb is a non-finite verb is called non-finite clause.
9 To run in the morning is good for health.

3. Comment Clause:
Comment clause is a small clause or a short expression which adds a comment about an independent clause.

Note: We can use a comma between comment and independent clauses. If we remove the comma, the
independent clause changes into noun clause.
™ You know
™ I suppose
™ I guess
™ It is said
™ I think
™ It was believed
™ To be honest
™ It is to be mentioned
™ As he said
™ To be frank

9 I guess, he will win the election.

9 To be frank, I love her.
9 It is said, he will become the director. / It is said that he will become the director.

4. Participle Clause:

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A clause in which present participle or past participle is the main word is called participle clause.

Types of Participle Clause:

1. Relative Participle Clause
2. Adverbial Participle Clause

1. Relative Participle Clause:

A clause which gives further information about a noun and is introduced by relative pronoun as who/which is
called Relative Participle Clause. Relative participle clauses are used as non-defining adjective clauses and
are separated by commas.

A. Present Participle:
The + noun (head noun) + , + who/which + is/are + verb + -ing + obj/comp + , + verb + comp.
9 The woman, who is shouting, is sick.
9 The boy, who is teaching English, is my friend.
9 The dog, which is barking, is hers.

The short form of the present participle:

The + noun + verb + -ing + obj/comp + verb + comp.
9 The girl, who is writing, is my friend.
The girl writing is my friend.

The + noun + , + who/which + was/were + verb + -ing + , + verb + comp.

9 The man, who was talking, graduated from university.
The man talking graduated from university.

B. Past Participle:
The + noun + , + who/which + is/are + past participle + , + verb + comp.
9 The woman, who is invited, is Sahil's mother.

The + noun + , + who/which + was/were + past participle + verb + comp.

9 The boy, who was kidnapped, was a minister's son.

The short form of past participle:

The + noun + past participle + comp + verb + comp.
9 The man, who was accused of murder, has been sentenced to death.
The man accused of murder has been sentenced to death.

2. Adverbial Participle Clause:

Adverbial participle clauses can also be used in similar ways to full adverbial clauses, expressing condition,
reason, time relations, result, etc. This can only happen when the idea of condition, reason, etc. is so clear
that no conjunction is needed to signal it. Adverbial participle clauses are usually rather formal.

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 9 Being a teacher, he should behave well. = He should behave well because he is a teacher.
9 While walking, they fought. = While they were walking, they fought.
9 Studying hard, you will pass. = If you study hard, you will pass.
9 Doing my H.W, I went to bed. = After I had done my H.W, I went to bed.

5. Verb-less Clause:
A clause in which there is no verb (usually be forms), but understood is called verb-less clause.
Subject pronouns with forms of Be can be left out after certain conjunctions, especially in a formal style.
A clause can be made verb-less if the subjects of both clauses are the same.

9 Though lazy, he passed. = Though he is lazy, he passed.

9 While in primary school, I was intelligent. = While I was in primary school, I was intelligent.
9 Phone me if necessary. = Phone me if it is necessary.

6. Elliptical Clause:
A clause in which we often leave out words to avoid repetition or in other cases when the meaning can be
understood without them is called elliptical clause. Those words, we leave out, are necessary for grammatical
completeness, but not for meaning.
9 I don't think that he will become the manager.
I don't think he will become the manager. (Elliptical Clause)
9 Wherever you want to go, you can go.
Wherever you want to go, you can. (Elliptical Clause)

7. Adjective Clause/Relative Clause:

Clauses beginning with question words (who, whom, which, etc.) are often used to modify nouns and some
pronouns to identify people and things or to give more information about them are called relative/adjective
clauses.
Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that), relative adverbs (where,
when, why) and relative adjective (whose).
⇒ Who: is used for people and domestic animals in subjective cases. It can also be used for people in
objective case in informal style.
⇒ Whom: is used for people in objective cases.
⇒ Which: is used for things and animal in both subjective and objective cases.
⇒ That: is used for people and things in both subjective and objective cases in an informal style.
⇒ Whose: is used for people, things and animals in possessive cases.
⇒ When: is used for time.
⇒ Where: is used for place.
⇒ Why: is used for reason.

There are Four Types of Adjective Clauses:

1. Defining Adjective Clause
2. Non-Defining Adjective Clause
3. Contact Adjective Clause
4. Connective Adjective Clause

Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 15

1. Defining/Identifying/Restrictive/Essential Adjective Clause:
A defining adjective clause is used to modify, identify or give essential information about a person or thing
or it defines the preceding noun in a way to distinguish it from other nouns of the same class or group.

Note: Defining adjective clauses are not separated by commas in writing.

9 The man who/that lives next to our house has been arrested by police.
9 He is the man whom we all respect.
9 Give me the book which/that you bought.
9 People who/that take physical exercise are healthy.

Note: In defining adjective clauses, we often leave out object pronouns, especially in an informal style.
9 The girl whom I want to marry is stunningly beautiful.
The girl I want to marry is stunningly beautiful.

2. Non-Defining/Non-Identifying/Non-Restrictive/Non-Essential Adjective Clause:

Non-defining adjective clauses do not identify nouns; they simply tell us more about a person or thing that is
already identified or non-defining adjective clauses are placed after the nouns which are already definite and
merely give extra information about them.

Note: Non-defining adjective clauses are normally separated by commas.

9 Kabul, which is the capital City of Afghanistan, is very beautiful.
9 Hamid Karzai, who is the president of Afghanistan, is from Kandahar.

Note: A non-defining adjective clause can modify a common noun if it is known.

9 The businessman, who has been kidnapped, is the director of a bank.

Note: Non-defining adjective clauses are not essential in the sentence. Therefore, they can be omitted
without any effect in meaning.
9 MELI, which is located in Kabul, is well-known English Institute.
MELI is well-known English Institute.
Note: 'That' is common as a relative pronoun in identifying clauses. It can refer to things and in an informal
style to people. In non-defining clauses, 'that' is unusual.

3. Contact Clause:
When relative pronouns are used in objective case in defining adjective clauses, they can be omitted.
When relative pronouns are deleted, defining adjective clause is changed into contact clause.
9 The man whom we met yesterday is Sahil's father.
The man we met yesterday is Sahil's father. (Contact Clause)
9 The book which I bought last week is interesting.
The book I bought last week is interesting. (Contact Clause)

No-Contact Clause:

Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 16

When relative pronouns are used in subjective case in defining adjective clause, they can not be deleted; the
clause can not be changed into contact clause, so it is called no-contact clause.
9 This is the girl who got engaged just a week ago. (No-Contact Clause)
9 The boy who secured first position is really intelligent. (No-Contact Clause)

4. Connective Clause:
A connective clause is not used to modify a noun or pronoun; it is only used to keep a story continuing.
Note: What is the difference between defining adjective clause and connective clause?
1. We use (the) before the noun of main clause in defining adjective clause while a/an is used in
connective clause.
2. No comma is used in defining adjective clause whereas comma is used between main clause and
connective clauses.
3. Defining adjective clause comes after a noun while connective clause comes after object or object
pronoun which comes at the end of main clause and connective clause discusses the same object.
4. Defining adjective clause gives essential information about a noun while connective clause only
keeps a story continuing.
9 She is the girl who gave a gift to Sahil. (Defining Adjective Clause)
9 I gave a gift to her, who gave it to Sahil. (Connective Clause)
9 She sent me a book, which I did not like. (Connective Clause)

Note: Whom can be used as an object of a preposition. The preposition can come either before whom or at
the end of the clause. Using preposition before whom is formal while using it at the end of the clause is
informal.
If preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, only whom is possible, but if preposition comes
at the end of the clause, not only whom but also who and that are possible or they can be omitted.
9 The girl to whom I sent the letter is Laila.
The girl whom/who/that I sent the letter to is Laila.
The girl I sent the letter to is Laila.
9 She is the girl for whom I bought the gift.
She is the girl whom/who/that I bought the gift for.
She is the girl I bought the gift for.
9 This is the pen with which he writes.
This is the pen which/that he writes with.
This is the pen he writes with.

Whose: is a relative adjective. It is used in possessive case. Whose can't be omitted because it alone can't
function as a subject or object; it is always a part of subject or object.
9 The boy whose father is a university professor got first position in our class.
9 The car whose color is red is mine.
9 The dog whose ears are very long is theirs.

Note: Instead of whose, we can use of which (less formal). The most common word order is: Noun + of
which.
9 He has written a book whose name I don't remember.
Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 17
 He has written a book the name of which I don't remember.

Relative Adverbs:
1. Where: is used for place.
9 The market where I bought this computer is in Shar-e-Now.
9 The city where I was born is Peshawar.

Note: We can use in which/at which instead of where.

9 This is the village in which my grandpa lived.
9 This is the home at which I met Laila.
Note: If preposition comes at the end of the clause, that can be used instead of which or it can be omitted.
9 The country in which I spent my vacation is India.
The country which/that I spent my vacation in is India.
The country I spent my vacation in is India.

2. When: is used for time.

9 I will never forget the day when I met you for the first time.
9 It was 2001 when World Trade Center was attacked.
9 It was March when she got married.
9 This is the time when he arrives everyday.

Note: We can use at which/in which/on which instead of when.

9 It is Friday on which I am free.
9 It was 12:00 PM at which they arrived.
9 It was April in which I graduated from high school.

3. Why: is used for reason.

9 Do you know the reason why she doesn't like me?
Note: We can use for which instead of why.
9 Do you know the reason for which she doesn't like me?

Cleft sentences with a defining adjective clause:

A cleft sentence is used when a listener refuses the idea of a said sentence; the speaker defends the idea and
repeats it with stress/emphasis. It + be form + noun/pronoun + defining adjective clause
9 It was Ahmad Shah Baba who/that ruled over India.
9 It was Sahil whom/that I met.
9 It was last week that I met Sahil.
9 It is the book that I need.

The only one/the first/the second/the third/the last:

These phrases can be used in non-defining adjective clauses.
9 The first/the second/the third/the last person, who has helped me a lot, is my brother.
9 The first/the second/the third/the last man, who rejects peace talks with Taliban, is Obama.
9 The first/the second/the third/the last girl, whom I met, was Laila.
9 The only one, who can help me, is my father.
Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 18
 9 The only one, whom I love the most, is Laila.

Of whom/of which/of whose:

Some of whom/which = some of them
Many of whom/which = many of them
Most of whom/which = most of them

None of whom/which = none of them

Neither of whom/which = neither of them
All of whom/which = all of them
Few of whom/which = few of them
Several of whom/which = several of them
Both of whom/which = both of them
All of whom/which = all of them
Some of whose = some of his/her/their
Many of whose = many of his/her/their
One/two, etc. of whom/which = one/two, etc. of them

9 There are many teachers, some of whom are intelligent.

There are many teachers, some of them are intelligent.
9 I have English Books, all of which are grammar.
I have English Books, all of them are grammar.
9 I met several girls, neither of whom was beautiful.
I met several girls, neither of them was beautiful.
9 I have many friends, none of whom is educated.
I have many friends, none of them is educated.
9 There are many parks in Kabul, a number of which I like.
There are many parks in Kabul, a number of them I like.
9 He has many pens, a few of whose pens are blue.
He has many pens, a few of his pens are blue.

8. Adverb Clause:
An adverb clause is a type of clause that adds more information about place, time, manner, condition, etc. or
it is a clause which functions as an adverb.
9 I will teach here as long as Sahil is the manager.
Adverb Clause

Kinds of Adverb Clauses:

1. Adverb Clause of Purpose
2. Adverb Clause of Condition
3. Adverb Clause of Comparison
4. Adverb Clause of Place
5. Adverb Clause of Manner
6. Adverb Clause of Result
7. Adverb Clause of Contrast
8. Adverb Clause of Reason

Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 19

9. Adverb Clause of Time

1. Adverb Clause of Purpose:

Adverb clause of purpose is used to show the purpose or aim of doing or not doing something.
9 He comes to MELI so that he can learn English.

Purpose clauses are introduced by so that, in order that, lest and for fear that.
So that + will/can/may/shall and their past forms.
In order that + may/shall and their past forms.

If the verb of main clause is in past, past forms of auxiliaries are used in purpose clauses, but if the verb of
main clause is in present, present perfect or any future tense, first forms of auxiliaries are used.

9 He works hard so that he may earn more money.

9 I am attending the class regularly in order that/so that I will not be expelled.
9 He came early so that/in order that he might meet the director.
Lest:
Lest is used to express fear that the result of an action should not happen like this or the result of this action
may not happen like this. Lest has a similar meaning to so that …. not. It is very rare in Modern British
English and is found mostly in older literature. It is a little more common in formal American English.

Note: Should is usually used after lest, but it is optional.

Remember: Lest itself is negative, so any negative auxiliary should not be used after it.
9 Don't missed call me lest I (should) report to police.
Don't missed call me so that I should not report to police.
9 Study hard lest you (should) fail. = Study hard so that you may not fail.

For fear that: is used in a similar way and is also unusual in Modern English.
9 Study hard for fear that you should fail.
9 He left the city for fear that the police would find him.

9 Chain your dog so that it may not bite anyone.

9 Chain your dog that it may not bite anyone.
9 Chain your dog so it may not bite anyone.

To shorten two clauses into one, we use purpose infinitives.

Adverb clause of purpose can be changed into infinitive clause if subjects of both clauses are the same.
In order that = in order to
So that = so as to
9 I want to study hard in order that I may get first position.
Adverb Clause of Purpose
9 I want to study hard in order to get first position.
Purpose Infinitive

Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 20

 9 I want to study hard so as to get first position.
9 I love Laila in order to/so as to marry her.
9 I study hard in order not to fail.
9 I study hard so as not to fail.

For: to express purpose

People's purpose:
For can be used to talk about somebody's purpose in doing something, but only when it is followed by a
noun.
9 I came here for Laila.

For is not used before a verb in this sense. The infinitive alone is used to express a person's purpose.
9 I came here to meet Laila.
9 I came here for meeting Laila. (Incorrect)

The purpose of things: -ing forms and infinitives:

For can be used before the –ing form of a verb to express the 'purpose' of a thing – what it is used for –
especially when the thing is the subject of the clause.
9 Is this dress for selling?
9 A thermometer is used for measuring temperature.
When the clause has a person as subject, it is more common to use an infinitive to express the purpose of a
thing.
9 We use a thermometer to measure temperature.
Note: For + verb – ing is used to express a common/general purpose and full infinitive is used to express a
particular purpose.
9 He needs someone for teaching. (General Purpose)
9 We went to store for shopping. (General Purpose)
9 He needs someone to teach his son. (Particular Purpose)
9 I went to store to meet my friend. (Particular Purpose)

Cases of Reactions:
For + verb + -ing can also be used after a description of a positive or negative reaction to explain the
behavior that caused it.
9 I am angry with her for waking me up.
9 I am grateful to you for helping me.

In case of + Noun = If there is + noun:

The prepositional phrase in case of can be used in similar situations to if. In case of is used to say that what
one should do in a particular situation.
9 In case of any problem, call me. = If there is any problem, call me.
In case:

Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 21

In case is mostly used to talk about precaution things which we do in order to be ready for possible future
situations.
9 I always take an umbrella in case it rains. = I always take an umbrella because it might rain.
In clauses which refer to the future, in case is normally followed by a present indefinite tense.
9 I have prepared lunch in case Laila comes.

What is the difference between in case and if?

In British English, in case and if are normally used in quite different ways.
I do A in case B happens = usually means I do A first because B might happen later. A is first.
I do A if B happens = means I do A if B has already happened. B is first.
9 Let's buy fruit in case Sahil comes. = Let's buy fruit now because Sahil might come later.
9 Let's buy fruit if Sahil comes. = We will wait and see. If Sahil comes, then we will buy fruit.
If he doesn't, we won't.
In American English, in case can sometimes be used in the same way as if.
9 In case you face any problem, call me. = If you face any problem, call me.

2. Adverb Clause of Condition:

An adverb clause of condition is used to express a condition for the occurrence of a specific result. Adverb
clauses of condition are normally introduced by if, unless, provided that, providing that, on condition that,
etc.
9 You will pass on condition that you study hard.
Adverb Clause of Condition
9 I will not attend his party unless he invites me.
Adverb Clause of Condition

3. Adverb Clause of Comparison/Comparative Clause:

An adverb clause of comparison is used when we compare two persons, things, places, animals, qualities, etc.
with each other.

There are three types of comparative clauses:

I. As Clause
II. Than Clause
III. Metaphor Clause

I. As Clause:
As clause is used when we compare two persons, things, places, animals, etc. equally or unequally.
as + adj/adv + as
9 Sahil is as polite as Laila is.
9 Afghanistan is as beautiful as India is.
9 Sahil teaches as beautifully as you teach.
9 He is not as intelligent as I am.
9 He doesn't have as many friends as I have.
Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 22
 9 As is the father so is the son. = As the father is, so the son is.
9 As were the students so was the teacher. = As the students were, so the teacher was.

II. Than Clause:

Than clause is used when we compare two persons, things, places, etc. with each other unequally.
9 Laila is more intelligent than Sahil is. (Formal)
Conj
9 Laila is more intelligent than Sahil. (Informal)
Prep
9 He is older than I am. = He is older than me.

III. Metaphor Clause:

Metaphor clause is used when we compare someone or something with someone or something else that has
similar qualities or when we address someone the name of animal/place/tree to appreciate or insult him/her.
We don't use like and as in this case.
9 Sahil is a lion.
9 Laila is a moon for me.
9 He is the mountain.

4. Adverb Clause of Place:

An adverb clause of place is used to talk about the location or place of an action. Adverb clauses of place are
introduced by where, wherever, anywhere, etc.
9 You can go wherever you want.
Adverb Clause of Place
9 She went where she had come from.
Adverb Clause of Place

5. Adverb Clause of Manner:

An adverb clause of manner is used to show how something happens.
Adverb clauses of manner are introduced by as, as if, as though, in the way, in the way that, the way, the way
in which, in the same way, in the same way as, etc.
9 He taught us as our former teacher did.
9 He taught us in the way that our former teacher did.
9 He sings in the way that Ahmad Zahir was singing.
Note: As if and as though are normally used for unreal conditions.
9 He acts as if/as though he were a teacher.
9 He speaks as if/as though he were my father.

6. Adverb Clause of Result:

An adverb clause of result is used to show the result of something.
Subj + verb + so + adj + that …
9 He is so intelligent that everyone likes him.
9 The test was so difficult that no one could get 50 % marks.
Subj + verb + such + adj + noun + that …
9 She is such a beautiful girl that everyone admires her.
9 It is such an interesting book that I can not stop reading it.
Subj + verb + so + adv + that …
Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 23
 9 He teaches so beautifully that every student likes to study with him.
9 The Afghan National Cricket Team plays so intelligently that no other team of the world can
compete with them.
Note: To express stress/emphasis, we can use so at the beginning of a sentence. When so comes at the
beginning of a sentence, adjective or adverb and verb come before the subject of a sentence.
9 He is so polite that everyone respects him. = So polite is he that everyone respects him.
9 He talked so intelligently that all participants appreciated him. = So intelligently did he talk all
participants appreciated him.

7. Adverb Clause of Contrast/Concession/Supposition:

An adverb clause of contrast is used to show contrast between two ideas.
Adverb clauses of contrast are introduced by subordinating conjunctions as: though, although, while,
whereas, etc.

Although/Though/Even though:
These words are used to express contrast between two ideas or they are used to express unexpected result.
They have similar meaning, but 'though' is common in informal style while although is used in formal style.
Even though is stronger and us used to express stress/emphasis.
Although/though/even though + clause + clause
Clause + although/though/even though + clause
Clause + though
9 Although/Even though/Though he did not study hard, he passed the test.
9 I love her although/even though/though she is ugly.
9 He passed the test; he did not study hard, though.
Though can be used between adjective and subject to express stress/emphasis.
9 Expensive though this car is, I will buy it.
However:
However + adv + subj + may + , +subj + can't/doesn't/won't + verb + obj/comp.
This structure is used when the speaker emphasizes that if someone performs the action in any way, its result
will not change.
9 However hard you may study, you won't be able to pass.

However + adj + subj + may + be + , +subj + can't/doesn't/won't + verb + obj/comp.

This structure is used when the speaker emphasizes that however the person or thing may be, they won't be
able to do this or that thing.
9 However intelligent she may be, she can't pass.

However + adj + subj + may + be + , +subj + can't/doesn't/won't + verb + obj/comp.

This structure is used when the speaker emphasizes that however the person or thing may be, the speaker
him/herself says about him/herself that he/she can't do this/that.
9 However beautiful she may be, I don't love her.

Even if:
Even if is used to express contrast between two ideas with stress.
9 Even if you kill me, I will not tell you the truth. = I will not tell you the truth even if you kill me.
Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 24
We use 'ever' with some WH words to express emphasis/stress.
⇒ Whatever:
9 Whatever may happen, I will marry her.
⇒ Wherever:
9 Wherever she may go, I will find her.
⇒ Whenever:
9 Whenever she comes, I will give her your message.

Note: No matter + WH word means it is not important who, what, where, when, which and how.
9 No matter what he does, I will teach here. = Whatever he does, I will teach her.
9 No matter where she may go, I can catch her. = Wherever she may go, I can catch her.
9 It does not matter whoever comes, don't open the door.

Note: If the subjects of both clauses are the same, only though with a verb or a phrase can be used as a
contrast clause.
9 Though he was not invited, he came. = Though not invited, he came.

As = though/although:
When 'as' is used to introduce a contrast clause, it is usually preceded by an adjective or adverb.
9 Intelligent as he is, he didn't pass. = Although he is intelligent, he didn't pass.

⇒ Considering that/how = in view of the fact that:

9 I got good marks considering how little I had studied.
9 He teaches really nicely considering that he has little experience of teaching English.

⇒ While/Whilst = although:
Whilst has similar meaning as while, but it is more formal and common in British Literary English.
9 While/whilst I am tired, I have to come to the institute.

⇒ Whereas = while:
9 My brother is rich whereas I am poor.

⇒ Much as = although:
Much as is used to express stress/emphasis. It is considered and used as an emphatic form of although.
9 Much as he studied hard, he failed the test. = Although he studied hard, he failed.

⇒ Whether … or not:
9 I will join her party whether she invites me or not.

⇒ No matter whether …. Or not:

9 I will join her party no matter whether she invites me or not.

Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 25

8. Adverb Clause of Reason/Cause:
An adverb clause of reason is used to show the reason of an action.
Adverb clauses of reason are introduced by because, as, since, seeing that, now that, that, etc. and answer the
question 'why'.

⇒ Because = for the reason that:

9 I didn't come to the class because I was sick.
I didn't come to the class for the reason that I was sick.
⇒ Because of (Prep) = by reason of:
9 Because of rain, I didn't go to school.

⇒ As = because:
9 As she is beautiful, I love her.
⇒ Since = because:
9 Since she was sick, she didn't come to class.
⇒ Seeing (that) = because:
9 Seeing that I didn't have time, I didn't attend her party.
⇒ Now that = because:
9 Now that the weather is nice, you can go anywhere you want.
⇒ That (conj) = because:
9 He is happy that he has passed the exam.
⇒ For (Prep) = because:
For is old-fashioned and it is not common in Modern English. A comma is used before for.
9 I am very tired, for I have worked hard all day.

9. Adverb Clause of Time:

An adverb clause of time is used to show the time of an action.
Adverb clauses of time are introduced by when, while, before, after, until, as soon as, as long as, since, by the
time, etc. and answer the question 'when'.

⇒ When (conj) = at the time that or during the time that:

9 When he came, we were eating lunch. = We were eating lunch when he came.
9 When she comes, I will give your message. = I will give her your message when she comes.

Note: When the subjects of both clauses are the same, the subject and helping verb of time clause are often
omitted.
9 While they were going to school, they fought. = While going to school, they fought.
9 I like silence when I am studying. = I like silence when studying.
⇒ While (conj) = during the time that:
9 While I was talking with Laila, my brother came.
My brother came while I was talking with Laila.
⇒ While = at the same time as:
9 I was explaining the lesson while she was laughing.
⇒ While = When:
Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 26
 9 I was very naughty while I was a boy of ten. = I was very naughty when I was a boy of ten.
⇒ As = When/While:
9 She came as I was doing my homework. = She came while I was doing my homework.
⇒ Before (Conj) = Earlier than the time when:
9 I will have done my homework before you arrive.
⇒ After (Conj) = at a later time = when:
9 After we had eaten, we washed the dishes. = We washed the dishes after we had eaten.
⇒ Till/Until:
Till and until are only used to talk about time. They can not be used for distance, capacity, etc.
Till and until have got same meaning, but till is common in informal style while until is common in formal
style.

⇒ Till/Until/Upto (Prep):
9 I am very busy from Saturday until/till/up to Friday. = I am very busy from Saturday to Friday.
9 You study here until/till/up to 7:00 PM. = You study here to 7:00 PM.
⇒ From ….through:
From ….through is commonly used in American English.
From….to and from…till/until: mean from the first period until the second period while from…through
means from first period including the second period.
9 I worked there from May to December. (up to December)
9 I worked there from May through December. (including December)
⇒ Till/Until (Conj) = up to the time when:
9 I will be here until/till she comes. = Until/Till she comes, I will be here.
9 You can use my computer until/till you get your own one.
⇒ Just as = exactly at the same moment as:
Just as is used to express the idea with stress/emphasis that another action happens exactly at the same
moment when the first action happens.
9 She left the class just as she saw me.
⇒ As soon as = the moment when/not later than:
9 I will give you the book as soon as I finish it.
⇒ As long as/so long as = until:
9 I will teach here as long as Sahil is the manager. = I will teach here until Sahil is the manager.
⇒ No sooner … than:
This is used to express the idea with emphasis that how quickly/immediately the second action followed the
first action.
9 I had no sooner reached home than it started raining.
Note: To express stress, we use no sooner with the helping verb before the subject.
9 No sooner had I reached home than it started raining.
⇒ Hardly = scarcely = barely …. when:
They are used to express stress that how quickly/immediately the first action followed the second action.
9 I had hardly/scarcely/barely reached home when it started raining.
9 Hardly/scarcely/barely had I reached home when it started raining.
⇒ Immediately = as soon as:
Immediately is a conjunction. It means that the second action happens very soon without delay after the first
action.
Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli 27
 9 Immediately she saw me, she left the class. = As soon as she saw me, she left the class.
⇒ Since = since the time when:
9 I have taught English since I graduated from high school.
⇒ Directly = as soon as:
9 I go to bed directly I take dinner. = I go to bed as soon as I take dinner.
⇒ The moment (that) = as soon as:
9 She left the class the moment (that) she saw me.
⇒ By the time = before:
9 I will have done my homework by the time you prepare lunch.

⇒ Once = when:
9 Once she calls me, I will tell her. = When she calls me, I will tell her.

Noun Clause:
A group of words containing a subject and a predicate and functions the same as a noun is called noun clause.
When some words are used as a subject, object and complement of a main verb is called noun clause.
9 What I dislike is lying.

There are three types of Noun Clauses:

1. That Clause
2. WH Clause
3. If/whether Clause

1. That Clause:
Noun clauses which are introduced by 'that' are called That Clauses.
o As a subject:
9 That Sahil died is false.
9 That he failed the test is disappointing.

o As an object:
9 She wants that I have to teach her.
9 I remember that she has come here.

o As a complement:
9 My only wish is that I marry her.
9 He promised that he would help me.

2. WH Clause:
Noun clauses which are introduced by 'WH Words' are called WH Clauses.
o As a subject:
9 What I like is teaching grammar.
9 When I will get married is unknown.
9 Who kill innocent people are called terrorists.

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 o As an object:
9 She doesn't know what I want.
9 I know where she went.
9 Do you remember what her name is?

o As an object of preposition:
9 I am not responsible for what I am teaching.
9 I surprised at what he said.

o As a complement:
9 He is what I think.
9 She is not how I thought.

3. If/whether/ Yes/No Interrogative Clauses:

Yes/No questions are changed into Yes/No Interrogative noun clauses and are introduced by if and whether.
9 I don't know if/whether she studies English.
9 Ask her if/whether she can speak English.
9 Can you tell me if/whether she is a doctor?
9 Do you know if/whether they play cricket?

The End

Note: In case of any query, feel free to catch me at +93 (0) 77 42 18 119 or write to me at [email protected].

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