Chapter 5-Memory-Mgmt-Pdd

Chapter 5: Memory
management strategies
Padmashree Desai
original PPTs are modified as per requirement
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Chapter 8: Memory Management
Background
Swapping
Contiguous Memory Allocation
Paging
Structure of the Page Table
Segmentation
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Objectives
To provide a detailed description of various ways of

organizing memory hardware
To discuss various memory-management techniques,
including paging and segmentation
Background
Program must be brought (from disk) into memory and

placed within a process for it to be run
Main memory and registers are only storage CPU can
access directly
Memory unit only sees a stream of addresses + read
requests, or address + data and write requests
Register access in one CPU clock (or less)
Main memory can take many cycles, causing a stall
Cache sits between main memory and CPU registers
Protection of memory required to ensure correct operation
Base and Limit Registers
A pair of base and limit registers define the logical address space
CPU must check every memory access generated in user mode to
be sure it is between base and limit for that user
Hardware Address Protection
Address Binding
Programs on disk, ready to be brought into memory to execute form an
input queue
Without support, must be loaded into address 0000
Inconvenient to have first user process physical address always at 0000
Further, addresses represented in different ways at different stages of a
program’s life
Source code addresses usually symbolic
Compiled code addresses bind to relocatable addresses
 i.e. “14 bytes from beginning of this module”
Linker or loader will bind relocatable addresses to absolute addresses
 i.e. 74014
Each binding maps one address space to another
Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory
Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses

can happen at three different stages
Compile time: If memory location known a priori, absolute
code can be generated; must recompile code if starting
location changes
Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory
location is not known at compile time.
Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if the
process can be moved during its execution from one memory
segment to another
 Need hardware support for address maps (e.g., base and
limit registers)
Logical vs. Physical Address Space
The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a

separate physical address space is central to proper memory
management
Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to
as virtual address
Physical address – address seen by the memory unit
Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time
and load-time address-binding schemes; logical (virtual) and
physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding
scheme
Logical address space is the set of all logical addresses
generated by a program
Physical address space is the set of all physical addresses
generated by a program
Memory-Management Unit (MMU)
Hardware device that at run time maps virtual to physical
address
To start, consider simple scheme where the value in the
relocation register is added to every address generated by a
user process at the time it is sent to memory
Base register now called relocation register
MS-DOS on Intel 80x86 used 4 relocation registers
The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the
real physical addresses
Execution-time binding occurs when reference is made to
location in memory
Logical address bound to physical addresses
Dynamic relocation using a relocation register
Routine is not loaded until it is

called
Better memory-space utilization;
unused routine is never loaded
All routines kept on disk in
relocatable load format
Useful when large amounts of
code are needed to handle
infrequently occurring cases
No special support from the
operating system is required
Implemented through program
design
OS can help by providing libraries
to implement dynamic loading
Dynamic Linking
Static linking – system libraries and program code combined by
the loader into the binary program image
Dynamic linking –linking postponed until execution time
Small piece of code, stub, used to locate the appropriate
memory-resident library routine
Stub replaces itself with the address of the routine, and executes
the routine
Operating system checks if routine is in processes’ memory
address
If not in address space, add to address space
Dynamic linking is particularly useful for libraries
System also known as shared libraries
Consider applicability to patching system libraries
Versioning may be needed
Swapping
A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a
backing store, and then brought back into memory for continued
execution
Total physical memory space of processes can exceed
physical memory
Backing store – fast disk large enough to accommodate copies
of all memory images for all users; must provide direct access to
these memory images
Roll out, roll in – swapping variant used for priority-based
scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process is swapped out so
higher-priority process can be loaded and executed
Major part of swap time is transfer time; total transfer time is
directly proportional to the amount of memory swapped
System maintains a ready queue of ready-to-run processes
which have memory images on disk
Swapping (Cont.)
Does the swapped out process need to swap back in to same
physical addresses?
Depends on address binding method
Plus consider pending I/O to / from process memory space
Modified versions of swapping are found on many systems (i.e.,
UNIX, Linux, and Windows)
Schematic View of Swapping
Context Switch Time including Swapping
If next processes to be put on CPU is not in memory, need to
swap out a process and swap in target process
Context switch time can then be very high
To get an idea of the context-switch time, let us assume that
the user process is 100 MB in size and the backing store is a
standard hard disk with a transfer rate of 50MB per second.
The actual transfer of the 100-MB process to or from main
memory takes
100MB/50MB per second= 2 seconds.
Assuming an average latency of 8 milliseconds, the swap time
is 2008 milliseconds. Since we must both swap out and swap
in, the total swap time is about 4016 milliseconds.
Can reduce if reduce size of memory swapped – by knowing how much memory
really being used
System calls to inform OS of memory use via request_memory() and
release_memory()
Context Switch Time and Swapping (Cont.)
Other constraints as well on swapping

Pending I/O – can’t swap out as I/O would occur to wrong
process
Or always transfer I/O to kernel space, then to I/O device
 Known as double buffering, adds overhead
Standard swapping not used in modern operating systems
But modified version common
 Swap only when free memory extremely low
Memory Management Techniques
Contiguous Memory allocation Non-contiguous memory
allocation
MFT(Multiprogra MVT(Multi Paging Segmentation Virtual
mming with fixed programming with memory
Task) Variable Task)
or or
Fixed /static Variable /Dynamic
partitioning partitioning
Contiguous Allocation
Main memory must support both OS and user processes
Limited resource, must allocate efficiently
Contiguous allocation is one early method
Main memory divided usually into two partitions:
Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with
interrupt vector
User processes then held in high memory
Each process contained in single contiguous section of
memory
Contiguous Allocation (Cont.)
Relocation registers used to protect user processes from each
other, and from changing operating-system code and data
Base register contains value of smallest physical address
Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each
logical address must be less than the limit register
MMU maps logical address dynamically
Can then allow actions such as kernel code being transient
and kernel changing size.
Transient operating – system code changes the size of
operating system during program execution
Hardware Support for Relocation and Limit Registers
Fixed Partitioning
Partition main memory
into a set of non-
overlapping memory
regions called partitions.
Fixed partitions can be
of equal or unequal
sizes.
Leftover space in
partition, after program
assignment, is called
internal fragmentation.
Placement Algorithm with Partitions
Equal-size partitions:
If there is an available partition, a process can
be loaded into that partition –
because all partitions are of equal size, it
does not matter which partition is used.
If all partitions are occupied by blocked
processes, choose one process to swap out
to make room for the new process.
A. Frank -8.23
P. Weisberg Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
Unequal-size partitions,
use of multiple queues:
assign each process to
the smallest partition
within which it will fit.
a queue exists for each
partition size.
tries to minimize
internal fragmentation.
problem: some queues
might be empty while
some might be loaded.
Unequal-size partitions,
use of a single queue:
when its time to load a
process into memory,
the smallest available
partition that will hold
the process is selected.
increases the level of
multiprogramming at the
expense of internal
fragmentation.
Fixed Partitioning
Any process whose size is less than or equal to a
partition size can be loaded into the partition.
If all partitions are occupied, the OS can swap a
process out of a partition.
A program may be too large to fit in a partition.
The programmer must design the program with
overlays.
A. Frank -8.26
Comments on Fixed Partitioning
Main memory use is inefficient. Any program, no

matter how small, occupies an entire partition.
This can cause internal fragmentation.
Unequal-size partitions lessens these problems
but they still remain ...
Equal-size partitions was used in early IBM’s
OS/MFT (Multiprogramming with a Fixed
number of Tasks).
A. Frank -8.27
Multiple-partition allocation(variable partitioning
Multiple-partition allocation
Degree of multiprogramming limited by number of partitions
Variable-partition sizes for efficiency (sized to a given process’ needs)
Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered
throughout memory
When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to
accommodate it
Process exiting frees its partition, adjacent free partitions combined
Operating system maintains information about:
a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)
Variable Partitioning: example
A. Frank -8.29
Variable/Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem
How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes?
First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough
Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must

search entire list, unless ordered by size (Arrange the blocks in
increasing order)
Produces the smallest leftover hole
Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list
(Arrange the blocks in decreasing order)
Produces the largest leftover hole
First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage
utilization
Fragmentation
External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to
satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous
Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly

larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory
internal to a partition, but not being used
First fit analysis reveals that given N blocks allocated, 0.5 N
blocks lost to fragmentation
1/3 may be unusable -> 50-percent rule
Fragmentation (Cont.)
Reduce external fragmentation by compaction

Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together
in one large block( all processes in one direction and free
holes in other direction)
Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is
done at execution time
Paging
Paging permits physical address space of a process to be
noncontiguous; process is allocated physical memory whenever
the latter is available
Avoids external fragmentation and need for compaction.
Avoids problem of varying sized memory chunks onto
backing store.
Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called frames
Size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 16 Mbytes
Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages
Keep track of all free frames
To run a program of size N pages, need to find N free frames and
load program
Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses
Backing store likewise split into pages
Still have Internal fragmentation
Address Translation Scheme
Address generated by CPU is divided into:
Page number (p) – used as an index into a page table which
contains base address of each page in physical memory
Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the
physical memory address that is sent to the memory
unit(logical address is as follows)
page number page offset
p d
m -n n
For given logical address space 2m and page size 2n

then higher order (m-n) bits of a logical address designate the
page number and the n low order bits designate the page
offset.
Paging Hardware
Paging Model of Logical and Physical Memory
Paging Example
n=2 and m=4 32-byte memory and 4-byte pages
Paging (Cont.)
Calculating internal fragmentation

Page size = 2,048 bytes
Process size = 72,766 bytes
35 pages + 1,086 bytes
Internal fragmentation of 2,048 - 1,086 = 962 bytes
Worst case fragmentation = 1 frame – 1 byte
On average fragmentation = 1 / 2 frame size
So small frame sizes desirable?
But each page table entry takes memory to track
Page sizes growing over time
 Solaris supports two page sizes – 8 KB and 4 MB
Process view and physical memory now very different
By implementation process can only access its own memory
Free Frames
Before allocation After allocation
Implementation of Page Table
If Page table is small it can be stored in registers.(256 bytes)
Page table is kept in main memory( 1 millian entries)
Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table
Page-table length register (PTLR) indicates size of the page
table
In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two
memory accesses
One for the page table and one for the data / instruction
The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of
a special fast-lookup hardware cache called associative
memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs)
Implementation of Page Table (Cont.)
TLB contain most recently used pages.
TLBs typically small (64 to 1,024 entries)
If page found in TLB, then frame is obtained and used to access
the memory.
If the page is not found then it is TLB miss, value is loaded into
the TLB for faster access next time.
A memory reference to the page table must be made.
If TLB is full then page Replacement policies must be
considered.
Some entries can be wired down for permanent fast access
Some TLBs store address-space identifiers (ASIDs) in each
TLB entry – uniquely identifies each process to provide
address-space protection for that process
Otherwise need to flush at every context switch
Associative Memory
Associative memory – parallel search

Page # Frame #
Address translation (p, d)

If p is in associative register, get frame # out
Otherwise get frame # from page table in memory
Paging Hardware With TLB
Effective Access Time
Associative Lookup =  time unit( search time)
Can be < 10% of memory access time
Hit ratio = 
Hit ratio – percentage of times that a page number is found in the
associative registers; ratio related to number of associative
registers
Consider  = 80%,  = 20ns for TLB search, 100ns for memory access
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 + )  + (2 + )(1 – )
=2+–
Consider  = 80%,  = 20ns for TLB search, 100ns for memory access
20% TLB mis(20ns for TLB search+100ns for PT +100ns for memory
access)
EAT = 0.80 x 120 + 0.20 x 220 = 140ns
Consider more realistic hit ratio ->  = 98%,  = 20ns for TLB search,
100ns for memory access
EAT = 0.98 x 120 + 0.02x 220 = 122 ns
Memory Protection
Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit
with each frame to indicate if read-only or read-write access is
allowed
Can also add more bits to indicate page execute-only, and
so on
Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table:
“valid” indicates that the associated page is in the
process’ logical address space, and is thus a legal page
“invalid” indicates that the page is not in the process’
logical address space
Or use page-table length register (PTLR)
Any violations result in a trap to the kernel
Valid (v) or Invalid (i) Bit In A Page Table
Shared Pages
Shared code
One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among
processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems)
Similar to multiple threads sharing the same process space
Also useful for interprocess communication if sharing of
read-write pages is allowed
Private code and data
Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data
The pages for the private code and data can appear
anywhere in the logical address space
Shared Pages Example
Structure of the Page Table
Memory structures for paging can get huge using straight-
forward methods
Consider a 32-bit logical address space as on modern
computers
Page size of 4 KB (212)
Page table would have 1 million entries (232 / 212)
If each entry is 4 bytes -> 4 MB of physical address space /
memory for page table alone
 That amount of memory used to cost a lot
 Don’t want to allocate that contiguously in main memory
Hierarchical Paging
Hashed Page Tables(not for exam)
Inverted Page Tables(not for exam)
Hierarchical Page Tables
Break up the logical address space into multiple page

tables
A simple technique is a two-level page table
We then page the page table
Two-Level Page-Table Scheme
Two-Level Paging Example
A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 1K page size) is divided into:
a page number consisting of 22 bits
a page offset consisting of 10 bits
Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into:
a 12-bit page number
a 10-bit page offset
Thus, a logical address is as follows:
where p1 is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the

displacement within the page of the inner page table
Known as forward-mapped page table
Address-Translation Scheme
64-bit Logical Address Space
Even two-level paging scheme not sufficient

If page size is 4 KB (212)
Then page table has 252 entries
If two level scheme, inner page tables could be 210 4-byte entries
Address would look like
Outer page table has 242 entries or 244 bytes

One solution is to add a 2nd outer page table
But in the following example the 2nd outer page table is still 234 bytes in
size
 And possibly 4 memory access to get to one physical memory
location
Three-level Paging Scheme
Hashed Page Tables
Common in address spaces > 32 bits
The virtual page number is hashed into a page table
This page table contains a chain of elements hashing to the same
location
Each element contains (1) the virtual page number (2) the value of the
mapped page frame (3) a pointer to the next element
Virtual page numbers are compared in this chain searching for a
match
If a match is found, the corresponding physical frame is extracted
Variation for 64-bit addresses is clustered page tables
Similar to hashed but each entry refers to several pages (such as
16) rather than 1
Especially useful for sparse address spaces (where memory
references are non-contiguous and scattered)
Hashed Page Table (not for exam)
Inverted Page Table
Rather than each process having a page table and keeping track
of all possible logical pages, track all physical pages
One entry for each real page of memory
Entry consists of the virtual address of the page stored in that
real memory location, with information about the process that
owns that page
Decreases memory needed to store each page table, but
increases time needed to search the table when a page
reference occurs
Use hash table to limit the search to one — or at most a few —
page-table entries
TLB can accelerate access
But how to implement shared memory?
One mapping of a virtual address to the shared physical
address
Inverted Page Table Architecture
(not for exam)
Segmentation
Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory
A program is a collection of segments
A segment is a logical unit such as:
main program
procedure
function
method
object
local variables, global variables
common block
stack
symbol table
arrays
User’s View of a Program
Logical View of Segmentation
4
1
3 2
4
user space physical memory space
Segmentation Architecture
Logical address consists of a two tuple:
<segment-number, offset>,
Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical addresses; each

table entry has:
base – contains the starting physical address where the
segments reside in memory
limit – specifies the length of the segment
Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment

table’s location in memory
Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of

segments used by a program;
segment number s is legal if s < STLR
Segmentation Architecture (Cont.)
Protection
With each entry in segment table associate:
 validation bit = 0  illegal segment
 read/write/execute privileges
Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing
occurs at segment level
Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a
dynamic storage-allocation problem
A segmentation example is shown in the following diagram
Segmentation Hardware
For example, segment 2 is 400 bytes long and begins at location
4300. Thus, a reference to byte 53 of segment 2 is mapped onto
location 4300 +53= 4353. A reference to segment 3, byte 852, is
mapped to 3200 (the base of segment 3) + 852 = 4052.
A reference to byte 1222 of segment 0 would result in a trap to

the operating system, as this segment is only 1000 bytes long.
Consider the following segment table:
Segment Base Length

0 219 600
1 2300 14
2 90 100
3 1327 580
4 1952 96
What are the physical addresses for the following logical

addresses?
a. 0,430
b. 1,10
c. 2,500
d. 3,400
e. 4,112
End of Chapter
Memory management
strategies
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

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Chapter 5: Memory

To provide a detailed description of various ways of

Program must be brought (from disk) into memory and

Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses

The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a

Routine is not loaded until it is

Other constraints as well on swapping

Main memory use is inefficient. Any program, no

How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes?

First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough

Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must

Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly

Reduce external fragmentation by compaction

For given logical address space 2m and page size 2n

n=2 and m=4 32-byte memory and 4-byte pages

Calculating internal fragmentation

Before allocation After allocation

Associative memory – parallel search

Address translation (p, d)

Break up the logical address space into multiple page

Thus, a logical address is as follows:

where p1 is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the

Even two-level paging scheme not sufficient

Outer page table has 242 entries or 244 bytes

user space physical memory space

Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical addresses; each

Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment

Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of

A reference to byte 1222 of segment 0 would result in a trap to

Segment Base Length

What are the physical addresses for the following logical

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