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MODULE 1

I. Module Title. Special Education Process, Inclusive Education, and Teaching Strategies and
Methodologies for Children with Special Needs

II. Introduction

The world is gearing towards the reality of inclusion of children with special needs that leads them to the
purpose of attaining the sense of belonging within the school community and later on into the whole system of
society. Inclusion, inclusive classroom, inclusive schooling or inclusive education hosts a various range of
conceptual definitions that depends on every country’s policy guidelines vis-à-vis laws and provisions.
Children to be admitted in the special class must submit a current assessment be in the integration scheme,
mainstreaming or inclusion program in the regular class report made by a developmental pediatrician or a SPED
diagnostician or other appropriate professionals with expertise and experience in the field of assessment for the
identification of disability. In the absence of a current assessment report, these children need to undergo a
psychoeducational assessment to be conducted by these professionals to determine the appropriate identification
as to the type of disability, classification and placement, current performance level and educational need, to
determine and evaluate teaching programs and strategies, to determine related services (ancillary or auxiliary)
and for the development of Individualized Education Programs (IEPs).

Parents must give their informed consent before their child may be evaluated. Upon implementation of
the recommendation stated in the assessment, the SPED teacher must make quarterly progress report about the
performance of the admitted child. These goals and objectives must be discussed along with the current
performance level and achievements of the child during the scheduled quarterly Parent-Teacher Conference.
Continuous assessment process must be done at least once a year and so with the review and the required revision
of the IEP together with the members of the interdisciplinary team involved in its preliminary design. Further
developments of the child, basing from the recommendations from the assessment conducted, can recommend to
request for a possible elevation in educational placement that can either.

Thus, it is extremely relevant that we must comprehend and understand the special education process of
identifying, evaluating, placing, and monitoring children with special needs. So that, we can give them appropriate
learning pedagogy and methodology that will aid them in achieving educational success.

III. Desired Learning Outcomes:

 Describe the special education process

 Examine and analyze the importance of early intervention, evaluation, and placement of children with
special needs
 Explain the importance of individualized education plan
 Discuss the curriculum development and instruction used in the special education process
 Design appropriate individualized education plan, behavioral management techniques, and effective
transition plans and methods for learners with special needs.
 Discuss the importance, benefits, and contributions of inclusive education

IV. Discussion

SPECIAL EDUCATION PROCESS

The purpose of special education is to provide equal access to education for children ages birth through
21 by providing specialized services that will lead to school success in the general curriculum. If your child’s
health care provider, teacher, other interested party or you suspect that your child may be eligible for special
education services, it is helpful to know what to expect and where to begin.

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When a child is having trouble in school, it’s important to find out why. The child may have a disability.
By law, schools must provide special help to eligible children with disabilities. This help is called special
education and related services. There’s a lot to know about the process by which children are identified as having
a disability and in need of special education and related services. This module is devoted to helping you learn
about that process. The following information is an outline of the special education process and brief descriptions
of its elements.

Step 1. Child is identified as possibly needing special education and related services.

There are two primary ways in which children are identified as possibly needing special education and
related services: the system known as Child Find (which operates in each state), and by referral of a parent or
school personnel.

Child Find. Each state is required by IDEA to identify, locate, and evaluate all children with disabilities
in the state who need special education and related services. To do so, states conduct what are known as Child
Find activities. When a child is identified by Child Find as possibly having a disability and as needing special
education, parents may be asked for permission to evaluate their child. Parents can also call the Child Find office
and ask that their child be evaluated.

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Referral or request for evaluation. A school professional may ask that a child be evaluated to see if he
or she has a disability. Parents may also contact the child’s teacher or other school professional to ask that their
child be evaluated. This request may be verbal, but it’s best to put it in writing. Parental consent is needed before
a child may be evaluated. Under the federal IDEA regulations, evaluation needs to be completed within 60 days
after the parent gives consent. However, if a State’s IDEA regulations give a different timeline for completion of
the evaluation, the State’s timeline is applied.

Identifying a Need: When, Where and How are Disabilities Diagnosed?

Children may be diagnosed with a disability by a medical provider or by the school district. However, one
must understand that being simply diagnosed with a disability is not a guarantee of services under the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Having a disability is the first question when determining if a student
qualifies. The evaluation team must also answer two additional questions:
 Does the disability impact the child’s educational progress?
 Does the child need specially designed instruction (which is the IDEA definition of special
education)?
Students who have physical disabilities or developmental delays are often identified early by a pediatrician
or other medical provider. These students may have a wide range of academic difficulties depending on the
severity of the delay, and some may have no difficulties at all. Fortunately, because they are often diagnosed
before entering the school system, most children with physical disabilities or developmental delays enter school
with special education structures in place. If your child has been diagnosed with a developmental delay or
disability by his or her pediatrician, ask your medical provider for a list of local resources. Regional centers, state
programs and public schools all provide early identification, called Child Find, and early intervention services.
The earlier your child receives these services, the better.
Students with learning disabilities often face a different scenario. They may struggle through the first years
of their education before their disabilities are identified. Part of the reason for this is the local school district’s
dependence upon the discrepancy method for identification. (This is explained in The Importance of the
Assessment Process.) In addition, students with learning disabilities often lack the physical or social differences
that identify students with physical impairments or developmental delays; that is, they look and act just like their
peers without disabilities. Also, much of the instruction delivered in the lowest grade levels is skills-based. This
means that your child is learning skills such as reading, writing and basic arithmetic. If he or she can read a word
or solve a basic math problem, he or she will have relatively few problems in these grades. Starting around the
third grade, however, students are expected to apply those skills to learn more information, and those with
previously undetected disabilities may begin to struggle.
Regardless of his or her ability or diagnosed disability, your student will find that school becomes much
more difficult once he or she needs to build upon previously mastered skills to gather new information. This is
especially true if your child was not able to master some of the foundational skills. For instance, your child may
have been a B student in reading throughout first and second grade, earning an average of 80 percent on reading
and spelling tests. However, if he or she is only able to read 80 percent of the words taught in first and second
grade, how is he or she supposed to read and comprehend a textbook written at a fourth grade level? It is next to
impossible and your child will continue to fall behind in all subjects. This is referred to as a “widening gap”: the
gap between what a child with a disability knows and what his or her peers know only widens as he or she
advances to higher grades.
Response to Intervention (RTI)
RTI stands for “Response to Intervention” and is used to identify students with learning disabilities or
other academic delays. In the past, students with learning or other disabilities were not given any specialized
assistance until their academic performance was significantly lower than their ability (IQ) indicated it should be.
In other words, smart kids had to consistently fail before they received help. Even worse, those students had to
wait so long for assistance that, as they waited, they fell further and further behind their peers (remember that
widening gap?), making it much more difficult for them to catch up. Does this seem unfair? Teachers thought so,
too.

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When the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act was reauthorized in 2004, the legislators, with the
assistance of the Office of Special Programs recommended the use of a better way of identifying students with
disabilities that also provided immediate assistance to struggling students. It is based on the idea that a student
needs to master each skill that he or she learns. This means that he or she must be able to demonstrate the use of
a skill with mastery, and be able to do so consistently. If a student does not master a skill the first time around,
the teacher will then give the student more intensive support (known as an intervention) until the student can
demonstrate mastery. The support becomes increasingly intensive (which usually means that more time is
dedicated to working on a single skill) until the student can show that he or she has mastered the skill.
If a child continues to fail to respond to interventions, he or she may have a learning disability or an
undiagnosed developmental impairment. If this is the case, the teacher will likely refer the student for assessment.
It is important to note that the purpose of RTI is to prevent school districts from relying wholly on what’s called
the discrepancy method (comparing a student’s testing data against that of his or her peers) for identification of
specific learning disabilities. Most school districts use RTI to provide interventions for struggling students but
the districts do not use the results of the interventions as the data that the law requires to identify a student as
having a disability. Instead, schools refer a student who has not responded to interventions student for more
assessments to get the data. For very young students (kindergarteners through third graders) who are struggling
this can be a problem because they have not learned enough to show a real discrepancy in test results. Many
experts consider overlooking the data that can be derived from interventions to be a missed opportunity to identify
students earlier in the process. For parents, if your school district evaluation team is asking to refer your child for
testing after he or she has failed a number of increasing intense interventions, it may be worthwhile to ask them
why they don’t have adequate data already to qualify your child for a disability.

Step 2. Child is evaluated.

The evaluation must assess the child in all areas related to the child's suspected disability. The evaluation
results will be used to decide the child's eligibility for special education and related services and to make decisions
about an appropriate educational program for the child. If the parents disagree with the evaluation, they have the
right to take their child for an Independent Educational Evaluation (IEE). They can ask that the school system
pay for this IEE.
Evaluation is an essential early step in the special education process for a child. It’s intended to answer
these questions:
 Does the child have a disability that requires the provision of special education and related services?
 What are the child’s specific educational needs?
 What special education services and related services, then, are appropriate for addressing those needs?
By law, the initial evaluation of the child must be “full and individual”—which is to say, focused on that child
and that child alone. The evaluation must assess the child in all areas related to the child’s suspected disability.
The evaluation results will be used to decide the child’s eligibility for special education and related services
and to make decisions about an appropriate educational program for the child. If the parents disagree with the
evaluation, they have the right to take their child for an Independent Educational Evaluation (IEE). They can ask
that the school system pay for this IEE.
Formal Assessment
If your child has not responded to intensive interventions, it may be time to evaluate for a learning
disability or other delay. More detailed information regarding assessments and referral for services can be found
in The Importance of the Assessment Process and The IEP Process: Explained, but to begin, there are a few basic
things you should know before your child undergoes academic, behavioral and/or cognitive assessments. (See the
previous paragraph about the discrepancy method for identifying specific learning disability).
Assessments are diagnostic tools; they do not contain answers or solutions. These tests are designed to
provide an overview of your child’s academic performance, basic cognitive functioning and/or his or her current
strengths or weaknesses; they can also test hearing and vision. Assessment are not able to predict your child’s
future performance, nor his or her ability.

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That said, they are excellent tools because they break your child’s academic performance down into
subsets, such as reading comprehension, spelling and basic arithmetic. They can also rule out simple problems,
such as hearing or vision impairments, which may be affecting learning. This information is invaluable because
it guides the educational process. Teachers can write goals for your child and you can request services based on
information found within these assessments.
It is important to remember that not every child who struggles academically will qualify for special
education services. Assessments might show that your child does not have a learning disability or other
impairment that qualifies him or her for these services; however, that does not mean that your child is lazy, stupid
or not trying. If your child is struggling but does not qualify for special education, it is imperative that you keep
looking for solutions. Work with your child’s teacher and other school service providers to draft an action plan
that will address your child’s individual needs.
All effective educators use ongoing assessments to determine their students’ ability levels in various
academic areas and to guide their instruction. In the realm of special education, the assessment process is
absolutely essential. Parents, teachers, specialists and counselors depend on multiple assessments to identify a
student’s strengths, weaknesses and progress.
What Are Assessments?
Assessments often include various tests, both standardized or criterion-referenced, but testing is not the
only way that educators measure students’ aptitude. Assessments are evaluations, and might consist of anything
from simple observations that a teacher or aide jots down while a student works on an assignment to complex,
multi-stage procedures such as a group of teachers assembling a large portfolio of student work. Then there are
assessments that are required by individual schools, districts or states that help educators determine whether or
not a student qualifies for special education and, if so, the types and frequency of services that will best support
a student’s success.
Common Assessments in Special Education
Individual Intelligence As the name suggests, individual intelligence tests are administered to a student one
Tests on one.
Wechsler Intelligence The school psychologist usually administers this test, which measures a student’s
Scale for Children intelligence in a variety of areas, including linguistic and spatial intelligence. This is
(WISC) a norm-based test, meaning that student performance is measured against the
performance of students at various grade levels.
Stanford Binet The school psychologist or special education team administers this test, which, like
Intelligence Scale the WISC, is also norm-referenced. The questions are designed to help educators
(derived from the differentiate between students performing below grade level because of cognitive
Binet-Simon Test) disabilities and those who do so for other reasons.
Group Intelligence Group intelligence and achievement tests are often administered in the general
Tests education classroom. It is through these types of tests that a teacher might first
suspect that a student has a learning disability. These tests have two functions,
measuring academic ability as well as a child’s cognitive level.
Skill Evaluations Specialists such as the school speech pathologist and the child’s general practitioner
use certain diagnostic measures for determining a child’s gross motor skills, fine
manipulative skills and hearing, sight speech and language abilities. Teachers
typically refer parents to a pediatrician or specialist so that the student can receive a
full physical and evaluation as part of the process of gathering the evidence
necessary to develop an individual education program (IEP).
Developmental and The child’s classroom teacher, parents, pediatrician and school specialists help
Social History formulate this narrative assessment. They may fill out checklists, answer questions,
participate in an interview or write a report addressing a child’s strengths, challenges
and development (or lack thereof) over time. The focus here is on issues such as the
child’s health history, developmental milestones, genetic factors, friendships, family
relationships, hobbies, behavioral issues and academic performance.
Observational Anyone who works with the child can provide information about the child’s
Records academic performance and behavioral issues. Daily, weekly and monthly
observational records that show a child’s performance over time typically fall into
the domain of the general education teacher, as he or she is the individual working
most closely with the child on a regular basis.

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The general education teacher also typically has a firm notion of how a child’s work
and behavior compares to that of other students of the same age and grade level.
Samples of Student The general classroom teacher also provides most of the evidence in this domain. A
Work folder of assignments, tests, homework and projects can provide a snapshot of a
child’s abilities and challenges in performing grade-level work. A more nuanced
portfolio, which may include a research project, a writing assignment with several
drafts or samples of work throughout a thematic unit, affords the materials for an in-
depth investigation of a child’s learning style, thought process and ability to engage
in critical thinking tasks.
Psychoeducational A psychoeducational assessment involves a standardized assessment of a child’s
Assessment intellectual and academic abilities. It is administered by a psychologist or
psychometrist and combined with clinical interviews, observations, and historical
records to help understand how your child learns, and identify if and how they’re
struggling. It measures overall aptitude and academic achievement around core
skills, such as reading, writing and math. It involves a number of techniques,
including pencil and paper activities, verbal responses, and the evaluation of motor
skills (e.g., drawing, playing with blocks). The assessment varies based on a child’s
age. The results can help the psychologist understand your child’s potential (i.e., if
they are gifted or have a learning disability) and provide strategies to support them.
During these assessments, other concerns are also evaluated, such as attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder or anxiety, and recommendations for your child are
based on a combination of standardized test results and the evaluation of
psychosocial and/or mental health issues.
Neuropsychological A neuropsychological assessment takes the psychoeducational assessment to a much
Assessment deeper level. It is a more comprehensive assessment to understand how children
think and behave as it relates to brain function. The assessment usually takes a full
day, and measures:
 Learning & memory: ability to retain information and what kind
 Executive functions: attention, planning and mental flexibility
 Finite movements: coordination and dexterity
 Social information processing: how a child understands social language and
social cues
The neuropsychological assessment digs deeper than the psychoeducational
assessment, with the goal of understanding how a child’s skills and behaviours relate
to brain function. The assessment is performed by neuropsychologists, who are
specially trained in brain and behaviour relationships. Testing is done at a private
clinic or hospital setting, not in schools.
A neuropsychological assessment can be especially helpful for kids with
developmental, mental health or behavioural issues, such as autism, epilepsy or
bipolar disorder. The results will help the neuropsychologist identify strategies to
help your child move forward. Some of this may go into an IEP with
recommendations for accommodations for the school board to consider, and other
results may recommend other forms of support, such as psychotherapy or speech
therapy, for example.

Who and What is Involved in Assessment?

Anyone involved in the child’s life and education might suspect a learning disability or similar issue and
ask specialists to explore it further. The first person to conduct an informal assessment is typically the classroom
teacher, though a guardian or pediatrician might start the assessment process. At this point, the teacher should
review student work and conduct more formal observations of student behavior and performance to note any
issues.
A classroom teacher or pediatrician might request a referral to a medical specialist, therapist, psychologist
or other specialist to focus on a particular area of concern. These individuals keep written records of findings, and
should also write descriptions of any discussions concerning the child. The school’s special education department
or student study team begins informal and formal evaluations. They will request that the classroom teacher and
other individuals working with the child submit any evidence gathered.

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The Members of the Multidisciplinary Team Responsible for Formal Assessment

Physical Therapist Physical Therapist evaluates a child who is experiencing problems in gross motor
functioning, living and self-help skills, and vocational skills necessary for functioning
in certain settings. This professional may screen, evaluate, provide direct services, or
consult with the teacher, parent, or school.
Occupational Occupational Therapist evaluates a child who may be experiencing problems in fine
Therapist motor skills and in living and self-help skills, for example. This professional may screen,
evaluate, provide direct services, consult with the teacher, parent, or school, and assist
in obtaining appropriate assistive technology or equipment.
Speech Language Speech Language Pathologist screens for speech and language developmental problems,
Pathologist provides a full evaluation on a suspected disability, provides direct services, and
consults with staff and parents.
Audiologist Audiologist will evaluate a learner's hearing for possible impairment, and as a result of
the findings, may refer the learner for medical consultation or treatment. The audiologist
may also help learners and parents obtain equipment, such as hearing aids, that may
improve the child's ability to function in school.
SPED SPED Diagnostician refers to a trained SPED Specialist who conducts
Diagnostician Psychoeducational Assessment and strategies such as standardized tests, checklists,
records, forms, inventory, scales alongside interviews, observation and informal skill
survey and/or portfolio assessment. He also prepares the intervention plan/priorities the
service givers like tutors, therapists and SPED Teachers used in addressing the needs of
special children.
Developmental Developmental Pediatrician is a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and
Pediatrician treatment of children with behavioral, communication or mental problems. These
include cerebral palsy, autism, learning disabilities, ADHD, Learning Disability, and
the like.
Neurologist Neurologist is a medical doctor or osteopath who has trained in the diagnosis and
treatment of nervous system disorder, including diseases of the brain, spinal cord, nerves
and muscles.
Psychologist Psychologist evaluates and diagnoses learners with a wide range of learning, social,
emotional, or developmental problems. This professional may also consult with parents
and teachers to help develop the most appropriate educational programs for learners
with disabilities and other problems.
Psychiatrist Psychiatrist is a physician who diagnoses and treats learners with psychological,
emotional, behavioral and developmental or organic problems. This professional can
prescribe medication. The psychiatrist usually does not administer tests.
Ophthalmologist Ophthalmologist is a medical doctor who evaluates and treats learners with vision
problems. This professional may, for example, perform eye surgery, prescribe glasses
or medication, or suggest special modifications in teaching, classroom materials, and
seating arrangements.
Special Education Special Education Teacher conducts educational evaluations of learners with suspected
Teacher disabilities in specific categories. For example: a teacher of the visually impaired will
evaluate the academic as well as mobility and orientation skills of a referred learner.

Why So Many Assessments?

In the world of education, quantity is not always quality. However, educators require multiple measures
to ensure that they gain an accurate picture of a student’s performance compared with others at the same grade
level. This process is essential, because a student might not do well on a specific assessment due to performance
anxiety or a learning disability, but an alternate measure might demonstrate that the student can function at grade
level given certain conditions. For example, some students perform poorly on standardized tests but do well in
authentic assessments (those that mirror the usage of skills in the real world) such as hand-on projects.

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What Does It All Mean?
No single test or evaluation can capture a child’s full spectrum of strengths and challenges. Assessments
give educators guidance as to how to provide the best services and support for children, but they are not
everything. As a parent or teacher, you will provide multiple assessments on an ongoing basis. From these, you
can create short-term and long-term goals for the child.
For example, if you find that the child has trouble meeting grade-level benchmarks in writing, you might
focus on broadening the contexts in which the child writes, providing multiple opportunities for engaging,
authentic practice. The child might write lists, label maps, keep a dream journal, sing songs and record the lyrics,
try different forms of poetry or start a blog.
In the course of practicing and refining skills, the child should be given time for self-assessment. Student-
led activities such as reviewing work and choosing items for a portfolio allow metacognition (thinking about
thinking) to happen. This process is underscored by the fact that a student’s work need not look identical to the
work of grade-level peers, but that the child should instead focus on improvement over time.
Psycho-Educational Assessments
Psychoeducational assessments are recommended for students who struggle academically. These
assessments diagnose learning disabilities, ADHD, intellectual delays, and other conditions. The assessment
report can help receive special accommodations and support at school, college, or university. It can also be used
for government-funded disability claims as well as educational bursaries and equipment subsidies.
Why Consider a Psychoeducational Assessment?
The purpose of psychoeducational assessments is to provide an age-referenced profile of a child's
cognitive, learning, and behavioural functioning as well as to elucidate the sources of their academic struggles.
Assessment tools include structured standardized tests and measures that are administered individually under
controlled conditions to maximize accuracy and to achieve uniformity across administrations. This distinguishes
them from standardized tests given to students en masse.
What is a Psychoeducational Assessment?
A psychoeducational assessment is a comprehensive evaluation of the mental processes that govern
academic, social, and personal achievement. This detailed assessment is equally valuable for identifying high-
achieving students and those who struggle with learning or behavioural impairments. Psychoeducational
assessments are a key diagnostic tool for identifying children with neurodevelopmental issues (e.g., ADHD,
Autism Spectrum Disorder, Learning Disability, Intellectual Disability) and those with psychological or conduct
disorders (anxiety, depression, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, etc.).
Specifically, psychoeducational assessments analyze a child's reasoning and problem-solving skills,
attention span, working memory, language and spatial abilities, memory, visual-motor integration and a broad
range of executive functions, including planning, organization, and impulse control. A psychoeducational
assessment will also gauge your child's performance in individual subjects, such as reading, writing, and
mathematics. Once tests and interviews are completed the psychologist conducting the assessment synthesizes
the results and looks for patterns that reveal a child's unique abilities and learning challenges. This information is
then used to form recommendations to enhance the child's education and satisfaction. Parents and educators can
apply the results in the following ways:
To diagnose possible learning or developmental problems, attention deficit disorders or other
psychological issues
To identify cognitive weaknesses and strengths
To choose the educational environment that best suits your child's needs
To identify which school supports and accommodations a child may need to thrive academically
To support the school identification process and provision of the required accommodations
To support a claim for academic equipment subsidy
To guide future career choices
To help choose extracurricular activities and enrichment experiences
To apply for government-funded disability subsidies

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What to Expect During a Psychoeducational Assessment?

Supervised by a registered psychologist and administered by a properly trained psychometrist, the
evaluation process takes place over multiple sessions. It is administered one-on-one, and often includes the
following five components:
1) Initial Consultation. Parents, student (when appropriate) and the psychologist meet to discuss current
issues, review history and any pertinent documentation, such as school reports, previous tests, doctor's
notes, and evaluate psychoeducational assessment needs.
2) Psychometric Testing. The actual testing takes between four to eight hours and includes interactive
administration of various tests that assess academic and reasoning skills, intellectual ability, executive
functioning, memory, and attention.
3) Screening of Socio-Emotional and Behavioral Functioning. Clinical interviews with parents and child and
questionnaires completed by parents, teachers and student are used to gather pertinent information from
people observing the child in different settings.
4) Report and Recommendations. Based on test results, interview insights, and questionnaire findings, the
psychologist produces a comprehensive report summarizing and explaining the findings and,
subsequently, makes recommendations for strategic school accommodations and home-support strategies.
5) Feedback Session. The purpose of the final meeting is to review the results, consider recommendations,
and address outstanding issues.

When Should You Test?

In some cases, a child's teacher, physician, or psychologist will recommend a psychoeducational
evaluation based on their direct observations or the results of standardized testing. However, parents don't need
to wait for a professional recommendation to have their child assessed. Many parents independently seek testing
in order to diagnose possible developmental problems and proactively explore treatment options for their child.
Behaviours and attitudes that could signal a need to evaluate include the following:
 Loss of interest in school
 Self-doubt and low confidence, especially in comparison to peers
 Consistent complaints about workload or homework stress
 Unusual difficulty grasping new concepts/skills
 High need for significant parental help to accomplish homework and study effectively
 Disconnect between a child's potential and performance
 Procrastination and poor planning skills create an obstacle for success
 Observations that the child struggles to stay focused in class and/or at home
 Refusal to go to school
 Striking discrepancy in grades, such as high marks in English and low grades in Math
School Admissions, Placement and Psychoeducational Assessments
All private and public schools accept testing conducted by certified school psychologists. Some private
schools require prospective students to get assessed as part of the application process. They use results for two
purposes: to decide whether or not the school and child are a good match, and to determine which accommodations
and supplemental learning opportunities the institution could provide for children with special needs.
Psychoeducational assessments are critical to the development of a strong and effective Individualized
Education Program (IEP). If testing results are understood and used appropriately by school personnel, they can
inform critical components of the special education planning including the following:
 Identifying entry points in skill hierarchies
 Formulating instructional goals
 Defining educational methods and strategies
 Evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention

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Step 3. Eligibility is decided.

Once the evaluation is complete, the child's special education team, including the parent, will have a
meeting to review the results of the evaluation and determine whether the child meets the state's regulatory
guidelines for diagnosis with a disability. Together, they decide if the child is a “child with a disability,” as defined
by IDEA. If the parents do not agree with the eligibility decision, they may ask for a hearing to challenge the
decision.

Step 4. Child is found eligible for services.

If the child is found to be a child with a disability, as defined by IDEA, he or she eligible for special
education and related services. Within 30 calendar days after a child is determined eligible, a team of school
professionals and the parents must meet to write an individualized education program (IEP) for the child.

Step 5. IEP meeting is scheduled.

The school system schedules and conducts the IEP meeting. School staff must:
 contact the participants, including the parents;
 notify parents early enough to make sure they have an opportunity to attend;
 schedule the meeting at a time and place agreeable to parents and the school;
 tell the parents the purpose, time, and location of the meeting;
 tell the parents who will be attending; and
 tell the parents that they may invite people to the meeting who have knowledge or special expertise
about the child.

Step 6. IEP meeting is held and the IEP is written.

The IEP team gathers to talk about the child’s needs and write the student’s IEP. Parents and the student
(when appropriate) are full participating members of the team. If the child’s placement (meaning, where the child
will receive his or her special education and related services) is decided by a different group, the parents must be
part of that group as well. Before the school system may provide special education and related services to the
child for the first time, the parents must give consent. The child begins to receive services as soon as possible
after the IEP is written and this consent is given.
If the parents do not agree with the IEP and placement, they may discuss their concerns with other
members of the IEP team and try to work out an agreement. If they still disagree, parents can ask for mediation,
or the school may offer mediation. Parents may file a state complaint with the state education agency or a due
process complaint, which is the first step in requesting a due process hearing, at which time mediation must be
available.
The Individualized Education Program and Meeting
If your child is diagnosed with a learning disability or other qualifying impairment, the next step is to draft
an individualized education program (IEP) for him or her. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
gives the school district 30 days from the documentation of the disability to complete an IEP. Parents must give
permission for placement as a part of the initial IEP. A guide to IEPs can be found in The IEP Process: Explained
but here is some general information regarding IEPs to get you started.
Once your child’s learning disability is identified, you will attend an IEP meeting every year until he or
she graduates or stops receiving special education. It is imperative that you attend these meetings. It is here that
the team will review your child’s academic progress, write new academic goals, and discuss placement and
transition plans, as well as accommodations and modifications.

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It is a forum for exchanging ideas and the IEP team members can offer you invaluable support. If you
cannot attend these meetings in person, find a way to participate. IEP teams are eager to consider options, such
as your attendance via speaker phone or Skype. You are the one who knows your child the best; the IEP team
members need your input.
Do not be surprised by how many people attend IEP meetings. The law requires that five positions are
represented at each IEP team meeting. Those five positions that need representation are the parent, the special
education teacher, the general education teacher, a person who can interpret test information, and a district
representative. That does not always mean five different people will attend the meeting; in some cases, one person
can play two roles. For example, the special education teacher often is qualified to interpret test data. You may
also consider encouraging your child to attend and be an active member of the team. After all, it is his or her
education that the team is discussing. At age 16 and older, each student is required to participate in the process.
Students are invited to attend the meetings; if they do not or cannot, then the team will find another way to allow
participation, usually by going over the document prior to the meeting.

8 Basic Components of an Individualized Education Program

By Ann Logsdon (Medically reviewed by Lyndsey Garbi, MD Updated on May 03, 2021)

An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a plan that teachers and parents develop to help a child
with learning disorders and other types of disabilities succeed in school. Think of it like a road map: It establishes
where your child is in their learning journey, where you'd like them to end up at the end of a school year, and
steps to help them get there.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ensures that every child receives an evaluation of
whether they qualify for extra school support, and if they do, entitles them to an IEP specially designed just for
them.1 This federal law also requires that an IEP contains a minimum set of components, or parts, that convey
key information about your child and details about when and how the plan will be implemented. You can
familiarize yourself with the eight key components of an IEP here.

1. Current Skill Every IEP must include a description of your child's current performance and skills
Level of the in all areas of concern. It should explain how the disability affects their progress in
Student the general education curriculum. It will also assess their "functional performance"
in non-academic areas like motor skills, behavior, and interpersonal relationships.
IEP teams typically use formal assessments to determine how your child is doing
and establish a baseline of performance. The team may also use anecdotal
information and feedback from teachers to further describe their skills.
2. Annual Goals The IEP must contain information about your child's goals, which need to be
updated at least once a year. Depending on what challenges your child faces, goals
can relate to academic performance, behavior, improving their physical mobility in
navigating between classes, and more. Each objective should be measurable. With
the help of regular evaluations, teachers and parents should be able to see how close
a child has come to reaching their goals by the end of a school year.
3. Progress The IEP must explain exactly how progress toward your child's goals will be
Tracking measured, whether it's regular testing or feedback reports from teachers. This gives
you a clear idea of how your child is being evaluated throughout the year, and also
provides reassurance that you will be kept in the loop about your child's
achievements and setbacks.
4. Special The IEP must clearly describe the student's special education program and how it's
Education been designed to suit their particular needs. This provides details like separate
Services instruction time, the use of one-on-one aides, and even special faculty training to
help teachers learn more about how to best support your child.
5. Duration of The IEP must include a projected beginning and end date of any services the IEP
Services team proposes. This includes details on the frequency of the services and where
they will be delivered. The intent is to ensure that everyone understands exactly
when and where your student's individual program will take place.

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6. Participation in This section ensures that supportive staff and faculty are doing all they can to keep
Mainstream your child in the "least restrictive environment" as possible. With an aim of
Classrooms inclusion, this part of the IEP will detail how the child can join the general,
mainstream classroom environment whenever it's appropriate. The IEP must
specify the amount of time a student will participate in these mainstream classes. It
will also explain the rationale for that decision. An IEP is a team effort: Several
people need to collaborate to write it and then implement it. They include teachers,
the specialist who evaluated your child as needing support services, a representative
of the school system (usually a special education coordinator or a principal), and
you and your co-parent.
7. Testing The IEP must explain if a child will participate in state and local achievement tests
Adaptations that other kids at their school take. If they will, it's important that the IEP specifies
what types of testing accommodations will be used for the student. Testing
accommodations might include extra time, distraction-free rooms, and wheelchair-
accessible tests. If you and teachers decide it's best that your child take modified,
or different tests to assess achievement, the rationale for that decision must be
included in the IEP.
8. Transitional An IEP is designed to help your child succeed in the here and now, but also prepare
Goals and them for the next phase of their education. For that reason, starting around a child's
Services 14th birthday, an IEP must include plans for transitioning a child beyond grade
school. Transitional goals and services focus on instruction and support services
needed to help your child move from the school environment and into a job,
vocational program, or another program designed to promote independent living. If
your child aspires to go to college, the IEP should also include steps to help prepare
them for advocating themselves in that environment.

For a child who learns differently or has a disability, navigating just a single school day, much less an
entire year, can be overwhelming. But a well-designed IEP can identify manageable goals that can reassure and
motivate a child.
An IEP is an integral part of the special education process and should be written with care. If an IEP is
required for your child, be sure you understand what it should include (and why). Ask questions of the IEP team
and don't be afraid to hold educators accountable for closely monitoring your child's progress and keeping you
posted about it. In many ways, you captain the IEP process, and your attention to detail can be key to the plan's—
and your child's—success.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a systematic, purposive and developmental educational
programming of curricular and instructional priorities and contents designed to meet a child's special needs and
aimed at ensuring mastery of learning of target skills and behaviors (Dizon, 1999). Each learner referred to Special
Education must have an IEP. A meeting must be set up with all the members of the interdisciplinary team needed
for the design of the IEP.
The members of the interdisciplinary team are the following:
 Learner
 Parent
 General Education Teacher (if the child is attending a regular class)
 Special Education Teacher
 Related Services Professionals
 Non-School-Agency Representatives
 Other Relevant Professionals
The IEP must be in effect at the beginning of each school year and before the special education and related
services are provided for the learners. It must be implemented as soon as possible following the IEP meeting,
allowing no delay between the time an IEP is finalized and the beginning of the services. In order to avoid
extended delays in services, the IEP meeting must be held within 30 calendar days after the learner is found to
need SPED and related services. If the identified learner is being placed into the school or classroom for the first
time and has not previously had an IEP, then the IEP must be developed before the placement decision is made.

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The learner may be placed in a temporary “evaluation" placement for the year. The parents must agree to the trial
placement before it is carried out and must be involved throughout the process of developing, reviewing, and
revising the IEP. The IEP team meets at least once a year to review and revise the IEP. Parents do have a right to
a copy of their child's IEP. Parents also can expect the school to provide for regular reporting of their child through
the general reporting procedures (e.g., parent-teacher conferences, report cards, parent letters, and notes).
There are certain things that must be included in the IEP document:
 Present levels of the child's academic achievement and functional performance including how the child's
disability affects involvement in regular education curriculum. This is an important part of the IEP and
will provide guidance in the development of annual goals.
 Annual Goals. Based on the child's evaluation and present level of performance, there should be
measurable academic and functional goals that should address all educational needs. The annual goals will
tell you what your child will accomplish when the services specified in the IEP have ended. Short-term
goals or benchmarks are required for those learners taking an alternate assessment aligned to alternate
achievement standards.
 How progress will be reported to parents. Progress toward IEP goals must be reported at least as often as
reports are provided to parents of learners without disability.
 Related Services and Supplementary Aids. The IEP will clearly state what related services your child will
receive and what supplemental aids will be provided. Related services are considered necessary when
needed to advance the attaining of annual goals and to allow the child to make progress in the general
education curriculum.
 Dates of Service. The IEP will have beginning and ending dates. The IDEA states that an IEP meeting
must be held at least annually. An IEP meeting may be called at any time at the request of a team member
including the parent.
 Accommodations made to the General Education Curriculum, including accommodations on the required
assessments.
 The extent to which your child will be included in activities with nondisabled peers.
 A transition plan when the learner turns 16 years old, and annually thereafter. If a learner's behavior
regularly interferes with learning (of self or others) there should be a behavior plan included in the IEP
that is positive in nature and based on a functional assessment of behavior.
Adaptations. They are adjustments in curriculum, instructional components, environmental elements, and
requirements/expectations of the learner that may be needed. Adaptations include accommodations and
modifications. The purpose is to help increase learner's performance achievement and social emotional/
behavioral functioning
Accommodations. They do not fundamentally change the performance standards, instructional level, or the
content of expected learning outcome but include adjustments such as:
 Providing extended time to complete tasks; and
 Providing visual supports, writing tools/supports, and preferential seating.
Modifications. They do change in some way what the learner is learning (content or part of the curriculum),
change to some degree the performance standards, the expectations for that learner. Example: Modification of
testing (oral instead of written), for modification of materials (allow the use of multiplication tables/charts)
Examples of permissible accommodations:
 Reading instructions or items (except for reading tests). For example, reading the science portion of the
exam of a learner with a significant reading disability would be allowable since the science test is intended
to measure science knowledge, not reading skill. However, reading the whole exam to a learner is never
allowable;
 More practice tests or examples;
 Small group or individual testing;
 Extra time, breaks during the test session, or multiple sessions; and
 Any others that DO NOT compromise test validity.

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Examples of accommodations that have the potential to invalidate the test:
 Reading a reading test to the learner, as we have already mentioned; Using a calculator on a mathematics
test designed to measure mental computation;
 Using spelling tools on writing tests that score the correctness of spelling;
 Using a dictionary when taking a reading comprehension or other test that measures vocabulary
knowledge, such as the WCRT; and
 Paraphrasing that changes the meaning of the text. (For example, providing definitions or synonyms for
words in a question or reading selection on the 3rd grade exam would invalidate the test results since
testing vocabulary comprehension is one of the purposes of the test.)

Accommodating All Children in the Early Childhood Classroom

The activities and materials used in early childhood classrooms are designed to meet the needs of many
children with or without disabilities. When they do not meet the specific needs of a child, they can be adapted or
expanded to accommodate that child's individual needs. The purpose of an adaptation is to assist children in
compensating for intellectual, physical, or behavioral challenges. They allow children to use their current skills
while promoting the acquisition of new skills. Adaptations can make the difference between a child merely being
present in the class and a child being actively involved.
Developing adaptations and accommodations for a child with special needs is a continuous process that
involves each child's collaborative team. The first step is to assess the child's abilities and the environment where
the child will be spending time. Once the goals and objectives are identified and expectations for the child's
participation in that environment are established, the team selects or creates adaptations and accommodations that
address those needs. Once implemented, their effectiveness should be assessed on an ongoing basis and revised,
as needed. To meet the specific needs of a child, changes may need to be made in one or more of the following
instructional conditions. Remember, when the child can participate in an activity, as it is, no changes need to be
made.

Instructional groupings or arrangements. For any given activity, there are a number of instructional
arrangements in which to choose from: large groups, small groups, cooperative learning groups, peer partners,
one-to-one instruction, and/or independent tasks.

Lesson format. The format of a lesson may be altered to meet the needs of a child by including more opportunities
for whole class discussions, games, role-playing, activity-based lessons, experiential lessons, demonstrations,
and/or thematic lesson organization.

Teaching strategies. A change in teaching strategies can influence a child's ability to participate. Examples
include: simplifying directions, addition of visual information, use of concrete materials/examples, sequencing
learning tasks from easy to hard, repeated opportunities to practice skills, changes in the schedule of
reinforcement, elaboration or shaping of responses, verbal prompts and/or direct physical assistance.

Curricular goals and learning outcomes. To match the needs of a child within the context of an activity, it may
be appropriate to individualize the learning objectives. This can often be accomplished using the same activities
and materials. If children are working on a classification concept by sorting blocks, a child with a disability could
participate in the same activity but with focus on reaching, grasping, and releasing skills.

Adaptations to the method for responding. Sometimes children may understand a concept yet need an
adaptation in the way they demonstrate that knowledge. Use of augmentative communication systems, eye gaze,
and demonstrations may better allow a child to demonstrate his/her skills.

Environmental conditions. The environmental arrangement is an important aspect of any early childhood
setting. Changes in lighting, noise level, visual and auditory input, physical arrangement of the room or
equipment, and accessibility of materials are important considerations.

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Modification of instructional materials. It is sometimes necessary to physically adapt instructional or play
materials to facilitate a child's participation. Materials can be physically adapted by increasing: stability, ease of
handling (adding handles, making materials larger), accessibility (developing a hand splint to hold materials,
attaching an elastic cord or string to objects so they can be easily moved or retrieved), visual clarity or
distinctiveness (adding contrast or specialized lighting), or size.

Level of personal assistance. A child's need for assistance may range from periodic spot checks to close
continuous supervision. Assistance may vary from day to day and be provided by adults or peers.

An alternative activity. This curricular adaptation should be used as a last choice when the above conditions
cannot be used to meet a child's need.

Accommodations in the Classroom

In order to accommodate some of the needs of children and staff, some simple adaptations have been made
in the classroom and throughout the building.

Picture Schedule The classroom schedule is visually posted on the wall in the classroom using line drawings
that some St. Ben's teachers had drawn for the children to be reminded, to anticipate what
will happen next, and to emotionally and physically prepare for the next step. Also,
sometimes you may be able to avoid unnecessary “power struggle” with a child by showing
the picture schedule and saying “This picture says ...” rather than “I say ..."
Children's Jobs The classroom job chart is also represented with drawings in a prominent place for children
to use.
Social Stories These are line drawings that describe two socially conflicting situations a child may
encounter in the classroom. With those social stories, more socially appropriate behaviors
can be offered for a child to stimulate in advance, as well as a consequence or what a child
will have to do if the child uses an inappropriate method to solve a problem that the child
faces. (*The consequence of using inappropriate behaviors will vary situation by situation,
and a classroom by a classroom.)
Language All staff members have an apron which is equipped with pictures so that everyone can
Aprons assist children with speech and language delays through the use of pictures.
Lowered A second, lower set of handrails has been added on the stairway so that children can reach
Handrails them comfortably.
Stair Guides Yellow tape has been placed on each step to show the children to walk in a single file on
one side of the staircase.
Rail Guides Green tape has been added to guard rails to show the children where to hold on when
moving up and down the stairs.
Computer The computer mouse has been replaced with a ball for easier computer use.
Mouse
Classroom Area A visual storybook line has been added to define play area boundaries.
Marking
Color Coded Chairs have been color coded to help children know which tables they belong to and so
Chairs children can be asked to move to a certain color chair or table.

Step 7. After the IEP is written, services are provided.

The school makes sure that the child’s IEP is carried out as it was written. Parents are given a copy of the
IEP. Each of the child’s teachers and service providers has access to the IEP and knows his or her specific
responsibilities for carrying out the IEP. This includes the accommodations, modifications, and supports that must
be provided to the child, in keeping with the IEP.
Placement, Accommodations and Specialized Services
During the very first IEP meeting, and during all that follow, your child’s placement will be discussed.
This means that the team will determine the most appropriate environment for your child. Remember that your
child is entitled to receive services in an environment that is as close to the general education setting as possible.

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It is important that you know why the team recommends one placement over another. Remember that the
IEP team should be able to use data such as test scores, work samples and behavioral charts to support any
placement recommendations. If the team is recommending a change of placement, arrange a tour of the new
classroom. If you are ever uncomfortable with a placement recommendation, try to work with the IEP team to
come up with a better alternative. The team makes decisions about every part of the IEP, including placement by
what the law calls consensus, which means that a strong majority of the team members must agree. While parents
have considerable influence, they do not have the right of veto. If the majority of a team agrees to something and
the parents disagree, their options are to change their minds or work through conflict resolution solutions. Some
educators believe that the parent signature is required on all IEPs before the document can be implemented, but
this is not true in most states (California does require a parent signature for new goals and services). The only
time a parent signature is required is for the initial placement; starting with the second IEP, consensus is the
method used.

The IEP team will also discuss classroom accommodations and specialized services, such as speech
therapy, occupational therapy and adaptive physical education. It is important to understand your child’s needs
so that you can help the team make informed decisions that continue to help your child. For example, if an
academic test indicates that your child struggles with reading comprehension, you can use that data to request
speech and language support or classroom accommodations, such as extra time to complete reading and writing
tasks.
Special Education Placement Options
Once your child’s Admission, Review, and Dismissal (ARD) committee (which you are a part of) has
developed your child’s Individualized Education Program (IEP), the next step is to decide on an educational
placement.
Placement refers to the amount of time in each school day that a student spends in the resource or in a
general education classroom. The school district is required to have a range of placements where your child can
be taught, including in the general education classroom. In deciding your child’s placement, the ARD committee
must make sure your child spends as much of their school day (as is appropriate) with children who do not have
disabilities. This includes academic, nonacademic, and after school activities. This part of IDEA is called Least
Restrictive Environment or LRE. And, in this case, the word "appropriate" follows the definition of Free
Appropriate Public Education (FAPE).
The LRE for children with disabilities depends on each child’s unique needs. It’s important to know that
the school district cannot use a “one size fits all” approach to educating children who have disabilities.
The Educational Setting
There are some common placements in which students might get specific services. Teams of trained
teachers and aides are in all types of placements. A student could be placed in a single setting all day or spend
parts of the day in different settings. For example, a student in a mainstream education classroom all day might
receive special education services in the same general education classroom as part of regularly scheduled
instruction time. Or, a student might go to different educational settings for part – or all – of the day to receive
special education services.
There shouldn’t be any surprises, because educational placement is part of an Individualized Education
Program (IEP) created by your child’s ARD committee. You are a part of this committee and have the right to
agree with (or disagree with) your child’s placement. To learn more about what to do when you disagree with
your child's placement, see our When You’re Having Trouble Getting the Right Services for Your Child page.
Here are some educational settings your child could have:
Mainstream (many people refer to this as General Education): Many students receive special education
and related services in a general education classroom where peers without disabilities also spend their days. This
is called inclusion. Some services that a student might receive in a mainstream setting include: direct instruction,
a helping teacher, team teaching, co-teaching, an interpreter, education aides, modifications or accommodations
in lessons or instruction, or more teachers per student.

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Resource: This is a class for students who receive special education services and need intensive help to
keep up with grade-level work. The class may have 1 or 2 students, or may have many students. However, students
receive instruction or support based on their unique needs. The number of minutes your child spends in a resource
class must be written into the IEP.
Self-Contained Programs: This is a general term for placements for which the student needs to receive
services outside of the general education classroom for half of the school day or more. Placement in a self-
contained classroom has to be based on a student’s unique needs, not on the disability alone.
Programs That Often Have Specialized Settings
Each school district is going to offer its own set of special education programs and services, and the names
of these programs will be different. However, here are 4 examples of programs often delivered in specialized
settings that we thought you should know about:
Preschool Program for Children with Disabilities (PPCD): This is a set of special education services for
children age 3 to 5. PPCD services can take place in different settings, including a child development center, Head
Start, a private preschool, or right on an elementary school campus. Any PPCD placement can include related
services like occupational, physical, or speech therapy. See our PPCD page to learn more.
Life Skills: This helps students with many different types of disabilities but generally those who need
support with academic, social, or behavioral issues as well as daily living skills. Students who receive services in
this program may stay until they turn 22 years old.
Social Behavior Skills (SBS): This goes by different names in different districts. It is also called Applied
Behavior Skills or just Behavior Skills. In this program, trained teachers help students learn decision-making and
social skills (to promote self-responsibility) with other peers around. SBS is a separate classroom that children
can stay in full-time or part-time, depending on their IEP.
Transition or 18+: A small number of students may stay enrolled in special education services until they
turn 21 or 22 years old (depending on which calendar month they turn 22), even after they have graduated with a
certificate of completion. Students are able to get into these programs if it is approved by their ARD committee
and written into their IEP before they graduate. Most of these programs are designed to help the student build
more independence and get ready to go out into the workforce. Students might stay in the classroom for some of
the day and go to job training for the rest of the day. You can find out more on our Transitioning Out of Public
Education page.
Educational Placement Alternatives
Special learners should be moved away from the most segregated plans and up to the most integrated plans
as soon as possible, i.e., not more than two (2) years after initial placement in a segregated setup (Camara, 2002).
Dizon's concept of “normalization” is the process of restoring the special learner to his maximum or near
maximum capacity through the educational program variants of:
a) Integration – consists of placing the special learner in the regular class in one or more subjects,
so that he can interact with regular children with the SPED class as his station; may include
tutorials and involve ancillary or auxiliary services.
b) Mainstreaming - refers to the placement of the special child in the regular class after meeting
specific admission requirements so that interaction with other children is provided; may include
teaching by a shadow teacher in the regular class, pull-out for one-on-one instruction and
individualization in the special class; may involve ancillary and/or auxiliary services and
individualized teaching in or outside the class.
c) Inclusion - wherein the special learner is placed in the regular class based on age; regardless of
background, disability and degree of severity. There is no pull-out and no shadow teaching; may
involve auxiliary services and individualization within the class without pull-out.

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The possible placement options are the following:
1. Special Education Class – with learners who are 2 to 10 years old and the maximum size may vary from
4 to 7 with one SPED Teacher and one teacher aide.
2. Resource Class – has a specially trained SPED Teacher who provides instruction to exceptional learners
for part of the school day, either individually or in small groups. Learners with special needs come here
for one or several periods during the school day to receive individualized instruction. The learner may be
pulled out from the regular class to receive individualized instruction in this room on certain subject areas
but the stay must not exceed 50% of the child's schedule in school.
3. Self-contained Class – has learners who are with other individuals with special needs for all or most of
the school day but may still have the opportunity to interact with regular learners at certain times, such as
during recess or on the school service to school. It serves learners with severe and multiple disabilities. It
is being managed by a SPED Teacher.
4. Integrated/Mainstreamed/Inclusive Class – has the following functions inside the regular classroom
that:
 Establishes and maintains a warm accepting classroom community that embraces discriminating
and honor differences;
 Complements a multilateral and multimodality classroom; Prepares and supports teachers to teach
interestingly; and
 Provides ongoing support for teachers in their classrooms and breaking down barriers of
professional isolation.
5. Occupational Therapy Class – wherein occupational therapy session is being held.
6. Physical Therapy Class – wherein physical therapy session is being held.

Services/Supports/Therapies Offered Inside/Outside the School

Ancillary services Ancillary services are those provided in house and by paraprofessionals, psychologists
and counselors, physical and occupational therapists, speech therapists and similar
professionals who are employed by the school. These are the same services provided by
those not employed by the school. These ancillary or auxiliary services may be in the
form of:
 Medical Services provided by a licensed physician to determine a child's
medically related handicapping condition which results in the child's need for
special education and related services.
 School Health Services – provided by a qualified school nurse or other qualified
person.
Parent Counseling and Training – assisting parents in understanding the special needs of
their child and providing parents with information about child development.
Occupational Occupational Therapy is a service intended for:
Therapy  improving, developing or restoring functions impaired or lost through illness,
injury or deprivation;
 improving ability to perform tasks for independent functioning when functions
are impaired or lost;
 prevention, through early intervention, initial or further impairment or lose of
function; and
 assessment of hand functioning and sensory skills and its deficits.
Physical Therapy Physical Therapy emphasizes assessment and therapy in gross motor areas.
Psychological/ Psychological/Psychometrician Services are services primarily for:
Psychometrician  Administering psychological and educational tests, and other assessment
Services procedures;
 Interpreting assessment results;
 Obtaining, integrating, and interpreting information about child behavior and
condition related to learning;
 Consulting with other staff members in planning school programs to meet the
special needs of children as indicated by psychological tests, interviews and
behavioral evaluations; and
 Planning and managing a program of psychological services, including
psychological counseling for children and parents.

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Speech Pathology Speech Pathology is a service provided for the:
 Identification of children with speech or language disorders; Diagnosis and
appraisal of specific speech or language disorders;
 Referral for medical or other professional attention necessary for the rehabilitation
of speech and language disorders, prevention of communicative disorders; and
 Counseling and guidance of parents, children and teachers regarding speech and
language disorders.

Step 8. Progress is measured and reported to parents.

The child’s progress toward the annual goals is measured, as stated in the IEP. His or her parents are
regularly informed of their child’s progress and whether that progress is enough for the child to achieve the goals
by the end of the year. These progress reports must be given to parents at least as often as parents are informed
of their nondisabled children’s progress.

Step 9. IEP is reviewed.

The child’s IEP is reviewed by the IEP team at least once a year, or more often if the parents or school
ask for a review. If necessary, the IEP is revised. Parents, as team members, must be invited to participate in these
meetings. Parents can make suggestions for changes, can agree or disagree with the IEP, and agree or disagree
with the placement.
If parents do not agree with the IEP and placement, they may discuss their concerns with other members
of the IEP team and try to work out an agreement. There are several options, including additional testing, an
independent evaluation, or asking for mediation, or a due process hearing. They may also file a complaint with
the state education agency.
Annual and Triennial Reviews and Progress Monitoring
After the initial IEP meeting, you will meet with your child’s IEP team on an annual basis to review your
child’s progress and modify the plan as needed. You can also request an IEP meeting at any time throughout the
school year if you feel there is an issue that must be resolved by the IEP team.
Every three years, your child will undergo a new round of assessments to determine his or her continuing
eligibility for special education services. You will be presented with this information at the triennial meeting.
Often there is enough existing data, thus allowing the team to simply review that data and determine that eligibility
should continue. In addition to formal meetings, you should also be in constant communication with your child’s
special education teacher. He or she should be monitoring your child’s progress on academic and other goals, and
be prepared to present you with updates regularly.

Step 10. Child is reevaluated.

At least every three years the child must be reevaluated. This evaluation is sometimes called a “triennial.”
Its purpose is to find out if the child continues to be a child with a disability, as defined by IDEA, and what the
child’s educational needs are. However, the child must be reevaluated more often if conditions warrant or if the
child’s parent or teacher asks for a new evaluation.

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Roles and Responsibilities of Active Professionals Involved in Special Education

General Considerations for Regular Teachers

 Get to know the learner. Learn about the learner's strengths, weaknesses and interests. Talk with the SPED
specialists at your school, and read about the learner's disability so that you will feel comfortable, prepared
and confident.
 Focus on learner's actual skill deficits and behaviors rather than the learner's special education label.
 Create lessons and activities that help increase the learner's self-esteem.
 Plan your day, set structure and routine.
 Ensure that the learner understands all of your directions. Develop specific, achievable objectives for both
learning and social behavior.
 Break down skills into sub-skills by teaching first the prerequisite then by breaking down new lesson into
sub-skills.
 Promote social interaction by including the special learner to any activity, modifying activity to make him
participate.
 Give assignments and evaluate performance based on the learner's current level of functioning, rather than
the level of other learners in your class.
 Deal with behavioral problems by setting firm, fair rules and by enforcing them consistently and
impartially.
 Ask for advice from SPED specialists and if needed, support and help from parents.

The School Administrator or Principal

 Promote successful collaboration between special and regular educators.
 Allow extra planning time for teachers who handle mainstreamed learners.
 Excuse teachers from some duties so they can meet with others.
 Limit the clerical and non-instructional tasks of teachers with mainstreamed learners.
 Provide time for teachers and auxiliary support personnel who work with the same mainstreamed children
to meet, discuss and coordinate their work.
 Encourage regular classroom teachers and supportive services personnel to visit and observe each other
while at work with the mainstreamed child.
 Provide faculty and other school personnel with general information concerning children with special
needs and how they could best help these children in the regular school setting.
 Inform parents of regular school children of the school's supportive stance toward mainstreamed learners.
 During faculty meetings or in service training activities, provide time for teachers handling mainstreamed
learners and/or supportive services personnel to share their experiences with mainstreamed children.
 Provide implementation and maintenance of effective collaborative arrangements.
 Provide access to necessary training opportunities for staff members who are implementing the program.
 Maintain a good awareness of an individual teacher's strengths and preferences and should be able to make
a good match for learners and teachers.
 Address issues such as scheduling, class-sizing, funding, development and adaptation of materials.
 Provide consultation with parents of mainstreamed children.
The Regular Educator
 View the learner as a regular member of the class, not a visitor.
 Get to know all about children with exceptionalities.
 Assist in the design of supportive services programs.
 Share lesson plans and materials with supportive services.
 Observe support service professionals' classrooms.

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 Communicate instructional goals and learner's progress to parents.

 Use similar behavior management techniques as others in the team so that everyone responds in the same
manner to learner's behavior.
 Obtain knowledge about specific handicapping conditions and special learner capabilities.
 Specify the lesson's instructional goals.
 Plan the instructional program for the big classes
 Compile folders of learner's work for sharing with other members of the team.
 Participate in staff development sessions that facilitate the coordination of services.
 Provide knowledge of the regular curriculum's scope and sequence.
 Provide knowledge of child development.
 Create a classroom environment that shows respect for all learners.
 Work closely with other support services personnel.
 Select a group size that is most appropriate to the child and the lessons.
 Adapt materials and instructional methodologies.
 Physically arrange the classroom.
 Observe learner interactions to ensure that the learning situation is running smoothly.
 Identify the roles of professional team members and plan for the use of available resources.
 Provide appropriate learning materials.
 Modify teaching techniques, course content, evaluation and grading procedures to accommodate the
learner's learning needs.
 See and use the expertise of others in making necessary adaptations.
 Incorporate IEP goals into typical activities and interactions according to the team's instructional plans.
The Special Education Teacher
The Special Education Teacher assumes the primary responsibility for preparing the learner for entry into the
mainstream.
 Assist the interdisciplinary team in developing an IEP by providing data concerning the learner's academic
and social skills, readiness for mainstreaming and reactions to specific instructional techniques and
materials.
 Consult with the regular classroom teacher concerning instructional modifications, grading alternatives,
teaching devices and peer acceptance.
 Prepare the learner for entry into the mainstream on inclusion program (responsibility to the
mainstream/inclusion teacher).
 Assist the regular teacher in assessing the characteristics of the learning environment.
 Assist the regular teacher in assessing the characteristics of the personal and social relations in the
classroom.
 Provide suggestions for necessary modifications. Help in locating available resources.
 Be familiar with the regular class curriculum.
 Align assessment procedures, curriculum and instructional strategies with those employed in the regular
classroom program.
 Offer knowledge of behavior management and ensure that similar behavior management techniques are
used by all members of the team.
 Teach study skills and learning strategies using the materials (e.g., textbooks) of the regular education
program.
 Communicate learner's progress and instructional goals to parents. Compile samples of the learner's work.
 Maintain records and exchange information with the classroom teacher on a regular basis.
 Understand pertinent medical records concerning the children. Prepare and recommend appropriate
materials for the mainstreamed child.
 Reinforce the work of the classroom teacher and do intensive teaching of certain phases of a subject as
needed.
 Participate in staff development sessions to facilitate the coordination of services.

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The School Psychologist or Guidance Counselor

 Carry out test related tasks to complete a thorough assessment.
 Analyze and interpret assessment data.
 Observe learners in class and review other professionals who work with the learner.
 Assist classroom teachers in designing, implementing and evaluating intervention techniques and behavior
management systems.
 Coordinate, assess and monitor the mainstreamed or included child and report progress to other team
members.
 Provide insights concerning the learner's social and emotional development - self-concept, attitude
towards school, and social interactions with others.
The Support Service Personnel (in the fields of OT, SP, PT, Psychology and Medicine)
 Discuss with classroom teachers the therapy concepts relating to the child that may be reinforced in the
mainstreamed setting.
 Determine specific area needs of children through assessment (i.e., OT, PT).
 Provide services to teach child and family based on their individual needs.
 Deliver direct services so that they may maximize the child's independence and development in a variety
of areas.
 Train family members in providing appropriate living and learning environment for the child.
 Help parents access relevant community services.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of services delivered.
 Use similar behavior management strategies as others in the team.
 Participate in sessions that facilitate the coordination of services.
 Ensure functional approaches to addressing therapy needs in typical activities and interactions.
 Deliver services to remediate problems – such as speech, gross-motor skills and adaptive skills.
 Assist both regular and special educators.

Inclusive Education

Inclusive education is when all students, regardless of any challenges they may have, are placed in age-
appropriate general education classes that are in their own neighborhood schools to receive high-quality
instruction, interventions, and supports that enable them to meet success in the core curriculum (Bui, Quirk,
Almazan, & Valenti, 2010; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).
The school and classroom operate on the premise that students with disabilities are as fundamentally
competent as students without disabilities. Therefore, all students can be full participants in their classrooms and
in the local school community. Much of the movement is related to legislation that students receive their education
in the least restrictive environment (LRE). This means they are with their peers without disabilities to the
maximum degree possible, with general education the placement of first choice for all students (Alquraini & Gut,
2012).
Successful inclusive education happens primarily through accepting, understanding, and attending to
student differences and diversity, which can include physical, cognitive, academic, social, and emotional. This is
not to say that students never need to spend time out of regular education classes, because sometimes they do for
a very particular purpose — for instance, for speech or occupational therapy. But the goal is this should be the
exception.
The driving principle is to make all students feel welcomed, appropriately challenged, and supported in
their efforts. It’s also critically important that the adults are supported, too. This includes the regular education
teacher and the special education teacher, as well as all other staff and faculty who are key stakeholders — and
that also includes parents.

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The research basis for inclusive education
Inclusive education and inclusive classrooms are gaining steam because there is so much research-based
evidence around the benefits. Take a look.
Benefits for students
Simply put, both students with and without disabilities learn more. Many studies over the past three
decades have found that students with disabilities have higher achievement and improved skills through inclusive
education, and their peers without challenges benefit, too (Bui, et al., 2010; Dupuis, Barclay, Holms, Platt, Shaha,
& Lewis, 2006; Newman, 2006; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).
For students with disabilities (SWD), this includes academic gains in literacy (reading and writing), math,
and social studies — both in grades and on standardized tests — better communication skills, and improved social
skills and more friendships. More time in the general classroom for SWD is also associated with fewer absences
and referrals for disruptive behavior. This could be related to findings about attitude — they have a higher self-
concept, they like school and their teachers more, and are more motivated around working and learning.
Their peers without disabilities also show more positive attitudes in these same areas when in inclusive
classrooms. They make greater academic gains in reading and math. Research shows the presence of SWD gives
non-SWD new kinds of learning opportunities. One of these is when they serve as peer-coaches. By learning how
to help another student, their own performance improves. Another is that as teachers take into greater
consideration their diverse SWD learners, they provide instruction in a wider range of learning modalities (visual,
auditory, and kinesthetic), which benefits their regular ed students as well.
Researchers often explore concerns and potential pitfalls that might make instruction less effective in
inclusion classrooms (Bui et al., 2010; Dupois et al., 2006). But findings show this is not the case. Neither
instructional time nor how much time students are engaged differs between inclusive and non-inclusive
classrooms. In fact, in many instances, regular ed students report little to no awareness that there even are students
with disabilities in their classes. When they are aware, they demonstrate more acceptance and tolerance for SWD
when they all experience an inclusive education together.
Parent’s feelings and attitudes
Parents, of course, have a big part to play. A comprehensive review of the literature (de Boer, Pijl, &
Minnaert, 2010) found that on average, parents are somewhat uncertain if inclusion is a good option for their
SWD. On the upside, the more experience with inclusive education they had, the more positive parents of SWD
were about it. Additionally, parents of regular ed students held a decidedly positive attitude toward inclusive
education.
Now that we’ve seen the research highlights on outcomes, let’s take a look at strategies to put inclusive
education in practice.
Inclusive classroom strategies
There is a definite need for teachers to be supported in implementing an inclusive classroom. A rigorous
literature review of studies found most teachers had either neutral or negative attitudes about inclusive education
(de Boer, Pijl, & Minnaert, 2011). It turns out that much of this is because they do not feel they are very
knowledgeable, competent, or confident about how to educate SWD.
However, similar to parents, teachers with more experience — and, in the case of teachers, more training
with inclusive education — were significantly more positive about it. Evidence supports that to be effective,
teachers need an understanding of best practices in teaching and of adapted instruction for SWD; but positive
attitudes toward inclusion are also among the most important for creating an inclusive classroom that works
(Savage & Erten, 2015).
Of course, a modest blog article like this is only going to give the highlights of what have been found to
be effective inclusive strategies. For there to be true long-term success necessitates formal training. To give you
an idea though, here are strategies recommended by several research studies and applied experience (Morningstar,
Shogren, Lee, & Born, 2015; Alquraini, & Gut, 2012).

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Inclusive Education and its Benefits
Inclusive education is about looking at the ways our schools, classrooms, programs and lessons are
designed so that all children can participate and learn. Inclusion is also about finding different ways of teaching
so that classrooms actively involve all children. It also means finding ways to develop friendships, relationships
and mutual respect between all children, and between children and teachers in the school.
Inclusive education is not just for some children. Being included is not something that a child must be
ready for. All children are at all times ready to attend regular schools and classrooms. Their participation is not
something that must be earned. Inclusive education is a way of thinking about how to be creative to make our
schools a place where all children can participate. Creativity may mean teachers learning to teach in different
ways or designing their lessons so that all children can be involved. As a value, inclusive education reflects the
expectation that we want all of our children to be appreciated and accepted throughout life.
Beliefs and Principles
 All children can learn
 All children attend age appropriate regular classrooms in their local schools
 All children receive appropriate educational programs
 All children receive a curriculum relevant to their needs
 All children participate in co-curricular and extracurricular activities
 All children benefit from cooperation, collaboration among home, among school, among community

Does Inclusive Education Mean That All Children Should Never Leave Their Regular Classrooms?
Inclusive education means that all children are educated in regular classrooms. It does not, however, mean
that individual children cannot leave the classroom for specific reasons. For example, a child may require one-
on-one assistance in a particular subject. This may or may not be happening during regular class time. Once
schools are inclusive, serious thought is given to how often a child may be out of regular classroom and the
reasons that this may be happening It does not mean that children with certain characteristics (for example, those
who have disabilities) are grouped together in separate classrooms for all or part of the school day.
Key Features of Inclusive Education
Generally, inclusive education will be successful if these important features and practices are followed:
 Accepting unconditionally all children into regular classes and the life of the school.
 Providing as much support to children, teachers and classrooms as necessary to ensure that all
children can participate in their schools and classes.
 Looking at all children at what they can do rather then what they cannot do.
 Teachers and parents have high expectations of all children.
 Developing education goals according to each child’s abilities. This means that children do not
need to have the same education goals in order to learn together in regular classes.
 Designing schools and classes in ways that help children learn and achieve to their fullest potential
(for example, by developing class time tables for allowing more individual attention for all
students).
 Having strong leadership for inclusion from school principals and other administrators.
 Having teachers who have knowledge about different ways of teaching so that children with
various abilities and strengths can learn together.
 Having principals, teachers, parents and others work together to determine the most effective ways
of providing a quality education in an inclusive environment.
The Benefits of Inclusive Education
Over the years, the benefits of providing an inclusive education to all children have been shown. Inclusive
education (when practiced well) is very important because:
 All children are able to be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become better
prepared for life in the community as children and adults.

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 It provides better opportunities for learning. Children with varying abilities are often better motivated
when they learn in classes surrounded by other children.
 The expectations of all the children are higher. Successful inclusion attempts to develop an individual’s
strengths and gifts.
 It allows children to work on individual goals while being with other students their own age.
 It encourages the involvement of parents in the education of their children and the activities of their local
schools.
 It fosters a culture of respect and belonging. It also provides the opportunity to learn about and accept
individual differences.
 It provides all children with opportunities to develop friendships with one another. Friendships provide
role models and opportunities for growth.

Why is inclusive education important?

Inclusive systems provide a better quality education for all children and are instrumental in changing
discriminatory attitudes. Schools provide the context for a child’s first relationship with the world outside their
families, enabling the development of social relationships and interactions. Respect and understanding grow when
students of diverse abilities and backgrounds play, socialize, and learn together. Education that excludes and
segregates perpetuates discrimination against traditionally marginalized groups. When education is more
inclusive, so are concepts of civic participation, employment, and community life.

Isn’t it better to separate children who need specialized attention?

Separate, special education provides no guarantee of success for children who need special attention;
inclusive schools that provide supportive, context-appropriate conditions for learning demonstrate far better
outcomes. Extracurricular activities, peer support, or more specialized interventions involve the entire school
community working as a team.

What are the basic elements of inclusive education?

Use of teaching assistants or specialists: These staff have the potential to be inclusive or divisive. For
instance, a specialist who helps teachers address the needs of all students is working inclusively. A specialist who
pulls students out of class to work with them individually on a regular basis is not.
Inclusive curriculum: An inclusive curriculum includes locally relevant themes and contributions by
marginalized and minority groups. It avoids binary narratives of good and bad, and allows adapting the curriculum
to the learning styles of children with special education needs.
Parental involvement: Most schools strive for some level of parental involvement, but it is often limited
to emails home and occasional parent–teacher conferences. In a diverse school system, inclusion means thinking
about multiple ways to reach out to parents on their own terms.

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The Concept of Curriculum
To achieve the above objectives of special education, the preparation of teachers for adequate education,
for both learners with and without disabilities and use of appropriate suitable, useful, and adequate curriculum,
and for learners becomes imperative. The role of the educational administrator in this regard is to plan and
organize activities resources aimed at the fulfillment of the outlined objectives. Although school administrators
(principals) do not need to be disability experts, they must have fundamental knowledge and skills that will enable
them to perform essential special education leadership tasks.
Mogbo (2002) defined the term “curriculum” as encompassing the content, structure, and processes of
teaching and learning, which the school provides in accordance with its educational objectives and values. This
includes the knowledge, concepts, and skills that students acquire as well as the factors that inform the ethos and
general environment of the school.
Mogbo (2002) saw curriculum as all planned experiences, opportunities, and activities provided by a
school to assist the learners attain the designed learning outcomes and desired change in behaviour. According to
Mogbo (2002), the way in which the curriculum is defined, planned, implemented, and evaluated crucially
influences the quality of education provided.
The above view inform curriculum as the live-wire of any school. Ozoji (2003) supported this view when
he pointed out that any effective and ideal curriculum process should be made up of such fundamental issues like
objectives, content, learning experiences, organization, and evaluation of these to achieve the goals of the
curriculum.
Curriculum planning involves the following steps:
(1) Diagnosis of need;
(2) Formulation of objectives;
(3) Selection of content;
(4) Organization of content;
(5) Selection of learning experiences;
(6) Organization of learning experiences;
(7) Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it. (Taba, 1962)

Designing an appropriate curriculum should take into cognizance in the curriculum plan that would suit
every Nigerian child including the special needs. Such a curriculum should be planned in such a way that would
provide opportunities, activities, and experiences for the education of the special needs.

In support of the above, Nwachukwu (2006, p. 276) identified areas in which curriculum planners
and teachers would be enabled to identify as:
(1) The content of the curriculum that is taught to children generally at school;
(2) The adopted curriculum that addresses the peculiar needs of children with special needs;
(3) The curriculum that would make special-needs children’s education worthwhile;
(4) The curriculum that is specially designed to address the specific learning needs of special-needs
children.

The author is of the opinion that one of the defining features of any good curriculum is planning.
Curriculum planning involves:
(1) Breadth and flexibility;
(2) The choice it offers in the selection and sequencing of content ensures its adaptability to the dignity of
children’s circumstance and experience.

Planning curriculum should focus on:

DESIGNING APPROPRIATE CURRICULUM FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION
(1) Activity-based learning;
(2) Self-directed learning;
(3) Cooperative and group work;
(4) Peer learning.

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Curriculum guideline should involve:
(1) Development of key skills within broad content areas;
(2) The use of individualized education programme;
(3) The use of variety of assessment tools;
(4) The use of multi-disciplinary approaches in the education of students with special needs.

Similarly, Oboegbulem (2004) stated that the teaching methodologies in curriculum planning should
involve:
(1) Individualization of instruction;
(2) Special remedial programme when necessary;
(3) Bringing the child in a strategic-sitting position in the classroom when need be;
(4) Emphasizing less structure and more self-selected activities;
(5) Motivating children through encouragement and deep teacher support;
(6) Emphasizing group projects;
(7) Using audio-visual aids;
(8) Using concrete instead of abstract materials;
(9) Reducing competition to a minimum.

Teaching Instructions and Strategies used in Special Education

Multi-Tiered Framework
A Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS) is a data-driven, problem-solving framework to improve
outcomes for all students. MTSS relies on a continuum of evidence-based practices matched to student needs.
PBIS is an example of MTSS centered on social behavior.
Three Tiers of Support
MTSS emerged as a framework from the work conducted in public health emphasizing three tiers of
prevention. Schools apply this model as a way to align to academic, behavioral, social, and emotional supports to
improve education for all students. It’s important to remember these tiers refer to levels of support students
receive, not to students themselves. Students receive Tier 2 supports; they are not Tier 2 students.

Tier 1: Universal Prevention (All). Tier 1 supports serve as the foundation for behavior and academics.
Schools provide these universal supports to all students. For most students, the core program gives them what
they need to be successful and to prevent future problems.
Tier 2: Targeted Prevention (Some). This level of support focuses
on improving specific skill deficits students have. Schools often provide
Tier 2 supports to groups of students with similar targeted needs. Providing
support to a group of students provides more opportunities for practice and
feedback while keeping the intervention maximally efficient. Students may
need some assessment to identify whether they need this level of support
and which skills to address. Tier 2 supports help students develop the skills
they need to benefit core programs at the school.
Tier 3: Intensive, Individualized Prevention (Few). Tier 3
supports are the most intensive supports the school offers. These supports require are the most resource intensive
due to the individualized approach of developing and carrying out interventions. At this level, schools typically
rely on formal assessments to determine a student’s need and to develop an individualized support plan. Student
plans often include goals related to both academics as well as behavior support.

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Key Components at Every Tier
 Each tier has its own set of systems and practices, but some key components appear across every level.
 Each of these features needs to be present in order for MTSS to be implemented with fidelity.
 Practices are based on evidence to be effective in a similar context with similar populations.
 Practices are organized along a tiered continuum beginning with strong universal supports followed by
intensified interventions matched to student needs.
 Data are collected and used to screen, monitor, and assess student progress.
 Resources are allocated to ensure systems and practices are implemented with fidelity over time.

How MTSS works

MTSS isn’t a particular “curriculum.” It’s a proactive approach that has several key elements:
 Universal screening for all students early in each school year
 Increasing levels of targeted support for those who are struggling
 Integrated plans that address students’ academic, behavioral, social, and emotional needs
 The use of evidence-based strategies
 A school-wide approach to student support. Teachers, counselors, psychologists, and other
specialists work as a team when they assess students and plan interventions.
 Professional development so staff can deliver interventions and monitor progress effectively
 Family involvement so parents can understand the interventions and provide support at home
 Frequent monitoring of students’ progress so educators can use this data to help decide if more
interventions are needed

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

To understand what Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is, it helps to understand what it’s not. The
word universal may throw you off. It may sound like UDL is about finding one way to teach all kids. But UDL
actually takes the opposite approach.
The goal of UDL is to use a variety of teaching methods to remove any barriers to learning and give all
students equal opportunities to succeed. It’s about building in flexibility that can be adjusted for every student’s
strengths and needs. That’s why UDL benefits all kids.
This approach to teaching doesn’t specifically target kids who learn and think differently. But it can be
especially helpful for the 1 in 5 kids with these issues — including those who have not been formally diagnosed.
It can also be very helpful for English language learners.
Understanding UDL
Even if you’re not familiar with the term universal design, you’ve likely encountered many examples of
it in your everyday life. Closed captions, automatic doors and accessibility features on smartphones are all
examples of universal design. These design elements help people with disabilities. But people who don’t have
disabilities may also want to use them. For example, closed captioning on TVs allows people with hearing
impairments to see onscreen text of what is being said. But closed captioning benefits everybody. If you’ve ever
tried to watch the news or a game in a noisy restaurant, you probably used the closed captions to follow along.
UDL provides that same kind of flexibility in the classroom. By applying UDL principles, teachers can
effectively instruct a diverse group of learners. They do this by building in flexibility in the ways learners can
access information and in the ways students can demonstrate their knowledge.

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3 main principles of UDL
UDL is a framework for how to develop lesson plans and assessments that is based on three main
principles:
1) Representation: UDL recommends offering information in more than one format. For example,
textbooks are primarily visual. But providing text, audio, video and hands-on learning gives all kids a
chance to access the material in whichever way is best suited to their learning strengths.
2) Action and expression: UDL suggests giving kids more than one way to interact with the material and to
show what they’ve learned. For example, students might get to choose between taking a pencil-and-paper
test, giving an oral presentation or doing a group project.
3) Engagement: UDL encourages teachers to look for multiple ways to motivate students. Letting kids make
choices and giving them assignments that feel relevant to their lives are some examples of how teachers
can sustain students’ interest. Other common strategies include making skill-building feel like a game and
creating opportunities for students to get up and move around the classroom.
Other examples of UDL in the classroom include letting students complete an assignment by making a video
or a comic strip. To get a deeper understanding of UDL, it also helps to see how it’s different from a traditional
approach to education. Explore this chart that compares UDL and traditional education side by side.
Learning and thinking differences and UDL
UDL helps all students. But here are some of the ways it may be especially helpful to kids with learning
and thinking differences:
 Makes learning more accessible in general education classrooms, which is where most kids with
learning and thinking differences spend most or all of the school day.
 Presents information in ways that adapt to the learner, instead of asking the learner to adapt to the
information.
 Gives kids more than one way to interact with material. UDL builds in flexibility that can make it
easier for kids to use their strengths to work on their weaknesses.
 Reduces stigma. By giving a variety of options to all students, UDL doesn’t single out the few who
receive formal accommodations as part of IEPs or 504 plans.

Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Learning Styles (VAK)

The VAK learning style uses the three main sensory receivers: Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic
(movement) to determine the dominant learning style. It is sometimes known as VAKT (Visual, Auditory,
Kinesthetic, & Tactile). It is based on modalities—channels by which human expression can take place and is
composed of a combination of perception and memory.
VAK is derived from the accelerated learning world and seems to be about the most popular model
nowadays due to its simplicity. While the research has shown a connection with modalities and learning styles
(University of Pennsylvania, 2009), the research has so far been unable to prove the using one's learning style
provides the best means for learning a task or subject. This is probably because it is more of a preference, rather
than a style.
VAK Learners use all three modalities to receive and learn new information and experiences. However,
according to the VAK or modality theory, one or two of these receiving styles is normally dominant. This
dominant style defines the best way for a person to learn new information by filtering what is to be learned. This
style may not always to be the same for some tasks. The learner may prefer one style of learning for one task, and
a combination of others for a different task.
Classically, our learning style is forced upon us through life like this: In grades kindergarten to third, new
information is presented to us kinesthetically; grades 4 to 8 are visually presented; while grades 9 to college and
on into the business environment, information is presented to us mostly through auditory means, such as lectures.
According to the VAK theorists, we need to present information using all three styles. This allows all learners the
opportunity to become involved, no matter what their preferred style may be.

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While there is some evidence for modality specific strengths and weaknesses (Rourke, et al. 2002), what
has not been established is matching the instructional style to individual learning strength improves their learning
abilities. For example, one study (Constantinidou and Baker, 2002), found that visual presentation through the
use of pictures was advantageous for all adults, irrespective of a high or low learning-style preference for visual
images. Indeed, it was especially advantageous for those with a strong preference for verbal processing.

Hints for Recognizing and Implementing the Three VAK Styles

Auditory learners often talk to themselves. They also may move their lips and read out loud. They may
have difficulty with reading and writing tasks. They often do better talking to a colleague or a tape recorder and
hearing what was said. To integrate this style into the learning environment:
 Begin new material with a brief explanation of what is coming. Conclude with a summary of what
has been covered. This is the old adage of “tell them what they are going to lean, teach them, and
tell them what they have learned.”
 Use the Socratic method of lecturing by questioning learners to draw as much information from
them as possible and then fill in the gaps with you own expertise.
 Include auditory activities, such as brainstorming, buzz groups, or Jeopardy. Leave plenty of time
to debrief activities. This allows them to make connections of what they leaned and how it applies
to their situation.
 Have the learners verbalize the questions.
 Develop an internal dialogue between yourself and the learners.

Visual learners have two sub-channels—linguistic and spatial. Learners who are visual-linguistic like to
learn through written language, such as reading and writing tasks. They remember what has been written down,
even if they do not read it more than once. They like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures
if they watch them. Learners who are visual-spatial usually have difficulty with the written language and do better
with charts, demonstrations, videos, and other visual materials. They easily visualize faces and places by using
their imagination and seldom get lost in new surroundings. To integrate this style into the learning environment:
 Use graphs, charts, illustrations, or other visual aids.
 Include outlines, concept maps, agendas, handouts, etc. for reading and taking notes.
 Include plenty of content in handouts to reread after the learning session.
 Leave white space in handouts for note-taking.
 Invite questions to help them stay alert in auditory environments.
 Post flip charts to show what will come and what has been presented.
 Emphasize key points to cue when to takes notes.
 Eliminate potential distractions.
 Supplement textual information with illustrations whenever possible.
 Have them draw pictures in the margin.
 Have the learners envision the topic or have them act out the subject matter.

Kinesthetic learners do best while touching and moving. It also has two sub-channels: kinesthetic
(movement) and tactile (touch). They tend to lose concentration if there is little or no external stimulation or
movement. When listening to lectures they may want to take notes for the sake of moving their hands. When
reading, they like to scan the material first, and then focus in on the details (get the big picture first). They typically
use color high lighters and take notes by drawing pictures, diagrams, or doodling. To integrate this style into the
learning environment:
 Use activities that get the learners up and moving.
 Play music, when appropriate, during activities.
 Use colored markers to emphasize key points on flip charts or white boards.
 Give frequent stretch breaks (brain breaks).

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 Provide toys such as Koosh balls and Play-Dough to give them something to do with their hands.
 To highlight a point, provide gum, candy, scents, etc. which provides a cross link of scent (aroma) to the
topic at hand (scent can be a powerful cue).
 Provide high lighters, colored pens and/or pencils.
 Guide learners through a visualization of complex tasks.
 Have them transfer information from the text to another medium such as a keyboard or a tablet.

What is the TEACCH Method?

The TEACCH method was developed by researchers who wanted a more effective and integrated
approach to helping individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). TEACCH is an evidence-based academic
program that is based on the idea that autistic individuals are visual learners, so teachers must correspondingly
adapt their teaching style and intervention strategies.
A Brief History
Autism is a lifelong developmental disability that affects an individual’s behavior and communication.
Most people with autism struggle with language and function according to culturally normal social standards.
People with autism may lack social awareness, emotional reciprocity and the ability to sustain conversations.
There are currently different treatment and intervention models for autism, but evidence-based research is very
limited. During the late 1970’s, the Treatment and Education of Autistic and Communication Handicapped
Children (TEACCH) research program was formed at the University of North Carolina. Their continuing mission
is to promote structured learning environments that encourage visual based engagement and communication.
The Five Basic Principles
TEACCH is centered on five basic principles.
 First, physical structure refers to individual’s immediate surroundings. Daily activities, such as
playing and eating, work best when they are clearly defined by physical boundaries.
 Second, having a consistent schedule is possible through various mediums, such as drawings and
photographs.
 Third, the work system establishes expectations and activity measurements that promote
independence. Ideal work systems will communicate objectives with minimum written
instructions.
 Fourth, routine is essential because the most important functional support for autistic individuals
is consistency.
 Fifth, visual structure involves visually-based cues for reminders and instruction.
Common Misconceptions
There are many common myths and misperceptions about autism and the TEACCH method. One of the
most common misunderstandings is that TEACCH is designed only for children. The TEACCH method works
well with any individual with ASD. It is also not limited to those with intellectual disabilities, but individuals
with ASD at all developmental levels. While the TEACCH method works best in self-contained classrooms, it
can be implemented in any educational setting. Many people think that TEACCH programs are mainly for skills
and structure, but they also promote language development. Some parents fear that TEACCH programs will
isolate children with ASD, but it actually helps them to experience meaningful relationships and enjoyable social
interactions.
Although the TEACCH method is based on scientific research and documented studies, there are several
potential limitations. The existing research studies of the TEACCH programs show that no harm is done, but
struggle to isolate statistical correlations. That is, most studies have lacked control groups, failed to use double-
blind methods and suffered from small sample sizes. Teachers and parents support TEACCH because most ASD
students experience progress, but it is difficult to pinpoint how the positive changes are directly correlated to the
program. Most researchers feel that while more research is needed, TEACCH is a widely successful program that
offers potential benefits. Individuals with ASD may also benefit from comparative interventions, such as Applied
Behavioral Analysis. The TEACCH method is a structured program that helps individuals with ASD learn,
function and reach their goals.

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The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)

The Picture Exchange Communication System, or PECS, allows people with little or no communication
abilities to communicate using pictures. People using PECS are taught to approach another person and give them
a picture of a desired item in exchange for that item. By doing so, the person is able to initiate communication. A
child or adult with autism can use PECS to communicate a request, a thought, or anything that can reasonably be
displayed or symbolized on a picture card. PECS works well in the home or in the classroom.
PECS was developed in 1984 by Lori Frost, MS, CCC/SLP and Dr. Andrew Bondy. It was first used at
the Delaware Autistic Program. The goal of (PECS) is to teach children with autism a fast, self-initiating,
functional communication system. PECS begins with the exchange of simple icons but rapidly builds "sentence"
structure.
At one time many people opposed the use of PECS and sign language to teach children with autism to
communicate. They argued that these methods would hurt the development of spoken language. However, several
studies have shown PECS actually helps people develop verbal language. Studies have also shown that PECS can
decrease tantrums and odd behaviors. For example, an individual may cry because they are thirsty. However, a
parent or teacher may not understand why they are crying and as a result their needs will remain unmet. However,
if an individual has access to communication pictures they can quickly communicate their need.

The Six Phases of the Picture Exchange Communication System

PECS PHASE I: How to The child with autism learns to exchange single pictures for items or
Communicate activities they really want.
PECS PHASE II: Distance Still using single pictures, the child with autism learn to generalize this new
and Persistence skill by using it in different places, with different people and across distances.
They are also taught to be more persistent communicators.
PECS PHASE III: Picture The child with autism learns to select from two or more pictures to ask for
Discrimination their favorite things. These are placed in a communication book, a ring binder
with Velcro strips where pictures are stored and easily removed for
communication.
PECS PHASE IV: Sentence The child with autism learns to construct simple sentences on a detachable
Structure sentence strip using an "I want" picture followed by a picture of the item
being requested.
PECS PHASE V: Answering The child with autism learns to use PECS to answer the question, "What do
Questions you want?"
PECS PHASE VI: Now the child with autism is taught to comment in response to questions
Commenting such as, what do you see? what do you hear? and what is it? They learn to
make up sentences starting with I see, I hear, I feel, etc.

Many individuals who have expressive communication limitations also have difficulty understanding how
communication works. Because of this, they may not be interested in trying to communicate with others. Even if
these individuals can speak some words, they may not use verbal words in meaningful communication exchanges
with others.
A big challenge in teaching independent expressive communication to some students is finding a way to
motivate them to participate and learn. You must introduce and teach picture communication in a fun and
motivating way for the student to want to participate in the session and to learn structured expressive
communication skills. To make the communicative messages more understandable it can be beneficial to use
matching picture symbols that exactly represent the activity.
Communicating with pictures and identifying symbolic representations may be difficult for some
individuals. An experienced Speech Language Pathologist (SLP) can lend needed guidance to those trying to
implement picture communication. We offer instructional materials that may be beneficial to trained team
members. Always keep in mind the student’s abilities and goals before using these or any related learning
materials.

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Advantages of Picture Communication

 The listener does not need special training because pictures are easy to understand and are often labeled.
 Simple matching makes initial communication easier.
 This is a research based intervention that is based on Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior.
 Starting with PECS can help avoid creating a negative emotional history related to speech.
 Many individuals start with the ability to point to what they want so there is a high possibility for success.
 PECS is a fairly inexpensive, low tech language intervention.

References:

Books:
Algozzine, Bob, Thurlow, Martha L., & Ysseldyke, James E. (2002) Critical Issues in Special Education. Houghton
Mifflin Company. Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Caballa-Rivadelo, Genevieve (2016) Authentic Assessment of Child with Special Needs. Rex Book Store, Inc. Quezon
City, Philippines.
Catama, Bryan V. & Barlis-Domalanta, Mary Ann (2017) Special Education: A Comprehensive Study Guide for
Teachers, Parents, and Learners. Jimczyville Publications. Malabon City, Philippines.
Daňocup, O. B. (2010) Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education Teachers. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Quezon
City, Philippines.
Garcia, Claro Matt & Santos, Gerry (2009) Managing Children with Special Needs (Learning Disability, ADHD, &
Autism) Special Education Handbook. Rex Book Store, Inc. Manila City, Philippines.
Norwich, Brahm (2017) Experiencing Special Educational Needs & Disability – Lessons for Practice. CPI Group (UK),
Ltd. London, United Kingdom.
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https://nbacl.nb.ca/module-pages/inclusive-education-and-its-benefits/
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https://www.navigatelifetexas.org/en/education-schools/educational-placements-for-students-with-disabilities
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https://www.parentcenterhub.org/steps/
https://www.pbis.org/pbis/tiered-
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https://www.specialeducationguide.com/pre-k-12/what-is-special-education/the-importance-of-the-assessment-process/
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you-need-to-know
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design-for-learning-what-it-is-and-how-it-works
https://www.verywellfamily.com/essential-parts-of-an-individual-education-program-2162702
https://www.verywellfamily.com/the-special-education-process-2162674

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