Modern Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines

2000 Outlook

By B.T.C. Zandbergen

TU-DELFT, MAY 5, 2000

i
 PHOTO CREDITS:

Rocketdyne, Snecma SA, DASA MBB, Pratt & Whitney, Aerojet, Royal Ordnance, and
Kaiser Marquardt.
ii
Preface
This document intends to provide the (future) space engineer with a starting point for both
practical liquid rocket engine selection and engineering. The text for this document
originated from a lecture series on chemical rocket propulsion, which the author provided
during the years 1988-1996 at TU-Delft, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering.

This document is intended as a lively document. Readers are invited to send their comments,
amendments or recommendations to: B.T.C. Zandbergen, Space Systems Engineer (MSSE),
TU-Delft, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, The
Netherlands or email to [email protected]

Special thanks go to ir. G.W.R. Frenken of Stork Product Engineering BV, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, for proof-reading this publication and for providing many useful comments.

The current document is a slightly updated version of the original document. Most important
change is the addition of more motors in the moderate impulse section.

iii
iv
Contents
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................ III
CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF ACRONYMS........................................................................................................VI
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1
1. ENGINES FOR HIGH TOTAL IMPULSE LAUNCHER MISSIONS .................... 3
SPACE SHUTTLE MAIN ENGINE ............................................................................................ 6
HM60 CRYOGENIC ROCKET ENGINE ................................................................................... 8
LE-7 CRYOGENIC ENGINE .................................................................................................. 10
RD-170/171 AND RD180 ................................................................................................... 11
RS-68................................................................................................................................. 12
RS-2200 LINEAR AEROSPIKE ENGINE ................................................................................ 14
2. ENGINES FOR MODERATE TOTAL IMPULSE LAUNCHER MISSIONS ...... 15
HM7 ENGINE ...................................................................................................................... 17
VINCI ENGINE ................................................................................................................... 19
LE-5/5A............................................................................................................................. 20
RL10A ............................................................................................................................... 22
3. ENGINES FOR LOW TOTAL IMPULSE LAUNCHER MISSIONS.................... 23
AESTUS 27,5 KN ENGINE .................................................................................................... 25
EUROPEAN ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY ENGINE .................................................................. 25
AESTUS II 46 KN ENGINE ................................................................................................... 26
ORBITING MANEUVERING SYSTEM (OMS) ENGINE ........................................................... 26
RS-72................................................................................................................................. 27
AJ10-118K/138 ................................................................................................................. 27
4. ENGINES FOR REACTION CONTROL SYSTEMS ............................................. 29
BIPROPELLANT ENGINES .................................................................................................... 30
CATALYTIC HYDRAZINE THRUSTERS .................................................................................. 36
COLD GAS THRUSTERS ....................................................................................................... 38
5. ABOUT THE DATA PRESENTED ........................................................................... 40
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 41
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS .......................................................................................... 44
B. PROPELLANT PROPERTIES .................................................................................. 46
C. NOZZLE PROPERTIES ............................................................................................. 49
D. ROCKET MOTOR PERFORMANCE CALCULATION; AN EXAMPLE .......... 50

v
List of acronyms
A50 Aerozine 50
ATE Advanced Technology Engine
CHT Catalytic Hydrazine Thruster
CMC Carbon Matric Composite
CNES French Space Agency
DASA DaimlerChrysler Aerospace
ESA European Space Agency
GEO Geostationary Earth Orbit
GG Gas Generator cycle
GH2 Gaseous Hydrogen
GOX Gaseous Oxygen
GTO Geostationary Earth Orbit
LOX Liquid Oxygen
LH2 Liquid Hydrogen
LRE Liquid Rocket Engine
MMH Mono-Methyl-Hydrazine
MON Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASDA NAtional Space Development Agency
NTO Nitrogen Tetra-Oxide
OMS Orbiting Manoeuvring System
rpm Rounds per minute
RCS Reaction Control System
RD Raketnay Dvigatel (rocket motor)
SC Staged Combustion cycle
SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine
STS Space Transportation System
SEP Socièté Européene de Propulsion (Snecma SA, Snecma group, France)
SL Sea Level
TVC Thrust Vector Control
TMC Thrust Magnitude Control
USA United States of America
US$ US dollar

vi
Introduction
In this document, a number of liquid propellant rocket engines are described to provide (future)
space system/propulsion engineers with a starting point for practical liquid rocket engine
selection and/or engineering.

It is the task of the propulsion system to generate the propulsive force (thrust) needed to change
the momentum of a vehicle. For a chemical rocket propulsion system, this thrust is generated in
a thrust chamber or thrust generator using one or more chemical reactants to provide the
required energy as well as the mass to be expelled. Liquid propellant rocket propulsion systems
use liquid chemical reactants as the propellant. Besides the liquid propellant and 1 or more
liquid rocket thrust chambers, the overall propulsion system includes a propellant feed system,
a control system and a tankage system.
A liquid propellant rocket thrust chamber is in principle a very simple device, which usually is
made up of a cylindrically or spherically shaped reaction or combustion chamber1 and a
convergent-divergent (con-di) outlet referred to as nozzle. In the reaction chamber, the
chemical energy from the liquid reactants is converted into thermal energy thereby creating a
hot gas mixture. This hot gas mixture is accelerated by pressure forces to a high exhaust
velocity in the specially shaped nozzle. The con-di shape of the nozzle is instrumental in
generating a high pressure in the thrust chamber and the optimal conversion of the thermal
energy of the hot gas mixture into kinetic energy of the jet exhaust. To allow high gas
temperatures in the thrust chamber, most combustion chambers and nozzles are cooled to some
extent.
As (liquid) propellant various combinations of fuel and oxidiser are used, like hydrogen and
oxygen, kerosene and oxygen or hydrazine and nitrogen-tetroxide. Such combinations of fuel
and oxidiser are usually referred to as 'bipropellant'. Apart from bipropellants, sometimes a
single fluid, referred to as 'monopropellant', is used. Chemical energy in that case stems from a
decomposition reaction that occurs under the influence of a suitable catalyst. Monopropellants
are for example hydrazine or hydrogen-peroxide, which decompose into mostly ammonia and
water, respectively.
Because of the high pressure in the combustion chamber a feed system is needed to pressurise
and transport the propellant from the propellant tank(s) to the thrust chamber. In today’s rocket
engines, propellant pressurization is accomplished by either (turbo)pumps or by a high pressure
gas that is released into the propellant tank(s), thereby forcing the propellants out of the tank(s).
In space engineering, in case of high total impulse, short duration (up to hundreds of seconds),
launcher missions, the choice is almost exclusively for pump-fed systems, whereas for low total
impulse, long duration (typically years), orbital missions the choice is for using a high pressure
gas.
A control system ensures the proper flow of propellants to the thrust chamber. It includes
amongst others:
On/off valves that control whether the propellant is flowing or not;
Check valves that prevent the fluids from flowing in the wrong direction;
Fill and drain valves that allow for filling and emptying of the tank(s) when on ground;
Pressure regulators that control the pressure in the tank(s);
Filters that filter out contaminants;
Transducers that provide information on pressures and temperatures.
Generally, the thrust chamber together with the control system is referred to as the thruster. In
case of turbopump-fed systems, one generally speaks of liquid rocket engines, meaning the
assembly of thrust chamber(s), control system and turbopump(s). Liquid rocket engines may be
of a single chamber or multi-chamber design, i.e multiple chambers fed by a single turbopump.

First use of liquid propellant systems dates back to 1926 to the rocket pioneering days of
Robert Goddard. In the 1940’s this was followed by the illustrious V-2, also known as the
A(ggregate)-4, designed by Von Braun and his team, which clearly demonstrated the high

1
The reaction or combustion chamber is sometimes referred to as combustor.
1
performance capability of liquid propellant rocket propulsion systems. This was followed in
1957, by the first true space launch when the Soviets launched Sputnik I. This event spurred
a surge in rocketry in the United States of America (USA) culminating in 1969 with the first
manned lunar landing made possible by the design and development of the powerful Saturn
V all liquid propellant rocket. Today, liquid propellant rocket propulsion systems still form
the back-bone of the majority of space rockets and spacecraft allowing mankind to expand
his presence into Space.

An important advantage of liquid rocket propulsion systems compared to solid propellant

rocket motors is that they can offer a much higher specific impulse2 (typically 450 s compared
to about 300 s) leading to a much lower propellant mass needed. Another advantage is that
liquid propellant rocket systems offer a much higher degree of flexibility allowing for pulsed
thrust over extended periods of time. This is e.g. advantageous for attitude and orbit control of
spacecraft.
On the other hand, liquid propulsion systems are more costly and have a lower reliability. For
launcher applications [Andrews and Haberman, 1991] mention a reliability of 0,985-0,989 for
liquid systems versus 0,998 for solid rocket motors with a cost level of US$ 0,090 per Ns of
total impulse delivered versus 0,034 US$3 for solid rocket motors. In addition, because of low
propellant densities, the use of liquid propulsion systems leads to larger sizes of the vehicle.

To provide the (future) space engineer with a starting point for practical liquid rocket engine
selection and engineering, this document describes some key liquid propellant rocket engines
and thrusters for the 21st century.
In Chapter 1 attention is given to engines for high total impulse space launcher missions,
with total impulse levels ranging from 50 MNs to 20.000 MNs and thrust levels from 50 kN
to several MN. Chapter 2 focusses on engines for moderate total impulse space launcher
missions with total impulse ranging from 10-50 MNs and thrust levels from 50 to 150 kN. In
Chapter 3 attention is given to engines for low total impulse space missions like upper stage
propulsion and orbit raising of spacecraft with total impulse levels in the range up to about
15 MNs. Finally, in Chapter 4 attention is given to engines for reaction control systems of
space vehicles with total impulse levels up to about 1,5 MNs and with thrust levels well
below 10 kN.
All 4 chapters focus on the engine system and not on the associated tankage system. This is
because burn times can be selected freely (as long as one stays below the engine's maximum
allowed burn time), leading to different propellant mass and hence tank sizes. However, data
will be provided that allow the designer to properly design the tankage system.

Each chapter starts with a performance overview of some key engines for the next century. The
performance data included (when available) are amongst others. thrust, maximum thrust
duration, level of thrust control, specific impulse and/or mass flow, number of engine/thruster
starts, propellants used, oxidiser-to-fuel mass mixture ratio, minimum impulse bit, reliability,
and cost, see Annex A for a definition of terms used.
Next, to provide insight in the various different designs and the design options that are available
to the engine designer to influence the performances of a rocket engine, some key engines are
discussed in more detail. Attention will be given to:
Engine characteristics like type of engine, number of thrust chambers, (type of)
propellants, propellant mass flow, engine mass, engine dimensions, expansion ratio, pump
power, chamber pressure, inlet pressure, engine cooling, materials used and
Development data like development period, development approach, development tests, etc.

Finally, in Annexes B, C, and D some theoretical results are given that allow the reader to
verify/estimate some engine performances, including engine thrust, and specific impulse. In
addition, some data is provided that allow for determining propellant density and propellant
volume flow (for a given burn time and mass flow rate).

2
Specific impulse is total impulse delivered per unit of propellant weight.
3
Correcting for inflation, the 1999 figures are 0,117 and 0,44 US$, respectively.
2
1. Engines for high total impulse launcher missions
In this section, some key liquid rocket engines for high total impulse space launcher missions
with total impulse levels ranging from 50 MNs to 20.000 MNs and thrust levels from 50 kN to
several MN are discussed. Typical such missions are first stage and booster applications.

Two cases can be discerned for these types of engines:

The required thrust is produced without the help of solid rocket boosters; and
The required thrust is produced in conjunction with solid rocket boosters.
In the first case, attention is on both high specific impulse and on high propellant density.
The high specific impulse allows reducing propellant mass, whereas the high propellant
density helps to limit the size of the propulsion system and more specific the propellant tanks
and thus limits gravity losses. This mostly leads to the choice for oxygen-kerosene as the
propellant combination with typical vacuum specific impulse of 330-340 s and propellant
density of 1000-1010 kg/m3 compared to 410-450 s and 330-375 kg/m3 for oxygen-hydrogen.
In the second case, attention can be fully on achieving high specific impulse, since in that
case, the solid propellants provide sufficient density. In that case, the choice is obviously for
oxygen-hydrogen.
Because of the large propellant mass needed and hence the large tanks needed, pump-feeding
is used almost exclusively. The use of pumps allows for a relatively benign tank pressure of
about 3-5 bar, with the pumps providing the necessary pressure rise to allow feeding of the
propellant into the combustion chamber. In addition, because of the high pressure attainable
with pumps, it is much easier to attain a high expansion ratio and hence a high specific
impulse. A major disadvantage of pump-fed engines, however, is the high complexity and the
associated high development and production cost. A further disadvantage is a fairly complex
starting procedure. Restartability is in principle possible, but not much done today.

To drive the propellant pumps mostly turbines driven by high pressure gasses are used. This
high-pressure gas can be generated in a number of ways, which each has its own
(dis)advantages. We distinguish:
• Staged combustion: The turbo-pumps (pump-turbine combination) are driven from hot
gases produced by a pre-combustion chamber or pre-burner. Parts of the propellants are
burned at a low temperature, sufficiently low to allow driving a turbine. These hot gasses
are led to the turbo-pump(s), where they drive the turbine. When leaving the outlet of the
turbine, the gasses are fed to the thrust chamber, where the remainder of the fuel or
oxidiser is burned and can contribute to the generation of thrust
• Gas Generator Cycle: This cycle is similar to the staged combustion cycle, but instead that
the gases are fed to the thrust chamber, they are exhausted separately or injected at a point
downstream of the nozzle throat, where the pressures balance.
• Coolant Bleed or Expander Cycle: Part of the coolant flow rate is heated to a high
temperature (typically 900-1100K) in a heat exchanger portion of the main thrust chamber.
The heated coolant is expanded through high-pressure-ratio turbines.

Highest specific impulse is achieved by the choice for the very complex staged combustion
cycle. The gas generator cycle is somewhat less complex than the staged combustion cycle, but
also the attainable specific impulse is somewhat less. Compared to the gas generator and
staged combustion cycle, the bleed or expander cycle offers least complexity and mass.

In the next sections, the detailed workings of a number of high total impulse space launcher
engines is given, including the Main Engine of the Space Shuttle Orbiter, the HM-60 (or
Vulcain) engine of the Ariane V first stage, the LE7 first stage engine of the Japanese H2
launcher, the RD 170 engine used on the Russian Zenith and Energia launcher, the RD-180
engine currently under development for Atlas III, and the RS-2200 linear aerospike engine
under development for VentureStar.

3
4
Table 1-1:Performance data of some typical liquid rocket engines
SSME HM60 LE-7 RS-68 RD-170 RD-180 RS-2200
Propellants LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/Kerosene LOX/Kerosene LOX/LH2
Engine cycle SC GG SC GG SC SC GG
Vacuum thrust (kN) 2090 1075 1078 3310 7910 4152 2200
Specific impulse (s) 455,2 430 446 410 336-337 338 455
Overall mixture ratio; O/F (-) 6,0 5,3 6,0 2,63 2,72 5,5
Propellant density (kg/m3)1) 333 346 333 1008 1011 354
Length (m) 4,24 3,00 3,40 5,18 4,0 3,8
Total dry mass (kg) 3170 1300 1714 6597 9750 5393 2670
Mission duty cycle (s) 480 600 346 140-150 150
Life span (s) 27000 6000 >2000
Max number of starts (-) >100 20 >20
Thrust/weight ratio (-) 67 84 64 51 83 79 84
Throttle capability (%) 67-109 No 60-100 56-100 50-100 Yes
Operational use (year) 1981 1996 1994 2001? 1985 1999?
Reliability 0,999 0,9927 0,9935 0,999

5
Space Shuttle Main Engine

Under contract to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Rocketdyne
division of Rockwell International developed NASA’s Space Shuttle (Orbiter) Main Engine [2,
5, 6]. The Orbiter forms part of NASA’s Space Transportation System (STS), which carries
satellites into low Earth orbit, releases them for free flight operation or retrieves them from
space. NASA’s STS, furthermore, consists of two large solid rocket boosters providing thrust
during the initial phases of the flight, and a large external tank carrying the liquid propellant
needed for the SSME’s.

Each Orbiter is equipped with three SSME's, which

are located in the aft section of the aft fuselage of the
Orbiter. Each SSME is supplied with liquid oxygen
and liquid hydrogen, which are stored in an external
tank structure, separated by a common bulkhead
(tandem configuration). At the launch pad the
propellant tanks are pressurised with gaseous helium.
The pressurised helium forces the liquid oxygen and
hydrogen from the tanks through 43cm ducts. The
43cm LOX and LH2 ducts in the aft fuselage of the
Orbiter branch out into separate 30,5cm ducts to each
SSME. After engine start, pressurisation of the
propellant tanks is by vaporised oxygen and hydrogen
extracted from the engines.

The SSME is a gimballed, staged combustion cycle,

single thrust chamber engine. Under nominal
conditions, it nominally consumes 467 kg of oxygen
and hydrogen per second at a mixture ratio of 6:1. The
propellant burns at a high pressure (maximum 223
bar) to reduce engine envelope. The hot (3300 K)
Figure 1: Space Shuttle Main combustion gases are accelerated in a bell-type
Engine (clock-shape) nozzle with an area ratio of 77,5:1 and
an exit diameter of about 2,27 m. Because of the high
gas temperatures in the thrust chamber, the thrust chamber is regeneratively cooled using
hydrogen fuel as the coolant.
Propellant feeding is
through a high-pressure
pump following a low-
pressure pump. The latter
is to prevent cavitation in
the former. The
hydrogen pump operates
at 37.000 rpm and
provides 51,2 MW of
power. The oxygen
pump provides 18,6
MW of power.
When the ignition circuit
is closed, the main
oxygen valve opens and
the oxygen is pumped by
the pumps. Part of the
oxygen flow that leaves Figure 2: SSME engine schematic
the high-pressure pump is
used to drive the turbine of the low-pressure oxygen pump. The turbine exhaust is returned to
6
the low-pressure oxygen circuit. The oxygen flow that leaves the high-pressure pump is tapped
and part is pumped through two regulating valves to the injectors of the pre-burners. Here it is
mixed with the hydrogen and burned in a fuel-rich mixture at about 1000 K. The hot exhaust
drives the turbines of the high-pressure turbo-pumps and is ducted through the hot-gas pipe to
the main injector. Here the gas is mixed with the rest of the pressurised oxygen flow and led
into the main combustion chamber.
After opening the hydrogen flow control valve, the liquid hydrogen is pumped through the
cooling channels of the combustion chamber and nozzle after which it is led to the two pre-
burners. A small part of the flow pumped by the high-pressure pump is tapped off and used to
drive the low-pressure turbo-pump of the hydrogen circuit. When leaving the turbine of the
low-pressure pump, the hydrogen is ducted through the double wall of the hot gas pipe and
main injector (thereby cooling them) into the main combustion chamber.
Combustion pressure in the pre-burner is about 2 times higher (350-360 bar) than in the main
combustion chamber. This is to make sure that, after the pressure drop that occurs in the
turbines, the turbine exhaust gas still has a sufficiently high pressure to enter the main
combustion chamber. Because of the high pressure in the pre-burners, this requires an equally
high pressure for the pre-burner propellants. For the hydrogen this pressure is even higher (415
bar) because of pressure losses in the cooling ducts.
Each SSME has an engine controller based on a digital computer, which monitors the engine
parameters such as pressure and temperature fifty times every second and automatically adjusts
engine operation for the required thrust and constant mixture ratio. The system maintains a
record of engine operating history for maintenance purposes to ensure a flight-ready engine and
extend total engine life. Thrust magnitude control is achieved through mass flow control, which
in turn is controlled by the high-pressure pumps turbine mass flow. Thrust vector control is by
gimballing the thrust chamber, which allows for a maximum deflection of 11 degrees.

Each SSME has a mass of about 3170 kg and develops 1.608.000 N of thrust at sea level and
2.090.560 N in vacuum with a capability to throttle between 67%-109% of the nominal thrust.
The specific impulse at sea level is 363 sec and in vacuum 455,2 sec. The SSME is designed
for a large number of missions. It has a total lifetime of 7,5 hours, including 55 ignitions. Until
1994, all SSME’s together have been exposed to about 2000 starts and stops and 600.000
seconds of operation both on the ground and in flight. With the exception of 1 sensor failure
that caused early shutdown of one engine, the SSME has operated flawlessly in more than 60
Shuttle missions. With more than 180 engine missions (3 engines per mission), the
percentage of demonstrated SSME reliability is 0,999 and the three engine cluster is 0,994.
SSME unit cost is about 454 M$ (2000). In Table 1-1 some performances of the SSME are
summarised.

Presently, the SSME is being upgraded (block IIA) to incorporate a larger throat and to
reduce the number of components. The larger throat area should reduce wear of the engine
because of a lower operating pressure of maximum 207 bar. In addition, because of the larger
throat, the nozzle area ratio is reduced to 69:1, reducing vacuum specific impulse slightly to
452s. Engine mass does increase from 3170 to 3390 kg.

4
34 M$ (1992). Cost in year 2000 has been estimated using an inflation factor of 1.288.
7
HM60 Cryogenic Rocket Engine

The SEP5-developed HM60 cryogenic rocket engine or Vulcain [7] propels the first stage of the
core vehicle of the European developed Ariane 5 rocket launcher. This launcher is capable of
launching 20 tons in low Earth orbit or 9700 kg in geostationary transfer orbit and consists of a
two-staged core vehicle and two large solid rocket boosters.

The HM60 is a gimballed, gas-generator fed, single thrust chamber engine, see Figure 1.
Each second, about 255 kg (214,5 kg oxygen and 40,5 kg hydrogen) of propellant flows from
the propellant tanks to the engine through two 185
mm diameter lines. Approximately 244 kg/s flows
into the combustion chamber via the main injector at
a mixture ratio of 6,0. Combustion takes place at a
pressure of 105 bar, resulting in a combustion
temperature well in excess of 3000K. To allow
testing at sea level, the combustion chamber includes
a divergent part with an area ratio of 5,8:1. To
withstand the high temperature, the combustion
chamber is regeneratively cooled by most of the
hydrogen fuel. The rest (0,4 kg/s) is tapped off to
provide pressurisation of the hydrogen tank.
The hot exhaust gases are expelled through a bell-
type nozzle extension with an expansion ratio of 45
and a nozzle exit diameter slightly less than 1,76 m.
The nozzle is dump cooled by 5,3% (1,8 kg/s) of the
Figure 3: HM60 engine total hydrogen flow.

The feed assembly provides some 200 to 600 litres per second of liquid oxygen and
hydrogen. The high pressure needed for injection is supplied by two independent turbo-
pumps. The hydrogen pump operates at 33.200 rpm and provides 11,8 MW of power,
whereas the oxygen pump operates at 13.000 rpm, providing 3,7 MW of power. These turbo-
pumps are driven by hot gas from a common gas generator. This gas generator burns a
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen (mixture ratio of 0,9) at a combustion pressure of about 80
bar, giving a combustion temperature of 910 K. The
propellants needed for the gas generator are tapped off from
the main propellant supply lines, see figure 3 (Hydrogen in
red, oxygen in yellow and hot gas in blue). Total estimated
mass flow rate is 8,9 kg/s. Of this, approximately 4,7 kg/s is
hydrogen. The exhaust of the turbines also participates in the
propulsion process by expanding through two secondary
nozzles located on either side of the main nozzle. Since the
engine is of a gimballed design, the feed lines are equipped
with flexible joints.
Engine start-up is achieved by a solid gas generator (turbo-
pump starter), which generates a high-pressure hot gas stream
during a few seconds. This hot gas drives the turbines and
through the turbines the oxidiser and fuel pump. Control
valves are actuated to make sure that the propellants can flow
when the pumps are activated. Once the propellants start
Figure 4: HM60 flow
flowing, part of the propellants is tapped of and fed to the gas
schematic
generator, where they are mixed. Ignition of the gas mixture is
by a pyrotechnic system. Ignition of the gas mixture in the main chamber is obtained from a
pyrotechnic igniter situated in the centre of the injector.

5
SEP is now part of Snecma S.A., which in turn is part of the Snecma group.
8
Mixture ratio of the engine is controlled through the use of a hot-gas control valve, which
varies the power of the LOX turbo-pump turbine. Mass flow of the engine and mixture ratio of
the gas generator is controlled through the use of the injection/control valves of the gas
generator. The engine computer insures all the checking and control functions, using
transducers mounted on the engine and in the tanks. The control valves and the engine
gimballing systems are hydraulically actuated. A hydraulic pump driven from the LOX turbo-
pump shaft is used for all the hydraulic power needed on the stage. The other valves on the
engine are actuated from a helium pressure of 23 bar.

Early development of the HM60 started in the late 1970’s when studies made in Europe
concerning launch systems needed for the 1990’s, showed the necessity of developing a high-
thrust LOX/LH2 rocket engine. In 1978 the French Space Agency (CNES) and the Socièté
Européene de Propulsion (SEP) conducted preliminary studies of a 500kN thrust LOX/LH2
engine in order to evaluate the required technology effort. During the ‘79-80 period, a 800 kN
vacuum thrust HM60 engine emerged to power the second stage of a two-stage Ariane V
launcher concept. At that time, three engine cycles were considered, including the heat
exchanger cycle, staged combustion cycle, and gas generator cycle. These early studies resulted
in 1981 with the selection of the gas generator engine cycle with only a single set of turbo-
pumps driven by a single gas generator. The reasons for selecting this cycle were as follows:
• The heat exchanger cycle was found to provide insufficient thermal energy to drive the
turbines for a chamber pressure of 100 bar;
• The development cost for the staged combustion engine was found to be 25 % higher than
for the gas generator engine, and the production costs 20% higher
• Experience on the gas generator cycle was available from the HM7 third stage cryogenic
LOX/LH2 engine for Ariane I to IV, see later in this document. For the other two cycles no
experience was available.

Actual development of the HM60 started in 1984 as a joint venture between 12 European
countries (including The Netherlands) with more than 37 industrial companies involved under
supervision of ESA. At that time, the HM60 was already assigned to Ariane’s first stage and
up-rated to produce more than 1 MN of vacuum thrust. Initial plans called for the development
to be completed by 1991 to allow a first flight of the Ariane V in 1993-94. Due to some
technical difficulties, the latter date shifted to 1996 with total development costs of the HM60
engine of about $ 1.3 billion (1990). Since then, a total of 3 flights have been made in the
period until 1999.

Nominal characteristics of the HM60 (Vulcain-1) for a geostationary transfer orbit mission are
a vacuum thrust of 1075 kN, a vacuum specific impulse of 430 s, an overall oxidiser/fuel
mixture ratio of 5,3:1. Engine dry mass is 1700 kg, length is 3,00 m and maximum diameter is
1,76 m. In addition, one ignition in flight is possible and the engine is recoverable and reusable
for future recoverable launchers. Burn time is 580 s, depending on the mission. Engine
projected (mature) reliability is 0,9927.

Since 1995, Vulcain enhancements are being worked upon that should lead to a 2040 kg
Vulcain-2 version with a vacuum thrust level of 1,35 MN and a specific impulse of 434s.
Changes considered include a change in overall mixture ratio to 6,1, an increase in combustion
pressure to 115 bar, an increased expansion ratio of 58,5 with an enlarged nozzle exit diameter
of 2,15 m and instead of dumping the turbine exhaust gases overboard, they will be used to
cool part of the nozzle extension. The propellant supply comprises an improved high speed
liquid hydrogen pump (35.500 rpm) delivering 14 MW of power and a low speed liquid oxygen
pump (12.600 rpm) delivering 5 MW of power. First flight of this new improved version is
expected in 2002.

9
LE-7 Cryogenic engine

The LE-7 engine [10] propels the first stage of the core vehicle of Japan’s H-2 launch
vehicle. The H-2 vehicle is developed by Japan’s National Space Development Agency
(NASDA) and consists of the core vehicle with two large (1,5 MN) solid rocket boosters
attached to it. The 256 ton H-2 is capable of placing a 2,2 ton payload into a geo-stationary
orbit or a 4 ton payload into geo-stationary transfer orbit.

The LE-7 is a gimballed, staged combustion cycle cryogenic engine.

Liquid oxygen and hydrogen are combusted in the combustion
chamber at a mixture ratio of 6,0 and a pressure of 147 bar.
Expansion of the hot combustion gases is through a bell-type nozzle
extension with a nozzle exit diameter of 1,90 m and a 60:1
(geometric) expansion ratio. Total mass flow is estimated at 246,5
kg/s. Before combustion in the main combustion chamber, the
propellants are first partially burned in a pre-burner at a fuel-rich
mixture ratio of 0,81 (25,6 kg/s liquid oxygen and 31,6 kg/s liquid
hydrogen) and a pressure of 240 bar giving a temperature of about
970 K. From the pre-burner, the gases are routed to drive the turbo-
pumps and then combined with more oxygen in the main
combustion chamber to burn. Cooling of the thrust chamber is
Figure 5: LE-7 through regenerative cooling using hydrogen fuel as the coolant.
engine After cooling, part of the gaseous fuel is led to the pre-burner to
burn with part of the total oxygen flow and part is used to
pressurise the hydrogen propellant tank. Helium is used to pressurise the oxygen tank.
Feeding of the propellant to the engine is by turbopumps. The liquid hydrogen pump has a
discharge pressure of about 319 bar at a flow rate of 40 kg/s. Rotational speed of the pump is
46000 rpm and shaft power is 24 MW. The oxygen pump has two outlets and provides the
oxygen for the pre-burner as well as the oxygen that directly goes to the main combustion
chamber. Discharge pressure is 327 and 213 bar respectively. Pump rotational speed is 20000
rpm and shaft power is about 6,5 MW.
The LE-7 is mounted at the centre of a crossbeam structure at the rear end of the engine
section, Gimballing of the engine is accomplished through an hydraulic actuator system.
Start-up of the LE-7 occurs with the propellant fed to the engine by tank pressure. Ignition is
by an oxygen/hydrogen igniter which is initiated by an electrical exciter. Total mixture ratio
of the main chamber igniter is 6,0 and total mass flow rate is 1,34 kg/s, which is about 0,5%
of the main chamber mass flow rate.

Development of the LE-7 by Mitsubishi for NASDA was authorised in 1985. A total of two
engineering model engines and as much as 7 prototype engines were planned. With these
engines, 146 firings and a total of 3986 sec of burn time had been conducted as of the end of
May 1991 including two full duration test firings. Development cost of the LE-7, originally
budgeted at about 593 M$, is 781 M$ (1991). This increase is attributed to technical
difficulties related to miss-timing of engine start up early in the development program (early
90’s). The development program ended with the first flight in 1994. In the period until 1998,
5 more flights have been conducted.

The LE-7 produces a vacuum thrust of 1078 kN and has a vacuum specific impulse of 446
sec (4405 Nsec/kg). Sea level thrust is 910 kN. The engine can be gimballed ±7°. It has a
single start capability and a mission duty cycle of 346 sec. Engine mass is 1714 kg giving a
vacuum thrust to mass ratio of about 64. The engine has a total length of 3,4 m and a
maximum diameter of 1,90 m. Engine life is in excess of 2000 sec or 20 starts.

10
RD-170/171 and RD180

The Russian RD-170/1716 engine, designed by Glushko, is the world’s most powerful multi-
chamber rocket engine ever flown. It is used to power the first stage of the two stage Russian
Zenit (SL-16) rocket and the four strap-on boosters of the Russian Energiya (SL-17)
launcher. A development two-chamber version referred to as RD-180 has been selected for
use by the Lockheed Martin Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) family, Atlas III
and Sea Launch vehicle boosters.

The RD-170 [12,14] is a staged combustion

cycle, multi-chamber, rocket engine burning
oxygen and kerosene as propellants. It is made
up of 4 thrust chambers with a single pre-burner,
see figure. Each of the 4 thrust chambers consists
of a combustion chamber, injector, and nozzle
and is mounted on a two-axis gimbal system
allowing for pitch and yaw control. Thrust
chamber length is 2,26 m and the combustion
chamber internal diameter is 0,38 m. Nozzle
expansion ratio is 36,9 and the nozzle exit
diameter is 1.43 m. Combustion pressure and
temperature is 250 bar and 3676 K, respectively.
The thrust chambers are regeneratively cooled to
cope with the high combustion temperature. All
Figure 6: RD-170 engine the kerosene fuel is used to cool the nozzle and
combustion chamber before entering through the
injector. The feed system consists of both high and low-pressure propellant pumps. The high-
pressure fuel and oxidiser pumps are driven by a single axis turbine, which is driven by the
high-pressure (300 bar) hot (675K) pre-burner exhaust. A hydraulic turbine driven with
kerosene supplied by the main (high-pressure) fuel pump drives the low-pressure fuel pump.
The low-pressure oxidiser pump is driven with the oxygen-rich pre-burner gas supplied
downstream of the high-pressure turbo-pump unit.

RD-170/171 development by the Russian Gas Dynamics Laboratory (currently NPO

Energomash Design Bureau) started in 1974 with a first flight in 1985 (sub-orbital on Zenit).
Since that time, the RD-170/171 has developed as a very reliable system with a reliability of
0,999 for one time use. More than 804 engine flight tests with an accumulated duration of
93300 s have been conducted. Also 22 engines have been flight tested during the Zenit and
Energiya flights. The engines are manufactured in batches of five: one is tested through 3 life
cycles and is subsequently disassembled and inspected, and the other four go through a
single acceptance test. Acceptance checkout is accomplished through check firing of each
flight unit. In 1993, NPO, in partnership with Pratt & Whitney Space Propulsion, started
development on a two-thrust-chamber RD-170 derivative referred to as RD-180. It shares
many (about 80%) components with the RD-170, with only a new main turbo-pump and
boost pumps. Development took about 42 months with a first firing in the USA in July 1998.

The RD-170/171 burns liquid oxygen and kerosene at an oxidiser to fuel mass ratio of 2,63.
Total vacuum thrust is 7,91 MN (7,26 MN at sea level) with a throttle range from 100%-
56%. Vacuum specific impulse is 336-337 s and at sea level 306-309 s. Burn time is 140-150
s. Each chamber can be gimballed over ±8º along either one (RD-170) or two different axes
(RD-171). The RD-170/171 is produced both as an expendable and reusable unit; the latter
version can make up to 17 flights. Overall engine diameter and length is 4 m and 3,78 m
respectively. Engine mass is 9750 kg. Details of the RD-180 are given in Table 1-1.

6
RD stands for Raketnay Dvigatel, which translates into rocket motor.
11
RS-68

The Rocketdyne RS-68 engine [20] is the first major US engine to emerge from a "blank
piece of paper" since the introduction of the Space Shuttle Main Engine in 1971. The RS-68
is intended for use on the first stage of the Delta IV medium plus launcher family7, which
consists of a core vehicle with 2-4 solid rocket motors for a GTO payload between 4,7-6,7
tons.

The RS-68 is a liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen booster engine. The RS-68 is a single
chamber, gas-generator cycle engine. Its thrust chamber consists of the main injector, the
combustion chamber and a nozzle and connects to a thrust
frame residing in the top half of the engine. This thrust frame
serves as structural support and transmits the loads from the
thrust chamber to the vehicle. The combustion chamber is of
a regenerative design using liquid hydrogen fuel as the
coolant. Combustion chamber pressure is about 96 bar at
100% thrust (or 58 bar at 60% thrust). The nozzle is a four
piece ablative bell-type nozzle using the same technology as
used for the nozzle of the Space shuttle solid rocket booster.
It has a nozzle expansion ratio of 21,5:1.
The RS-68 uses a basic gas generator cycle, with gas
generator discharges used to drive the turbo-pumps. The rest
of the propellant then ends up in the main injector. There are
two turbine exhaust appendages. One is used to route gas
through a nozzle for roll control. The second is an exhaust
coming out of the LOX turbo-pump; it passes through a heat exchanger and then goes
overboard. Gaseous oxygen is provided to pressurise the
Figure 7: RS-68 liquid oxygen tank. The turbo-machinery is mounted on the
thrust frame, along with the gas generator.

Primary development of the RS-68 started mid-1995. Design emphasis has been on
simplicity and ease of fabrication, e.g. by reducing the number of components used, instead
of high performance. Component testing started as early as November 1996. At that time, a
first full-scale main injector was hot-fire tested - the same injector that's on the first
assembled engine - along with a representative section of the combustion chamber at almost
full thrust. More recently, a comprehensive series of gas generator tests has been conducted.
Already in January 1998, only 28 months after the start of the detailed design, an entire
engine has been assembled and a first 100% power level test achieved, thereby bringing the
total accumulated test duration at 300 seconds. Total development cost until that time being
$54 million compared to about $700 million for the SSME. Following prototype testing,
engineering and manufacturing development is planned, ending with a critical design review.
At that point, the flight design will be "frozen" and the full-scale development program will
be underway. Two certification engines will be built and one for use in a full-upstage test
series with the common booster core in early 2000. Then the engine will be certified for
flight. The intent is to run about 300 tests, a cumulative 30,000 seconds. First flight of the
RS-68 engine on a Delta IV is planned for 2001.

Preliminary performance data of the RS-68 indicates a sea level thrust of 2,89 MN (vacuum
thrust level of 3,31 MN) and a sea level specific impulse of 365 sec (versus 410 sec in
vacuum). Thrust chamber mixture ratio is 6,0. Throttling capability is 60%-100%. Engine
mass is 6597 kg and engine height is 5,18 m.

7
This launcher family is under development by Boeing’s Space & Communications group.
12
Production planning aims at an initial production rate of 30 engines per year, which can grow
to 40 engines per year after 2003. Rocketdyne plans call for a total number of 600-800
engines until 2020. These engines will all be hot-fire tested at a test stand for acceptance.

13
RS-2200 Linear Aerospike Engine

The RS-2200 Linear Aerospike Engine [15] is considered by Rocketdyne for use on the
Lockheed Martin VentureStar. To this end, an eXperimental (XRS-2200) version is currently
being developed by Rocketdyne for use on the Lockheed Martin X-33 advanced technology
demonstrator vehicle.

The XRS-2200 is a reduced scale linear aerospike engine

which burns oxygen and hydrogen in the mass mixture ratio
of 5,5. Combustion and intial expansion takes place in a
linear array of small thrust chambers assembled around the
base of a central truncated (shortened) linear spike.
Thereafter, a linear aerospike nozzle takes over, where the
hot gas expands along the spike on one side and into free air
on the other side. This allows for a much higher degree of
Figure 8: XRS-2000 overexpansion than for a conventional nozzle without the risk
of flow separation. Total (calculated) mass flow is about 277
kg/s of which about 43 kg/s hydrogen and 234 kg/s oxygen. Combustion takes place at a
pressure of 58,8 bar and initial expansion is up to a nozzle area ratio of 58. Propellant supply
is by turbopumps that receive their energy from a gas generator derived from the Saturn J-2
upper stage engine. The gas generator exhaust gases are used to fill up the base at the engine.
The engine structure is integral to the vehicle, offering installed weight benefits.. One-axis
vectoring is accomplished by running the top and bottom nozzles at different thrusts. This is
used for pitch and roll control during flight. Throttling between engines is used for yaw
control. The advantage of this concept is a reduction of engine mass, because there is no need
for mechanical gimbals. On the other hand, major re-design is necessary when using another
vehicle.
Ignition of the thrust cells is accomplished by a combustion wave ignition system (CWIS).
Pilot fuel and oxidizer propellants are distributed to the thrust cells and ignited using a
combustion wave. The ignited pilots then provide the ignition source for the thrust cells. This
method uses a pressurized ground helium supply to spin-start the turbopumps and initiates
the flow of pressurized propellants to the Gas Generator (GG) and thrust cells. Then a spark
ignition system ignites the GG and CWIS.

Up to date, over $500 million has been invested in linear and annular aerospike engines and
previous full-size (125.000 lbf and 250.000 lbf) versions of the engine have accumulated 73
tests and over 4000 s of operation. In the beginning of 2000 the longest test run at 100%
power to date was set at 125 seconds. The test also marked the first demonstration of plus or
minus 15% thrust vector control. The test also demonstrated engine operation at varied
power levels and tested different mixture ratios.

XRS-2200 nominal performances are a vacuum thrust of 1,2 MN and specific impulse of
428,2 s. At sea level these values are 0,9 MN (205.000 lbf) and 338,3 s, respectively. Engine
length is 2,286 m and height is 3,40 m. The width of the engine is also 2,286 m. Thrust-to-
weight ratio is about 35.
For the full size RS-2200, using new materials and a much higher chamber pressure of about
155 bar, the figures in vacuum are a thrust of 2,2 MN and a specific impulse of 455 s and at
sea level 1,9 MN and 347 s. Thrust-to-weight ratio (based on vacuum thrust) is expected to
be 84, which leads to an engine mass of 2670 kg.

14
2. Engines for moderate total impulse launcher missions
This Chapter aims to provide an overview of some key engines for moderate total impulse
space launcher missions with total impulse ranging from 10-50 MNs and thrust levels from
50 to 150 kN. Typical such engines are used for upper (second, third and sometimes even
fourth) stage propulsion.

Attention for moderate total impulse engines for launcher applications is on high gravimetric
specific impulse rather than high volumetric specific impulse. This is, because these engines
operate at altitudes, where drag losses are not as important as for the first stage and booster
engines discussed in the foregoing section. High specific impulse, like for high total impulse
engines, is achieved by the selection of oxygen-hydrogen as the propellant combination and
the use of a pump-fed feed system. However, since total impulse level are not as extreme as
for first stage and booster applications and to allow for a less complex (more reliable)
starting procedure with the possibility of engine restart, currently engine working pressure is
much more moderate (in the range of about 30-60 bar) and the complexity of the feed cycle
is limited to the gas generator or the bleed/expander cycle. Typical vacuum specific impulse
and propellant density levels for these engines are in the range of 410-450 s and 310-370 kg/m3.

In the next sections, the detailed workings of a number of moderate total impulse engines is
given including the European HM7 and the more recent VINCI engine, the Japanese LE-5,
and various versions of the US RL10. The performances of these engines are summarised in
Table 2-1 on the next page.

15
Table 2-1: Performance data of some typical liquid rocket engines for moderate total impulse missions
HM7A HM7B VINCI LE-5 LE-5A RL10 RL10A-3-3A RL10A-4N
Engine cycle Gas generator Gas generator Expander Gas generator Expander Expander Expander Expander
Propellants LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2
Vacuum thrust (kN) 61,6 62,2 155 100 121.5 66,7 73,4 88,9
Vacuum specific impulse (s) 441,4 444,6 464 442 452 412 444,4 448,9
Overall mixture ratio (-) 4,43 4,56 5,8 5,5/5,6 5,0 5,0 5,5
3 311 317 365 354/357 333 333 354
Propellant density (kg/m )
Total mass flow rate (kg/s) 14,2 14,4 33,8 23,1 26,9 16,8
Length (m) 1,81 2,01 4,2 2,65 2,65 1,78
Maximum diameter (m) 0,938 0,992 2,1 1,65 1,65 0,9 1,65
Life span (s)
Mission duty cycle (s) 570 735 370 (332+21) 320+230 482 600 740
Dry mass (kg) 149 155 480 255 245 131 140,5 168
Thrust/weight ratio (-) 42,2 40,9 32,9 40,0 50,6 51,9 54,2 54,0
Restartable (yes/no) No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes
st 1979 1983 2005 1986 1994 1961 1984 1991
1 flight (yr)
Development cost (M$) 108
Development period (yr) 7 6 10
1) Estimated density. See for density values annex B.

16
HM7 engine

The HM7 cryogenic engine [2, 21] powers the third stage of the Ariane 1-4 launch vehicles.
These vehicles are capable of delivering payload masses of up to 4200 kg into geo-stationary
transfer orbit or 7000 kg in to low-Earth-orbit (Ariane 44L).

The HM7 is a single thrust chamber, cryogenic, gas-generator cycle engine. It generates thrust
by the high-speed ejection of gases that are produced by the combustion of LOX and LH2 at a
mixture ratio of 5,14 and a pressure of about 36 bar. These hot gases are accelerated in a bell-
shaped nozzle with an exit diameter of 0,992 m.
Propellant supply is ensured by a two-shaft turbo-pump, which comprises:
• A high speed liquid hydrogen pump (60.500 rpm), driven
directly by a turbine, that boosts hydrogen pressure from 3 to
55 bar;
• And a low speed liquid oxygen pump (13.000 rpm), driven
through a gearbox, to boost LOX pressure from 2 to 50 bar.
Turbine power is 380 kW, which is delivered by hot
combustion gases produced in a gas generator. This gas
generator burns LOX and LH2 at a rate of 0,25 kg/s at a
mixture ratio of 0,87 tapped of at the pump outlets. The
mixture burned in the gas generator is hydrogen-rich, which
limits gas temperature (800-900 K) and keeps the combustion
gases reducing instead of oxidising, thus protecting the turbine
blades. After driving the turbopumps, the drive gases are
exhausted over board through a separate nozzle. Propellant
Figure 9: HM7B supply to the combustion chamber is controlled by pneumatic
injection valves, which are operated by electrovalves.

A regenerative cooling system is used for the

combustion chamber and throat assembly; i.e. most of
the liquid hydrogen flow is routed through channels in
the combustion chamber wall where it is heated to a
temperature of 150 K. About 0,15 kg/s of hydrogen is
used for nozzle dump cooling where they escape
through 242 micronozzles (1 for each cooling tube) for
improved specific impulse purposes.
To start the engine, a solid propellant turbo-pump
starter is used to activate the turbine. Upon activation
of the turbine, the propellants start to flow to the thrust
chamber. Ignition of the main chamber is insured by a
pyrotechnic igniter that brings the propellants to a
temperature of 1000K within a very short time (50
milliseconds). Ignition of the gas generator is also by Figure 10: HM7B Flow schematic
pyrotechnic igniter.

Development of the HM7 engine by SEP (part of Snecma S.A.) started in 1973. The
development set out based in part on the knowledge gained with the 40 kN thrust HM4 engine
developed and tested from 1962-1969. Flight qualification of the very first HM7 version took
place in 1979. This was followed in 1983 with the qualification of the HM7B, which differed
from the initial HM7 in a slightly improved specific impulse, due to a slight change in mixture
ratio and a 165 seconds longer mission duty cycle.
By the end of the qualification program for the HM7 engine, prior to the second flight, 15
engines have accumulated a total of 16.000 sec. of operation in 150 separate tests. As of June
1995, 111 HM7 engines have been built, with a cumulated total of nearly 175.000 seconds of
operation, including 47.000 seconds in flight.

17
The HM7 model has been introduced on Ariane 1 in 1979, but subsequent launcher versions
have utilised the HM7B, offering a 265 s longer burn duration. The HM7B produces a vacuum
thrust of 62,2 kN. Its vacuum specific impulse is 444,6 sec. Overall mass flow rate is 14,29 kg/s
and includes 2,56 kg/s of liquid hydrogen and 11,72 kg/s of oxygen giving an overall mixture
ratio of 4,56. Engine length is 2,013 m and maximum diameter is 0,992m. Engine mass is 155
kg. The engine can be gimballed.

18
VINCI engine

In May 1999, at a meeting of the European space ministers the development green light was
given for the VINCI engine [22]. This engine is intended to power the upper stage of Ariane 5
starting in 2005. It will give Ariane 5 a geo-stationary transfer orbit payload capacity of 11000
kg.

The VINCI engine is a single chamber, expander type,

closed-cycle engine. The engine burns 28,5 kg liquid oxygen
and 4,5 kg liquid hydrogen per second at a pressure of about
60 bar. Mass mixture ratio of the propellants is 5,8.
Acceleration of the hot combustion gases takes place in an
extendable nozzle8 with a maximum nozzle exit diameter of
2,10 m and a nozzle area ratio of 280:1. The upper part of the
nozzle is regeneratively cooled. The lower part is made of
composite material and is radiatively cooled.
Propellant supply is ensured by two turbopumps that are
driven in series (hydrogen pump first) by the hydrogen
coolant heated by thermal exchange through the walls of the
combustion chamber (expander cycle). Pump characteristics
are:
• A high speed liquid hydrogen pump (85.000 rpm)
developing 1,8 MW of power to ensure a hydrogen mass
flow to the combustion chamber of 5 kg/s;
• A low speed liquid oxygen pump (18.000 rpm)
developing 0,3 MW of power for an oxygen mass flow to the
Figure 11: VINCI engine combustion chamber of 28,8 kg/s.
The oxidiser is injected directly from the turbopump into the
chamber. The hydrogen fuel is first used to cool the nozzle
and to drive the turbopumps. Two valves control propellant supply to the combustion chamber,
while two other turbine valves regulate turbine power, which in turn regulates mixture ratio
(variable from 5,5-6,5) and thrust. The engine will be 5 times restartable and will have a spark-
torch igniter.

Development green light for the VINCI engine was given at the meeting of European space
ministers in May 1999. Prime contractor of the program is SNECMA, who leads a team of
European companies. Development work will benefit from SEP’s work on the Veda
demonstration programme. First test firings are planned for 2001 with a first flight in 2005.

Preliminary performance figures for the VINCI engine indicate a vacuum thrust of 155 kN
(with the possibility of operating at a reduced thrust level of about 100 kN) and a vacuum
specific impulse of 464 s (nozzle in fully extended position). Overall mixture ratio is 5,8. The
engine has a re-start capability in flight. Length and maximum diameter of the engine are 4,20
m and 2,10 m (nozzle in extended position), respectively. Engine mass is 480 kg.

8
The nozzle has been made extendable to limit the dimensions of the stage 1-2 interstage.
19
LE-5/5A

The LE-5 engine [2, 23, 24] has been developed as a second stage engine of the Japanese H1
rocket launcher. A slightly modified version (LE-5A) currently propels the second stage of
the successor of the H1, the H2 rocket launcher. As such, it has a restart capability that
allows for two separate firings of the engine. The first firing generates speed and then the
engine is shut down temporarily before being relit at high altitude, again generating speed.
As the timing of both first and second firings may be freely selected, the LE-5A offers more
flexibility in the choice of trajectory and orbit than non-restartable engines.

The LE-5 is a multi-start, single chamber,

pump-fed, gas generator cycle, cryogenic
engine, which burns liquid oxygen and
hydrogen at a pressure of about 35 bar. The
thrust chamber assembly consists of a
combustion chamber and a nozzle extension.
The Niobium 200 combustion chamber has a
characteristic length of 84 cm and is
regeneratively cooled by the hydrogen fuel.
The expansion ratio of the chamber is 8,48 so
that it can be ground tested at sea level
conditions without flow separation in the
nozzle. The 70 kg nozzle (extension) is
designed as a truncated bell nozzle with an
expansion ratio of 140. It is made of austenitic
stainless steel and is dumb cooled by the
hydrogen fuel. A torch igniter, burning 22 g/s
gaseous oxygen and hydrogen at a mixture ratio
of 1, ensures proper ignition of the combustion
in the main combustion chamber.
The feed assembly consists of a separate fuel
pump and an oxidiser pump, both driven by a
turbine, valves, a gas generator with igniter and
a control box and an auxiliary turbine for the
gimbal system. Propellant supply is ensured by
Figure 12: LE-5A engine two turbopumps. The turbines are driven in
series by combustion gases, which are produced
in a gas generator burning LOX and LH2 at a nominal mixture ratio of 0,85 and a pressure of 26
bar. The LOX and LH2 are tapped of at the pump outlets. Ignition is like for the main chamber
by a gaseous oxygen-hydrogen igniter. The relatively cool turbine exhaust gases are injected
back into the nozzle near the end to add to the cooling of the nozzle.
To start up the engine, it uses a “coolant bleed” or “expander bleed” start, wherein gaseous
coolant with a temperature of about 140 K drives the two turbopumps in series. The gaseous
coolant is tapped of downstream of the main chamber regenerative cooling jacket and results
from cooling of the main chamber during the initial combustion phase. In this phase, tank
pressure fed propellants burn in the main combustion chamber. Only after reaching a pre-
programmed thrust level, the gas generator is ignited and the engine progresses to a steady
gas generator cycle.
The LE-5A engine is about equal to the LE-5 except that the gas generator cycle based feed
system has been replaced by a hydrogen bleed system, where hot coolant gases drive the
turbines. To ensure sufficient energy in the coolant flow, it is tapped off from a point close to
the nozzle exit where the coolant attains a temperature of about 1000 K. This design change
led to a reduction in mass of about 10 kg and a somewhat higher chamber pressure of 38.5
bar compared to the 35 bar of the LE-5. A second change incorporated is a slightly bigger

20
throat area to allow a higher mass flow rate, without increasing the chamber pressure too
much.

Development of the LE5 was initiated in 1976 and took about 10 years with a first flight of
an LE5 on 13 August 1986. Development included 3 prototype and 5 flight type engines, and
3 engines for qualification. During development over 480 hot starts and 32000s of total
operation time were achieved. Total development costs have been reported to amount to
$108 million (1986).

The major performances of the LE 5 engine are a vacuum thrust of 100 kN and
corresponding specific impulse of 452 s. Engine mass is 255 kg, length is 2,65 m and a
largest diameter of 1,65 m, expansion ratio is 140 and a combustion pressure of 36,8 bar and
a mixture ratio of 5.5. In addition, the engine has a multi-start capability.
Major performances of the LE-5A engine show a slightly higher thrust (121,5 kN). In
addition, because of the removal of the gas generator, the specific impulse has increased with
about 10s even though the expansion ratio has decreased somewhat by an increased throat
diameter.

21
RL10A

Pratt & Whitney’s RL10A [18-19]was the first operational liquid oxygen/hydrogen engine in
the world. It fired for the first time in 1959 with a first flight in 1963. Current versions of the
engine are used on the Centaur stages in both the Atlas and Titan 4 programs. Future use is
foreseen for Atlas 2A and 2AS and possibly even future advanced (re-usable) launchers.

The RL10A is a pump-fed, expander cycle, rocket engine burning

liquid oxygen and hydrogen at a pressure of 32,2 bar (20,4 bar for
the original RL10A and 32,2 for the current RL10A-3-3A
version). Engine start-up is by using an igniter. The 3-3A thrust
chamber assembly consists of a regeneratively cooled
combustion chamber and a Columbium nozzle extension with an
exit diameter of 1,65 m. The nozzle expansion ratio is 61. The
thrust chamber is cooled by the LH2 fuel, which flows from the
propellant tanks to the thrust chamber walls. On its way, the LH2
fuel heats up and gasifies. This gaseous fuel is then used to drive
the propellant pumps. The feed assembly consists of a separate
fuel and oxidiser pump, valves, and an engine control unit. Both
pumps are driven by a single turbine, which in turn is driven by
the expanding (hence expander cycle) gaseous fuel that results
from the cooling of the engine. A gearbox reduces the speed of
the oxidiser pump.
Figure 13: RL10 engine
By end 1989, 176 RL10’s of all types had flown in space, accumulating 286 firings with a
total of more than 20 hrs of operation, without a single failure. Further orders called for a
total of 134 engines for the Atlas and Titan 4 programs.
In 1990 Pratt &Whitney started on a 4N version for the Atlas 2A launcher. This version
provides a higher vacuum thrust of up to 88,9 kN with 448,9 s specific impulse at a mixture
ratio of 5,5. This is accomplished by increasing the chamber pressure up to 38,4 bar and by
incorporating an extending nozzle, which increases the nozzle area ratio from 61 to 84. In
addition, a multi-start capability has been incorporated allowing insertion of satellites into
their final orbit.
In 1992, development of an A-5 version for use on a third scale model of a future vertical
take-off and landing single stage to orbit launcher has been initiated. This version will be
throttle able from 30% - 100% and have an extendable nozzle allowing low altitude
operation as well as high-altitude operation like the original A-3 version. At the lower thrust
rating, the sea level specific impulse would be 380,5 sec and the chamber pressure 9,8 bar.
The values for 100% thrust are 373 s and 32,8 bar chamber pressure. Without extension, the
engine has a nozzle expansion ratio of 4,28 and a length of 1,07 m. Engine mass with nozzle
extension is 143 kg, only about 2,5 kg heavier than the 3A version.

The original RL10A (RL10A-1) generated 66,7 kN vacuum thrust with 412 s specific
impulse. The current version (RL10A-3A) generates 73,4 kN with 444,4 sec specific
impulse. Engine dry mass is 140,5 kg, length is 1,78 m and largest diameter 1,65m and the
oxidiser-to-fuel mass mixture ratio is 5.

22
3. Engines for low total impulse launcher missions
Low total impulse launcher systems provide the total impulse needed to perform orbit
insertion, orbit transfer from low Earth orbit to a higher orbit (for example geostationary Earth
orbit), orbit rendezvous and de-orbit of spacecraft. Typical characteristics for such applications
are a total impulse level of about 1 MNs up to about 10-15 MNs, the need to operate after
having spent some time in space and intermittent propulsion.

In view of the above considerations, most low total impulse engines are of a pressure-fed
design, using an earth storable, hypergolic9, bipropellant. Pressure feeding offers the
advantage of a relatively simple feed system, which makes them low cost and very reliable,
compared to pump-fed engines. A disadvantage though is that inlet feed pressures are limited
to fairly modest levels (up to 22-25 bar) in order to limit tank pressure and to ensure
sufficient tank life. This leads to a less compact engine. To reduce the storage volume required
for the pressurant, it is stored in a separate tank at an initial storage pressure of up to about 350
bar. When operating, a pressure regulator regulates the pressure down to a level acceptable for
the engine and ensures a constant feed pressure (regulated pressure feed system).

Recently, a start has been made to develop a pump-fed unit for such applications. This way,
we have the benefit of a higher specific impulse and a smaller engine envelope, but at the
expense of higher engine cost and reduced reliability; the latter due to a more complex
engine and engine start-up. The future should indicate whether such engines are really viable
for these applications or not.

In the next sections, the detailed workings of a number of low total impulse engines is given
including the Ariane 5 Aestus engine, the Space Shuttle OMS, the Aerojet AJ10-118K and
the European ATE engine. The first three engines are all pressure-fed, whereas the latter is of
a pump-fed design. The performances of these engines are summarized in Table 3-1.

9
Self-igniting.
23
Table 3-1: Performance data of some LRE’s for low total impulse missions
OMS Aestus (L7) Aestus II RS-72 ATE AJ10-118K
Fuel/oxidiser MMH/NTO MMH/NTO MMH/NTO MMH/NTO MMH/NTO A-50/NTO
Cycle Pressure-fed Pressure-fed Pump-fed Pump-fed Pump-fed Pressure-fed
Thrust (kN) 26,7 27,5 46 55,4 20 43,4
Throttling capability (%) No No No 90-100 -
Thrust Vector Control (deg) ± 6º pitch ± 4º ± 6º ± 6º ± 15º Fixed
± 7º yaw
Specific impulse (s) 316 320 337,5 338 345 320,5
Overall mixture ratio (-) 1,65 2,0 2,05 2,05 2,0 1,9
Propellant density (kg/m3) 1141 1189 1189 1189 1189
Max. single burn time (s) 1250 1100 3600? 500
Cumulative life span 15 hrs 100 min See above
Number of missions >100 5 1 1
Number of starts/mission 10 20 Multiple Multiple >10 31
Engine mass (kg) 118 110 148 154 74,2/57,9 124,5
Thrust/weight ratio (-) 23,3 25,5 31,7 36,6 27,4/35,2 35,5
Overall length (m) 1,956 2,2 2,2 2,286 >1,4 2,7
Maximum diameter (m) 1,168 1,27 0,38 1,53
Production cost 2000 (M$) 1,6 >3,5
1) On Transtage, the engine restarts minimum 3 times, but essentially the number of restarts is unlimited.

24
Aestus 27,5 kN engine

The Aestus 27,5 kN [2, 25] engine is a storable bipropellant medium thrust class rocket engine
used on Ariane 5’s L7/9.7 upper stage.

The Aestus engine uses the earth-storable hypergolic propellant

combination of NTO and MMH, which are burned at a pressure
of 10 bar. It uses MMH regenerative chamber cooling to an
area ratio of 10:1. The nozzle is radiation cooled and has an
area ratio of 83,3:1 with a nozzle exit diameter of 1270 mm.
Maximum nozzle wall temperature does not exceed 1400 K,
whereas, the combustion chamber wall temperature remains
below 750K. The engine is of a pressure-fed design and
operates in the regulated mode for the largest part of its
mission. Nominal oxidiser and fuel mass flow rate is 5,89 and
2,87 kg/s, respectively. The engine assembly is gimballed by
pitch and yaw electromechanical actuators attached by struts at
the combustion chamber and at the stage propellant tank.
Engine control is by two hydraulic valves, each activated by an
electrically controlled pilot valve. These pilot valves in turn are
controlled from a control box. Engine instrumentation provides
Figure 14: Aestus engine
the necessary inputs for the control box.

Development of the Aestus engine by MBB (now DaimlerChrysler Aerospace) started in 1986.
Up to now, a total of three development engines and 5 qualification engines have been
produced. Qualification testing has included performance mapping, vacuum starts, operating
limits, stability, life cycle, life duration, blow down capability, abnormal operating,
environmental, propellant valve and gimbal tests. For this more than 800 firings with a total
burn time of 6000 s have been conducted. Recently, DaimlerChrysler, has teamed with Boeing
Rocketdyne to develop the Aestus II as part of the Perfo 2000 program, see entry on Aestus II.

The baseline L7 version of the Aestus engine develops a nominal vacuum thrust of 27,50 kN.
Specific impulse is 320s at a nominal oxidiser to fuel mixture ratio of 2,05. Engine mass is
110 kg and it fits in a envelope with a length of 2,2 m and a diameter of 1,27 m. Maximum
gimbal capability in both pitch and yaw direction is 8º of which 4º during operation and 4º by
mechanical adjustment. The engine is designed for 20 starts and 6000 sec of cumulative
firing duration. During the last 100 seconds of the mission, the engine is operated in a blow-
down mode10, where the chamber pressure is reduced by 15% at engine cut-off. After each
firing, MMH passages downstream the engine valve is purged with regulated helium
delivered by the propulsion subsystem’s helium pressurisation system.

European Advanced Technology Engine

In 1986, ESA identified the need for an advanced high performance 20 kN rocket engine
intended for use as both an upper stage engine for Ariane 5 (to replace the original L5 Aestus
engine) and in an orbital propulsion module. This engine is commonly referred to as the
European Advanced Technology Engine or ATE [26]. Two thrust chamber versions are
under study, a conventional metallic one and a ceramic one.

10
In blow down mode, the engine is operated purely on the pressurant that is left in the
propellant tank (pressurant is no longer added). In that case, the feed pressure will drop as the
propellant tank gets depleted. This is due to the larger volume available for the pressurant. In
that case also mass flow will change and because the effects differ for fuel and oxidiser, one
must reckon with a change in mixture ratio.
25
The ATE is a gimballed pump-fed bipropellant unit. The thrust chamber assembly consists of
the combustion chamber with an injector and a nozzle extension (expansion cone) and a
gimbal. It uses MMH regenerative chamber cooling to an area ratio of 10:1. The nozzle has an
area ratio of 81:1 and is radiation cooled. The propellants are burned at a nominal oxidiser to
fuel mixture ratio of 2,0 and a pressure of 10 bar. The engine assembly is gimballed by pitch
and yaw electromechanical actuators attached by struts at the combustion chamber and at the
stage propellant tank.

The feed system consists of a precombustor, a single shaft turbo-pump, and a control system.
An oxidiser-rich precombustor has been selected to produce the hot gas needed to drive the
turbo-pump. The turbo-pump is a single-axis design, with oxidiser and fuel pumps at each shaft
end and a turbine driving the axis in the middle. A low turbine entry temperature of 779 K,
compared to a maximum turbine blade temperature of 1079 K, has been selected to keep the
turbine expansion ratio low and to avoid excessive pump delivery pressure. Starting the turbine
is by helium until 24000 rpm is achieved. Shaft power is about 110-180 kW, depending on the
type of turbine used. The engine control system provides a reliable start and shutdown
sequence, stable operation and health monitoring of the engine.

The ATE develops a vacuum thrust of 20 kN using an earth-storable hypergolic propellant

combination of MON-3 (Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen) and MMH. The nozzle has an area ratio
of 81:1 and is radiation cooled. The propellants are burned at a nominal oxidiser to fuel
mixture ratio of 2,0 and a pressure of 90 bar.

Fiat, Royal Ordnance and Volvo (Sweden) have performed initial studies for ESA. These
studies indicate that the engine could be developed in about 8 years at a cost of 340 M$
(2000). Production costs are estimated at 1,611 M$ (2000).

Aestus II 46 kN engine

As part of the Ariane 5 performance improvement program, DaimlerChrysler, who

manufactures the Aestus engine has teamed up with Boeing Rocketdyne to develop the
Aestus II.

The prime modification of the engine is the elimination of the pressure feeding of the
baseline engine in favor of a gas generator driven turpopump allowing much higher chamber
pressures (50 bar instead of 10 bar for the original Aestus engine). The Aestus II engine will
also feature a 280:1 area ratio nozzle instead of the original 83:1. To keep engine size
limited, the throat area will be reduced with about a factor 2. These modifications will
significantly increase the thrust and specific impulse of the engine, while keeping engine size
moderate.

For performance details, see Table 3-1.

Orbiting Maneuvering System (OMS) engine

Aerojet’s OMS engine [1, 2] provides the thrust needed to perform orbit insertion,
circularisation, transfer, rendezvous and de-orbit of the USA Space Shuttle Orbiter. For this
reason, each Orbiter is equipped with two OMS engines, which are located at the aft end of the
Orbiter on the left and right sides of the aft fuselage in what is referred to as the Orbital
Manoeuvring System/Reaction Control System (OMS/RCS) pods.

11
Cost data given based on 1990 data using an inflation factor of 1.396.

26
The OMS engine uses the Earth-storable hypergolic bipropellant combination of NTO and
MMH. NTO and MMH mass flow rate is 5,37 and 3,25 kg/s, respectively. The propellants are
burned in the engine’s regeneratively cooled combustion chamber at a pressure of about 9 bar.
Expansion takes place through a radiation cooled, Columbium alloy nozzle, with an area ratio
of 55:1 and an exit diameter of 116,8 cm. As coolant of the combustion chamber, the MMH
fuel is used. The propellant feed system is of a pressure-fed design using gaseous helium stored
in a high-pressure tank to provide pressure to the propellant tanks. Engine inlet pressure is
estimated at 17-22 bar. The engine assembly is gimballed by two pitch and yaw
electromechanical actuators.

The OMS engine has been derived from Aerojet’s Apollo Service propulsion system. The first
OMS demonstration tests were completed 1972/73, with full development starting in 1974. The
first prototype engine was delivered in February 1977 for extensive testing. Qualification
firings took place in 1979 with more than 270 firings using a single engine and a total
accumulated burn time of 10817 s. First flight took place in 1981, more than 7 years after start
of full development. In 1986, a contract has been awarded to develop an uprated OMS
featuring a pump-fed design. This design, however, has not seen production until today.

Each OMS engine produces 26.688 N (or about 26,7 kN) of vacuum thrust. Vacuum specific
impulse is 316 s and the oxidiser-to-fuel ratio is 1,65. The engine has a mass of 118 kg and it
fits in an envelope of size 1,96 m x 1,17m (diameter). Each engine is designed to be reusable
for 100 missions and capable of sustaining 1000 starts (10/mission) with 15 hours of
cumulative firing. The gimbal actuation system provides multi-axis gimballing of plus or minus
8 degrees.

RS-72

The 55,4 kN RS-72 rocket engine is a commercial joint-development program between Boeing
Rocketdyne and DaimlerChrysler Aerospace to provide an advanced engine that addresses the
increasing payload and launch vehicle upper stage requirements in both the American and
European markets.

The RS-72 is a pump-fed, gas generator cycle engine. Its design is based on the flight proven
Aestus baseline engine. Increased performance is achieved by integrating a gas-generator
driven turbopump allowing a chamber pressure of 61,7 bar. A high expansion ratio nozzle
ensures a high specific impulse.

Detailed performances are given in Table 3-1.

AJ10-118K/138

Aerojet’s12 AJ10-118K [2, 27, 28] engine has flown for than 38 years as second stage engine
on McDonnell Douglas’ (now Boeing) Delta. The engine has also been utilized as the third
stage engine for the U.S. Air Force’s Titan rocket. In the past, it also has been flying paired (as
the AJ10-138) on the Martin Marietta13 Titan 3 Transtage upper stage. In 1996, Aerojet has
been awarded a multi-million dollar follow-on contract to deliver 40 Delta II second stage
liquid rocket engines, including launch support, through 2005.

12
Aerojet, a segment of GenCorp.
13
Martin Marietta has since then merged with Lockheed to form Lockheed Martin.
27
 The AJ10 engine is a pressure-fed engine that uses the
Earth-storable hypergolic bipropellant combination of
NTO and A5014. Mass flow rate is 9,1 kg/s of NTO and
4,76 kg/s of A50. Combustion takes place in an
ablatively cooled combustion chamber at a pressure of
8,9 bar. Ignition is on contact of the fuel and oxidiser
(hypergolic propellant). Expansion is through a
radiation-cooled nozzle with an area ratio of 65:1 and a
throat diameter of 0,187 m. Engine mounting is fixed
with no means of thrust vector control. The propellants
are fed to the engine by helium gas under high
pressure.
Figure 15: AJ10-118K engine The AJ10-118 engine family originated in the 1950s
without nozzle extension when Aerojet developed the AJ-10 second stage
engine for NASA’s Thor rocket. When NASA changed the program’s name to Delta in 1960,
Aerojet replaced the AJ-10 with the AJ10-118. A series of improved versions followed, with
the AJ10-118K introduced in the mid-1970s with first flight in 1982. Since that date over 98
118K engines have flown on either Delta or Titan.

The current AJ10-118K based engine produces a nominal vacuum thrust of 43,38 kN.
Vacuum specific impulse of the 118K version is 320,5 s (315 for AJ10-138 version) and the
oxidiser-to-fuel ratio is 1,9. Its mass is about 124,5 kg (108 for AJ10-138 version due to a
lower area ratio of 40:1), length is about 2,7 m and maximum diameter (nozzle exit) is 1,53
m. Maximum burn time is 500 s with an essentially unlimited number of starts. Engine year
2000 costs are estimated at about 3,515 M$ based on a series of 25 engines.

14
A50: Aerozine 50, a 50-50 mixture of hydrazine and unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine.
15
Based on a 1990 cost figure of 2,5 M$. Year 2000 cost has been determined using an
inflation factor of 1.396.
28
4. Engines for reaction control systems
A reaction control system16 (RCS) provides the propulsive thrust necessary for orbit
circularisation, orbit manoeuvring, and orbit and attitude control of a spacecraft (launchers,
satellites, deep space probes, etc.). Important requirements for a RCS are that it must be able
to cope with long mission duration. Typical mission duration for e.g. GEO
telecommunication satellites is up to 15 years. Another requirement stems from that the
disturbances in space are relatively small and the need for precise pointing. This requires a
pulsed mode of operation with several 1000’s of pulses needed over the life of the spacecraft
and small total impulse bits per pulse. Finally, because of the small disturbances, total
impulse levels required are very modest ranging between 0,1 and 1,5 MNs (depending on
mission, mission duration and vehicle mass).

In view of the above requirements, all RCS’s of today are of a pressure-fed design, using
storable propellants. Pressure feeding offers the advantage of a relatively simple feed system
compared to pump-fed engines. This makes them low cost and very reliable. A disadvantage
though is that, in order to ensure sufficient tank life, inlet feed pressure and hence
combustion pressure is limited to fairly modest levels (inlet feed pressures are limited up to
about 22-25 bar) leading to a relatively large and heavy engine. Most engines allow two
modes of pressure feeding, a constant-pressure (regulated) mode and a simple “blowdown”
pressurization mode, see the Section on low total impulse engines.

For reasons of simplicity, RCS’s mostly use fixed thrusters (no means of TVC). However, to
allow for attitude and orbit control, usually a network of thrusters (directed in various
directions) is used. For example, OLYMPUS employs a network of 22 thrusters and
ITALSAT 16 thrusters [27].

Propellants used include earth storable, hypergolic17 bipropellant or (anhydrous) hydrazine (a

monopropellant) and cold gas18. The bipropellants are mostly used for high performing RCS.
For lower performing RCS or if ultra-fine pointing with very low thrust levels is needed, use
is made of hydrazine or cold-gas. The latter also allows for a clean exhaust.

In the next sections a number of RCS thrusters are discussed and performance figures are
given for steady state operation. For pulsed operation, performance values generally are
lower19. For example, specific impulse for pulsed operation of hydrazine thrusters can be
about 70-90% of the steady state value, depending on the duty cycle [46].

16
Sometimes the term attitude and orbit control system (AOCS) is used.
17
Hypergolic refers to that the propellant is self-igniting.
18
Cold gas systems are not chemical thrusters in the real sense of the word, since the energy
needed for thrust generation does not come from a chemical reaction. However, like in
chemical rocket motors, the thrust is generated by expansion of a high-pressure gas in a
nozzle.
19
The first pulse of a pulse train is always inefficient due to that the cold thruster absorbs
most of the heat generated and the gases leaving the engine remain relatively cold.
Succeeding pulses, depending on the time interval, will reach higher efficiency.
29
Bipropellant engines

Bipropellant RCS engines or thrusters have been used on a large variety of spacecraft, like
many of today’s high performing communication satellites (e.g. ASTRA, INTELSAT and
INMARSAT), but also on the Space Shuttle and the Apollo and Gemini return capsules.

Bipropellant RCS engines use mostly nitrogen tetroxide (NTO; N2O4) or Mixed Oxides of
Nitrogen (MON) as oxidiser and hydrazine (N2H4) or a derivative like monomethyl
hydrazine (MMH; N2H3CH3) as fuel. These bipropellants are earth storable and will self-
ignite once they are intimately mixed in the combustion chamber.

Bipropellant engines can be operated from either a constant-pressure (regulated) feed system
or in a simple “blowdown” pressurization mode. In the latter mode, one must in this case not
only take into account that during operation feed pressure and thrust decay as propellant is
consumed, but also a change in mixture ratio and hence in energetic properties of the
propellant. This is because of different changes in mass flow for the oxidiser and fuel.
Bipropellant engines typically take about 1 year to qualify and 6-12 months to produce
depending on model and quantity. In the following sections, some bipropellant RCS engines
are discussed in some more detail. A performance overview of these engines is given in
Table 4-1.

Kaiser-Marquardt R-40/40B 4 kN thruster [34]

The model R-40 B bipropellant engine is designed to provide perigee and orbit adjust forces for
satellites. A slightly modified engine (R-40) is used to provide for small velocity changes along
the axis of the Orbiter as well as attitude control (pitch, yaw, and roll).

The R-40 single thrust chamber; pressure-fed engine uses MMH and NTO and more recently
MON-3 as the propellants. These propellants are burned at a nominal oxidiser-to-fuel ratio of
1,65 and chamber pressure of about 10,5 bar in the engine’s combustion chamber. The
combustion chamber is made of columbium (C-103) and incorporates radiation and film
cooling limiting wall temperature to maximum 1375 K. Film cooling is provided by a thin layer
(a film) of fuel. Expansion takes place through a radiation cooled, convergent-divergent nozzle
of which several versions are available with different expansion ratios (up to 160) as well as
long and short scarf nozzles. The latter is to allow easy integration in the streamline shape of
the Space Shuttle. Nozzle exit diameter (160 expansion ratio version) is about 0,65 m. Nominal
system inlet (feed) pressure is 16-18 bar with a demonstrated capability to operate at inlet
pressures between 10-27,5 bar. An electromechanical valve controls the propellant flow.
Valve power is typically 70 W @ 28 VDC.

An R-40 is able to provide a nominal vacuum thrust of 3870 N and vacuum specific impulse of
about 306 s @ 160:1 expansion ratio. By adapting the inlet (feed) pressure, this thrust can be
adapted within a range between 3000-5400 N. The thruster is capable of providing a maximum
total impulse of 92 MNs and has a demonstrated life performance of 23000 s steady state and
approximately 50.000 cycles. Pulse width can be as low as 40 ms providing a minimum
impulse bit of about 150 Ns. When equipped with a long nozzle, the engine has a mass of 13,6
kg (10,25 kg for an engine with a 20:1 area ratio), a maximum diameter of 0,66 m and a length
of about 1,15-1,30 m.

30
Atlantic Research Corporation (ARC)20 LEROS 1 engine [32]

The ARC LEROS 1 is a high-performance 467 N thruster designed and developed to fulfil
the orbit maneuvering requirements (apogee kick) of GEO telecommunications satellites
using dual mode propulsion systems,21 and has a.o. been applied on ASTRA 1B satellite.

The LEROS 1 engine is of a single chamber pressure-fed design. It is made up of a film

cooled thrust chamber made of columbium C103 alloy with a silicide-based coating, a 150:1
Columbium expansion cone with the same coating as the combustion chamber and a titanium
injector assembly with film coolant orifices. It operates with the propellants MON and
MMH, which are burned at a nominal chamber pressure of 6,2 bar. Maximum chamber
temperature is 1633 K (1360ºC). An electromechanical actuated propellant control valve
controls propellant flow. Propellant inlet (feed) pressure is 14,5 bar, but can be adapted over
a range of 10,9-19,2 bar.

Development of LEROS 1 occurred in the period 1985-1990. First flight was in March 1991,
when 2 engines successfully placed an ASTRA 1B satellite into geosynchronous orbit.

Nominal performances are a thrust of 467 N and a specific impulse of 314 s at a propellant
mixture ratio of 0,77. By selecting a different inlet (feed) pressure, the thrust can be adapted
over a wide range, with only minor changes in specific impulse. Demonstrated maximum
single burn time is 3000 s. Overall length of the thruster is 0,66 m and its maximum diameter
is 0,294 m (determined by the nozzle exit diameter). Thruster (assembly) mass is 4,2 kg
including 0,91 kg for the propellant control valve.

Kaiser-Marquardt R1E engine [35]

The Marquardt model R1E engine is a vernier engine providing 110 N of thrust. This engine is
a/o used for attitude (pitch, yaw, and roll) fine control of the Space Shuttle when the Orbiter is
above about 21-km altitude. To this end, the Space Shuttle is equipped with a total of 6 such
engines divided over three RCS pods (two at the back and 1 in the nose of the vehicle).

The R-1 engine is a pressure-fed single

thrust chamber design. It operates with the
hypergolic propellant combination NTO and
MMH. Propellant injection is through a
titanium single doublet injector. The
cylindrically shaped combustion chamber,
providing a minimum expansion ratio of
26:1, is made of Columbium C103 alloy
with a silicide coating. Film and radiation
cooling allows an operating temperature of
1475 K. A radiation cooled nozzle extension
provides for an overall expansion ratio of
Figure 16 R1E thruster 100:1 with an exit diameter slightly less
than 0,152 m. Engine start-up is by an
electrical signal to an on/off valve. Valve power is about 35 W @ 28 VDC. Propellant inlet
(feed) pressures are in the range 6,8-27,2 bar with a nominal value of 15 bar.

20
Formerly Royal Ordnance (Great Britain).
21
A dual mode propulsion system is a bi-propellant satellite propulsion system in which the
fuel component is hydrazine instead of e.g. MMH. With the use of hydrazine, it becomes
possible to use monopropellant catalytic hydrazine thrusters in the attitude control system
whilst retaining the performance advantages and operational duty cycle flexibility of a bi-
propellant apogee engine. An important advantages of using catalytic hydrazine thrusters is
an increased reliability and a cleaner exhaust.
31
Nominal performances of the R1E thruster are a thrust of 110 N and a specific impulse of
280 s at a propellant mixture ratio of 1,65 and a 15 bar feed pressure. Nominal mass flow rate
is 0,0256 kg/s of NTO and 0,0354 kg/s of MMH. By selecting/adapting the feed pressure, the
mass flow and hence the thrust can be adapted in between 67-138 N. Maximum
demonstrated burn time is 82.000s. Minimum thrust duration is of the order of 0,08 s (80 ms)
giving a minimum impulse bit of 0,89 Ns. The thruster’s length and maximum diameter is
0,312 m and 0,152 m, respectively. Thrust chamber length is 0,20 m Thruster assembly mass
is 4,26 kg including 0,59 kg for the propellant valves.

Atlantic Research Corporation (ARC)22 LEROS 20 thruster [33]

The ARC LEROS 20 is a high-performance 22 N thruster designed and developed to fulfil

the attitude and orbit control requirements of GEO telecommunication satellites using an all
bipropellant ‘unified’ propulsion system.

The single chamber LEROS 20 operates with the hypergolic propellants Mixed Oxides of
Nitrogen (MON) and MMH.
These propellants are burned in a
radiation and film cooled thrust
chamber made of columbium
(sometimes referred to as
Niobium) C103 alloy with a
silicide-based coating at a
nominal chamber pressure of 9
bar. Maximum combustion
chamber temperature is 1433 K
Figure 17: Leros-1 engine (1160 °C). Propellant injection is
through a titanium doublet-type
of injector assembly with film cooling orifices. The hot combustion gases are expanded in a
bell-type expansion nozzle, also made of Columbium C103, with a 180:1 expansion ratio and
a 0,06 m exit diameter. Engine start-up is accomplished by an electrical signal opening an
electromechanical flow control valve followed by hypergolic ignition. Propellant feeding is
through high gas pressure. Demonstrated propellant feed pressures are in the range 11,7-20,7
bar with a nominal pressure of 15,9 bar. Mixture ratio can be adapted over a range of 1.2 to
2,1.

Development of the LEROS 20 thruster started in 1990 by Royal Ordnance (British

Aerospace) with qualification in 1992.

Nominal performances are a thrust of 22 N and a specific impulse of 296 s, which are
realized at a propellant mixture ratio of 1,65 and a propellant inlet pressure of 15,9 bar.
Demonstrated operational life is over 20000 seconds of steady state firing with a maximum
single burn time of 7200 s. Maximum cycle life is over 300.000 pulses. The thruster’s overall
length is 0,22 m and its maximum diameter is 0,07 m. Thruster mass is 0,73 kg.

Kaiser-Marquardt R6 bipropellant thruster [35]

The model R6 bipropellant rocket engine is designed to provide attitude control and station-
keeping forces. This engine is used on a great number of satellites including OLYMPUS,
ITALSAT, ARABSAT, INSAT, and GOES.

The R6 is a derivative of an earlier thruster developed by Marquardt in the early 1960’s. It uses
the hypergolic propellant combination of NTO (recently also MON-3) and MMH, which are

22
Formarly Royal Ordnance (GB).
32
burned in a Columbium combustion chamber at a pressure of about 6,9 bar and a combustion
temperature of about 1575 K. Nominal mass flow rate is 5 g/s of NTO and 3 g/s of MMH.
The engine is pressure-fed with nominal inlet pressure in the 15-17 bar range. Maximum
inlet pressure is about 27 bar and minimum about 6 bar. The Columbium nozzle has a
convergent-divergent design with an exit diameter of 55,9 mm and an expansion ratio of
100:1. The standard R6 thruster is fully radiation cooled (C-version). A slightly modified
version exists wherein the combustion chamber is also film cooled, allowing longer
operation times. To locate the thruster inside a satellite, heat shield cone should be provided.
An electromechanical (solenoid-type) valve operating in the 18-50 VDC range controls the
propellant flow. Valve power is 14 W @ 28 VDC. Start-up is by electrical signal to the valve
followed by hypergolic ignition. Propellant injection is through a Titanium single doublet-
type of injector.

Qualification testing of this thruster has included the demonstration of nearly 400.000 cycles
and 16 hours of continuous firing time.

3 versions of the R6 engine are currently available, including a baseline radiation cooled 22
N version (C version), a radiation and film cooled 22 N version (D version) for extended
firing time and a 10 N version (version C-2.2). Typical steady state vacuum impulse is 289 s
at a propellant mixture ratio of 1,65. The C version has a mass of 0,67 kg and is capable of
300.000 cycles with a maximum single burn time of 70.000 s time (compared to up to 70000
s single burn time for the D version). Minimum impulse bit is of the order of 0,115 Ns.
Engine length and maximum diameter is 251,7 mm and 55,9 mm, respectively.

SEP 20 N engine [38]

SEP in 1988 started the design of a new generation of small high-performance bipropellant
engines for orbit and attitude control of the European Hermes space plane23 and of satellites
based on the use of carbon matrix composite (CMC) materials.

The SEP 20 N engine burns a hypergolic mixture of NTO and MMH in a ceramic matrix
carbon thrust chamber allowing for a maximum wall temperature of about 1870 K (1600 oC)
without a need for an anti-oxidation coating. The CMC combustion chamber and nozzle are
manufactured in two parts with a junction at an area ratio of 18:1. As CMC material,
SEPCARBINOX (carbon fibers, silicon carbide matrix) and CERASEP (silicon carbide
fibers, silicon carbide matrix) have been selected. The propellants are injected into the
chamber through a doublet-type of injector of a conventional metallic design. An expanding
graphite gasket is used to ensure a leak tight connection between the metallic injector and the
CMC chamber. The engine is of a pressure-fed design with typical combustion chamber
pressures of about 8 bar. Total propellant mass flow rate is about 7 g/s of which about 2,7 g/s
MMH. Propellant flow is controlled (on/off) using an electromechanical valve. This allows a
pulsed mode of operation. Propellant is self-ignitable (hypergolic). Thermal insulation is
implemented to prevent a too high heat flow from the chamber to the mounting plate.

The SEP 20 N engine provides a nominal vacuum thrust of 20 N and specific impulse in the
range of 290/295 s. Nominal mixture ratio is 1,65. The minimum impulse bit that can be
delivered is 0,05 Ns and the total number of pulses is 500.000 with over 200 cold starts
(thermal cycles). Total firing time is about 18 hours.

Development of the SEP 20 N engine started in 1988 leading to first engine firing in 1990.
To date, more than 400 thermal cycles and 7000 hot pulses under vacuum have been
demonstrated.

23
Development of the Hermes space plane was cancelled in 1992.
33
Table 4-1: Performances of typical thrusters used for spacecraft attitude and control applications [27-41]
Engine Manuf. Application Vac. Life Cycle Spec. Propellant Mixture Engine Chamber Expansion
Thrust Span Life Impulse Ratio Mass Pressure Ratio
[N] [s] [cycles] [s] [-] [kg] [bar] [-]
S4 DASA RCS 4,0 - - 285 MON/MMH - 0,29 4 -
R-2B Marquardt RCS 4,5 >6000 >1.200 280 NTO/Hydrazine 1,65 0,43 - -
RS-45 Rocketdyne RCS 4,5 - - 300 NTO/MMH 1,6 0,73 4,8 175
S10/1 DASA RCS 10,0 50000 >300.000 287 MON/MMH 1,64 0,35 10 90
R-6C Marquardt RCS 22,0 60000 >300.000 290 NTO/MMH 1,6 0,67 6,8 100
Leros 20 ARC RCS 22,0 20000 >300.000 296 NTO/MMH 1,65 0,73 9 180
RS-43 Rocketdyne RCS 22,2 - - 284 NTO/MMH 1,6 0,62 6,9 150
R-43 Marquardt RCS 67,0 13500 - 290 NTO/Hydrazine 1,6 - - -
R-1E Marquardt Orbit adjust/RCS 110 82000 >30.000 280 NTO/MMH 1,65 4,26 - 100
RS-25 Rocketdyne 111 10000 - 285 NTO/MMH 1,6 0,96 6,9 40
S400/1 DASA Kick motor/RCS 400 15000 30.000 303 MON/MMH 1,64 2,8 7,2 102
RS-42 Rocketdyne 445 - - 2291 NTO/MMH 1,6 2,32 9,7 150
Leros 1 ARC Kick motor 467 20000 - 314 MON/Hydrazine 0,8 4,2 6,2 150
R-4D Marquardt Kick motor/RCS 490 40000 >20.000 309 NTO/MMH 1,65 3,76 6,9 164
R-42 Marquardt Orbit adjust 890 21000 - 303 MON/MMH 1,65 4,54 - -
RS-21 Rocketdyne Deep space 1330 900 - 294 NTO/MMH 1,52 8,39 8 60
RS-14 Rocketdyne 1401,2 - - 287,8 NTO/MMH 1,6 8,8 8,5 30
RS-28 Rocketdyne 2670 - - 2201 NTO/MMH 1,63 12,7 13,8 40
S3K DASA 3500 - - 352 MON/MMH 1,6-2,1 14,5 9-12 125
R-40B Marquardt Orbit adjust 4000 25000 >50.000 303 NTO/MMH 1,65 13,6 10,5 160
RS-41 Rocketdyne 11100 2000 - 312 NTO/MMH 1,63 68,95 13,2 260
1) Presumably a value achieved under pulsed conditions.
2) A-50 or Aerozine-50 is a 50-50 mixture of hydrazine and Unsymmetrical Di-Methyl Hydrazine (UDMH).

34
Catalytic hydrazine thrusters

Catalytic hydrazine thrusters have been used on amongst others ESA’s Orbital Test Satellite
for telecommunications, GEOS, EXOSAT, SPOT,ISO and various METEOSAT satellites for
meteorology [27].

Catalytic Hydrazine Thrusters (CHT’s), see photo on this page, derive the energy necessary to
produce thrust from the decomposition of hydrazine into ammonia, hydrogen and nitrogen. To
decompose the hydrazine, a catalyst is
needed. One such catalyst is Shell 405
developed by the Shell development
company in the USA. It consists of a
porous, high surface area, aluminum
oxide support, which is impregnated
with finely divided iridium, which is
contained in a catalyst bed situated in
the decomposition (reaction) chamber.
According to Sutton [46], the best
conditions result by using a catalyst bed
that is 25-50 mm long, a chamber
pressure of 10-20 bar and a hydrazine
loading of 0,015-0,060 g/s per mm2 of
surface area (perpendicular to the flow
direction) of catalyst bed. A CHT
Figure 18: Catalytic hydrazine engines furthermore consists of a nozzle to
accelerate the decomposition gases, a
heat barrier to prevent excessive heating of the environment, and an electro-mechanically
activated flow control valve. The latter regulates through on/off regulation the flow of
hydrazine to the thruster. As material for the thrusters, mostly titanium or stainless steel are
used. Both materials offer good compatibility with hydrazine. As such, these materials are also
applied in the construction of the necessary valves, connecting pipework, tanks, etc. CHT’s,
like bipropellant RCS thusters (see previous section), can be operated from either a constant-
pressure (regulated) feed system or in a simple “blowdown” pressurization mode. Operational
temperatures for these thrusters range in between 4-71°C.

CHT’s are available in a wide range of thrust levels between 0,75 N and 450 N and with steady
state specific impulse levels ranging from about 170-235 sec. In pulsed mode, specific impulse
values (and hence thrust values) are typically between 70-90% of the calculated steady state
value, depending on the duty cycle. This decrease is mostly due to that initially most of the
heat generated is absorbed by the catalyst bed. To prevent such losses, sometimes catalyst bed
heaters are used to preheat the catalyst. Minimum impulse bits that can be achieved are in the
range 0,005-0,036 Ns. Table 4-2 lists some CHT’s used for spacecraft propulsion and some of
their important performances. Typical CHT cost ranges from about $50.000-60.000 for a 1N
thruster to about $ 70.000-80.000 for a 20 N thruster.

36
Table 4-2: Some catalytic hydrazine thrusters and their performances [27, 41-45]
Engine Manuf. Vac. Specific Life Cycle Thruster Inlet Input Length
Thrust Impulse2 Span Life Mass Pressure Power1
[N] [s] [s] [cycles] [kg] [bar] [Watt] [mm]
CHT 0,5 DASA 0,75 227-216 514800 >55.000 0,19 22-5,5 5/2,5 113
MR-103G Primex 1,0 224-202 85680 >205.000 0,33 28,3-4,8 8,3/6,3 173
CHT 2 DASA 2 227-214 61000 105.000 0,21 22-5,5 5/1 123
SEP 3,5 224-207 145000 380.000 0,46 22-5,5 6/5,2 107,7
MR-111 Primex 4,4 229-215 54000 420.000 0,35 27-4 9/- 167
CHT 5 DASA 5 228-216 45000 44.000 0,22 22-5,5 5/3,37 129
LT-5N SP Rafael 6,0 200 15167 100.000 0,23 22 - -
CHT 10 DASA 10 220-210 12240 108.000 0,26 22-5 5/2,4 142
SEP 15,4 228-211 61200 116.000 0,54 22-5,5 6/6 145,1
CHT 20 DASA 22 235-222 14400 235.000 0,36 22 13/3 196
MR-50N Primex 22 227-221 5400 12.300 0,68 32-5 29/- 183
HE-5 Hughes 23,5 230 - >28.000 - 21-3,5 - -
ACT-25N Rafael 23,0 215 870 1.220 0,305 27 - -
HT-25N SP Rafael 27,0 220 3704 100.000 0,44 22 - -
KMHS-22 Marquardt 90 235 - - 1,0 31-5 - 305
ST-200N Rafael 175 220 314 420 1,23 27 - -
MR-107K Primex 178 232-222 2137 7005 0,885 34-7 50/- 218
CHT 350 DASA 350 235 - - 1,8 22-5,5 30/- 307
CHT 400 DASA 400 228 - - 2,7 26 30/- 325
MR-104 Primex 440 239-223 2654 1742 1,86 28,9-6,9 30/13 459
1) Power: first value is valve power, second is heater power.
2) Highest value is associated with highest feed pressure.
3) Module of two thrusters plus bracket.

A recent development trend is to augment the performance of CHT’s by using (excess) power
from the power subsystem of the spacecraft to further increase the temperature of the hot
decomposition gases in a heat exchanger located downstream of the (catalytic) decomposer.
The hotter gases are then expanded through the nozzle in the conventional manner. This power
augmented heating can increase the specific impulse substantially. Specific impulse values of
up to 306 sec have been achieved with thrust values in the range of 0,025-1 N. Specific power
consumption is in between 0,75-1,05 kW/N. Several power augmented CHT’s and their
characteristics are given in Table 4-3.

Table 4-3: Some power augmented catalytic hydrazine thrusters and their performances
[42, 44]
Engine
Manuf. Vacuum Spec. Life Engine Input Operating Inlet
Thrust Impulse Span Mass Power Voltage Pressure
[N] [s] [hrs] [kg] [Watt] [Volt] [bar]
PACT DASA 0,5 306 - 0,36 515 - 22-5,5
EHT MR501B Primex 0,369 294-303 389 0,9 493-467 28 24,1-6,9
EHT MR501 Primex 0,67 280-304 389 0,9 520 27,5-22,5 -
MR 502 Primex 1 302 370 0,9 840 29,5-24,5 -

Suppliers of CHT components are a/o. DaimlerChryler Aerospace24, (DASA, Germany),

Snecma (SEP, France), Rafael (Israel), Kaiser Marquardt (USA), and Primex25 (USA).

24
Formerly DASA/MBB, Germany.
25
Formerly Rocket Research Company of Olin Aerospace Comp., USA

37
Cold gas thrusters

Cold gas propulsion systems nowadays are mostly used in cases where extremely fine pointing
accuracy has to be achieved with modest total impulse levels of up to 4000 Ns, [3]. Typical
applications are on COS-B, OTS, EURECA, ASTRO-SPAS, HIPPARCOS and EXOSAT.

In a cold gas propulsion system, the propulsive force is generated through the expansion of a
high-pressure gas in a cold gas thruster, which mainly consists of a nozzle and an electro-
mechanical valve. The nozzle accelerates the cold gas to a high velocity, whereas the valve
regulates the cold gas flow (on/off regulation). As cold gas any gas can be used. In practice,
though, mostly nitrogen and helium are used. This is because both gases are highly inert (do
not react) and have a reasonably low molecular mass. Like for CHT’s and bipropellant RCS
thrusters, see earlier, cold gas thrusters can be operated in a regulated or a blowdown mode.

Because of their relative simplicity, cold gas systems are more reliable and cost less than
chemical systems. In addition, they do not have any danger of overheating. Furthermore, very
low thrust levels of several tens of mN are attainable with minimum impulse bits in the range
of 10-4 Ns. An important disadvantage of cold gas propulsion systems is, however, a low
specific impulse. Specific impulse values typically are in the range of about 68 s for nitrogen
gas compared to about 150-250 s for a hydrazine-based catalytic system. This leads to a
relatively high propellant mass for a given total impulse. When using helium instead of
nitrogen, the mass of propellant can be decreased with about a factor 2,5 (square root of ratio
of molar mass of nitrogen and helium), but at the expense of an increased storage volume or
pressure (about a factor 7) and a higher cost.

Cold gas technology is available from amongst others STERER and Moog (USA), DASA
(Germany) and recently also from Bradford Engineering (The Netherlands)26.

Some typical cold gas thrusters and their performances are given in Table 4-4. Typical
operational temperature range for cold gas thrusters is -20-50°C. Under storage conditions,
these bounds are somewhat less stringent. A single cold gas thruster including documentation
typically costs about $ 25.000. Without documentation, and for larger quantities, considerable
price reductions (about a factor 4 or more) can be obtained per unit.

26
Bradford engineering in co-operation with DERA (Great Britain) has been responsible for
the development of a cold gas propulsion system for small spacecraft capable of delivering a
total impulse level of 136 Ns using Nitrogen gas as the propellant or 257 Ns with Xenon. The
development of the system took about 8 months and is intended to fly on STRV 1C and 1D.

38
Table 4-4: Typical cold gas thrusters and their performances [45-50]
Engine Manuf. Vac. Specific Cycle Engine Inlet Input Voltage Envelope4
Thrust Impulse Life Mass Pressure Power Range
[N] [s] [-] [kg] [bar] [Watt] [Volt] [mm]
Bradford 55e-33 77 - - - - - -
CGT20 DASA 0,02 67 1.000.000 0,120 7,0 5 - 64 (l)
Sterer 12 68 250.000 0,174 3,5 5-6 24-32 66x∅31
58-102 Moog 1,11 - 10.000 0,015 8,8-6,3 30 24-32 24,7x∅14,5
58-112 Moog 1,11 - 10.000 0,015 7,4-4,9 30 24-32 24,7x∅14,5
58-113 Moog 3,33 - 10.000 0,015 8,8-6,3 30 24-32 24,7x∅14,5
58-103 Moog 5,55 - 10.000 0,015 8,8-6,3 30 24-32 24,7x∅14,5
50-673 Moog 44,5 - 5.000 0,231 10,5-4,9 6-12 24-32 86,6x79,7x64,21
58-126 Moog 266 - 10.000 0,181 10,5-4,9 30 24-32 70x∅63(e)
1) Thruster triad
2) Maximum thrust level of 10 N is possible, but at the expense of a higher inlet pressure
3) Usng Xenon this value is 50 mN with a specific impulse of 30 s
4) ∅ refers to diameter.

All performances given in the table are for nitrogen gas. Valve power is only required when
the thruster valve is open. Voltage range gives the required input voltages for the thruster in
case of an electromechanical valve. Blank entries mean that no data is available

39
5. About the data presented
In the preceding sections, performance and design data have been given on a large range of
liquid rocket engines and thrusters. In some cases these data have been taken from a single
data source leading to what is believed to be a consistent data set. In other cases, however,
these data have been taken from various sources. In these cases, the reader is forewarned that
the dataset might not necessarily be consistent, since these data do not necessarily apply to one
and the same version of the engine and engine setting.
The reader, furthermore, must be aware that for most engines, various design versions exist (or
will be developed in the future) and that for each of these versions different settings (e.g. inlet
feed pressure, mixture ratio) can be chosen depending on the specifics of the mission. This can
give cause to differences in performance values from the values given in this document.
Although much attention has been given to generate a “complete” data set for all engines, the
reader must be aware that the data sets presented might contain various unknowns that are
crucial for a proper propulsion system design/engine selection. In these cases, the reader is
advised to contact the manufacturer directly for detailed information.
When going through the various data sources, the author found that the design and
performance data parameters are not always clearly defined and hence leave some room for
interpretation errors. Although much care has been given to data interpretation, the author
cannot guarantee that all data have been interpreted correctly.

40
References
1. Chemical Rocket Propulsion, by F.H. van der Laan and Y.M. Timnat, Lecture Series D-
35, Delft University of Technology, 1986.

2. Interavia Space Directory 1990-1991, Jane’s Information Group, 1990.

3. Rocket Propulsion Elements, 6th edition, G.P. Sutton, John Wiley & Sons, 1992.

4. Advanced rocket engine work driven by varying agendas, Space News, March 11-17,
1991.

5. SSME Block 2A fact sheet, Boeing/Rocketdyne, 1998.

6. What future for SSME?, D.F. Robertson, Space, vol.9, nr.7, October 1993.

7. Ariane 5 Main Stage Propulsion System, SEP bulletin, June 1991.

8. Vulcain engine, SNECMA world wide web entry, August 1999.

9. Vulcain2 fact sheet, SNECMA, June 1999.

10. Development status of LE-7, Acta Astronautica, vol.17, 1988. (LE-7)

11. US firm gets rights to Russian engines, Space News, November 2-8, 1992.

12. Soviet rocket engine overview, Spaceflight, vol.32, July 1990.

13. International thrust in launch vehicle propulsion, Aerospace America, July 1992.

14. RD-170/180 entry in Pratt & Whitney’s engine gallery, World Wide Web, Pratt &
Whitney, 1999.

15. Lockheed Martin plans advanced technologies for X-33, Aviation Week & Space
Technology, pp.20-22, July 8, 1996.

16. RL10 fact sheet, Pratt & Whitney, United Technologies, CD-042-287-5M.

17. Pratt & Whitney offers RL10 upgrades for Centauer users, Aviation Week & Space
Technology, February 20, 1989.

18. RL 10 entry in Pratt & Whitney Engine gallery, World Wide Web, Pratt & Whitney

19. Delta Clipper partners set goal for single stage to orbit vehicle, E.H. Kolcum, Aviation
Week & Space Technology, February 3, 1992.

20. RS-68 fact sheet, Rocketdyne, 1998.

21. HM7 B Cryogenic engine, SEP bulletin, June 1991.

22. VINCI fact sheet, SNECMA, June 1999.

23. Development of LOX/LH2 engine LE-5, K. Yanagawa et al, AIAA-84-1223, 1984.

41
24. Idle mode operation of LE-5A engine, Y. Kakuma et al, Acta Astronautica, vol.22,
pp.205-211, 1990.

25. Development status of the Ariane L5 engine, G. Schmidt et al, AIAA-87-1938, 1987.

26. The design of the European Advanced Technology Engine, ATE, H.F.R. Schöyer et al,
AIAA 92-3662, 1992.

27. AJ10-118K on Aerojet World Wibe Web: www.aerojet.com/Propulsion/Delta/, 1999.

28. Titan liquid engine propulsion; Past, present and future, L.D. Reber, Aerojet TechSystems
Co., Sacramento, presented as AIAA-86-1631, 1986.

29. Bibliography of liquid propellant propulsion systems (LPPS) of European spacecraft, D.

Gale et al, British Aerospace, Study Note SN/ESA-P/001/89/Bae, issue 1, January 1990.

30. Rocketdyne rocket engine brochure, Rocketdyne.

31. Liquid space engine development at Royal Ordnance Rocket Motors Division, A.H.
Klepping, JBIS, vol.44, pp.195-210, 1991.

32. Leros 1 brochure, Royal Ordnance, Rocket Motors Division, May 1991.

33. Leros 20 brochure, Royal Ordnance, Rocket Motors Division, May 1991.

34. Marquardt R40/40B 4000N thruster data sheets, The Marquardt Company, 1985.

35. Marquardt R1E 110N thruster data sheets, The Marquardt Company, 1985.

36. Marquardt R6C 22N thruster data sheets, The Marquardt Company, 1985.

37. Marquardt collection of data sheets (R2B, R4D, R40B, R42, R43), The Marquardt
company.

38. CMC 20 N thruster for HERMES attitude control, Acta Astronautica, vol. 24, pp.185-195,
1991.

39. Jane’s all the world‘s aircraft, 1970/71, Jane’s publishing, 1970.

40. Jane’s all the world‘s aircraft, 1972/73, Jane’s publishing, 1972.

41. Status and tendencies for low to medium thrust propulsion systems, H. Hopmann et al,
Acta Astronautica, vol.17, no.9, pp.961-974, 1988.

42. Monopropellant hydrazine Propulsion Technology, MBB ERNO, September 1988.

43. Liquid rockets in perspective; Developments in the 1960s, Astronautics and Aeronautics,
March 1976.

44. MR thruster fact sheets (MR 50/107/111/501/502), Rocket Research Company, Olin
Aerospace Division, Redmond, USA.

45. Hydrazine Monopropellant Thruster fact sheets, Rafael Weapon systems Division,
Propulsion Department, Haifa, Israel, 1997.

46. Hydrazine thrusters for space application, D. Sutton, Journal of the British Interplanetary
Society, vol.25, pp.537-551, 1972.

42
47. Small spacecraft cold gas propulsion system (Rev. A), Bradford Engineering, Heerle (N.
Brabant), The Netherlands, July 1998.

48. Satellite cold gas propulsion systems, private communication RTG Aero-Hydraulic,
February 1994.

49. Information on components for cold gas propulsion systems, private communication MBB
Erno, June 1994.

50. Moog product catalogue, catalogue nr. 1324, Moog, 1999.

43
A. Definition of terms
Chamber pressure (bar): The pressure in the combustion or reaction chamber in ‘bar’. 1 bar = 1
x 105 N/m2; 1,013 x 105 N/m2 = 1 atmosphere.

(Cumulative) life span: The total life (burn time) of the rocket engine/thruster expressed in
‘second’ (s) or ‘hour’ (hr).

Cycle life: A dimensionless number representing the number of on/off cycles that a pulsed
thruster is able to operate.

Diameter of rocket engine/thruster (D): The maximum envelope diameter of the rocket
engine/thruster expressed in ‘meter’ (m). This is usually the same as the diameter of the nozzle
exit, but in some cases may be more than that due to valves (pressure fed engines) and pumps,
pipes and structural attachments (pump-fed engines).

Discharge pressure: Fluid pressure at pump outlet.

Duty cycle: The nominal (single) burn time of the rocket engine/thruster expressed in ‘second’
(s).

Engine/thruster mass: The mass of the engine/thruster dry (without propellants in the lines)
expressed in ‘kilogram’ (kg).

Envelope: Dimensions of box that that encloses the engine/thruster.

Expansion ratio: A dimensionless factor expressing the ratio between the area of the nozzle
throat and nozzle exit. A large ratio indicates high performance on the one hand and a
relatively large nozzle on the other. The high performance stems from that the high-pressure
gas generated in the combustion chamber is allowed to expand more and thereby attain a
higher exhaust velocity.

Inlet or feed pressure: The pressure at the inlet of the motor expressed in ‘bar’. This pressure
usually is a few bars higher than in the combustion chamber to ensure proper propellant
injection.

Length of rocket engine/thruster (L): The maximum envelope length of the motor/thruster
expressed in ‘meter’ (m). For pump-fed engines, this includes the length of the thrust chamber
and the pumps, pipes etc. mounted above the thrust chamber.

(Propellant) mass flow (m) or propellant consumption is a measure for the amount of
propellant consumed per unit of time. The mass flow is usually expressed in 'kilogram/second'
(kg/s) Important relationship for the mass flow of the engine/thruster is: m = T/(Isp go), where
go refers to the gravitational (free fall) acceleration at sea level (9,80665 m/s2).

Mixture ratio (O/F): The ratio between the mass of oxidiser burned per mass of fuel burned
(liquid bipropellant motors only). For high thrust rocket motors, one sometimes uses the
overall mixture ratio to take into account the propellant required for other purposes than
providing the energy required for thrust generation.

Pulse duty cycle: The duration of a pulse versus time in between two pulses expressed as a
‘percentage’ (%). Especially at very short burning times and low duty cycles the pulse is too
short to attain a situation of equilibrium in the motor and combustion will be incomplete. In
addition, heat losses will have much effect, causing a low burning efficiency and hence a low
specific impulse.

44
Specific impulse (Isp): The total impulse that the motor generates per unit of propellant weight1
expressed in ‘second’ (s). The higher the specific impulse, the less propellant the motor uses to
generate a certain total impulse. Like for the thrust and the total impulse, the specific impulse
depends on the pressure altitude.

Specific power consumption: The power consumed per unit of thrust generated expressed in
‘Watts/Newton’ (W/N).

Throttling capability or Thrust Magnitude Control (TMC): The capability to control/change the
thrust of an individual rocket motor given as a ‘percentage’ (%) of nominal thrust; For
example, a throttling capability of 50% means that the thrust can be reduced to 50% of its
nominal value. Such a capability is vital for launcher stages to allow reducing acceleration
loads towards the end of the flight, when the propellant tanks are almost empty.

Thrust (T): The thrust the motor nominally generates expressed in the terms of ‘Newton (N)’.
Since the thrust depends on the pressure altitude (atmospheric pressure at a certain altitude),
thrust values are usually given either under vacuum (vac) conditions or at sea level (sl).

Thrust-to-weight ratio: A dimensionless factor expressing the ratio between the vacuum thrust
and the weight of the motor; The higher the value, the better the accelerating properties of the
motor.

Thrust Vector Control (TVC): The capability to change the direction of the thrust for an
individual rocket motor expressed in ‘degrees’ (deg). Three rotation directions can be
distinguished usually taken relative to the nominal position of the nozzle axis. The rotations are 1
about the nozzle axis (roll direction), 1 up and down (pitch direction), and 1 left and right (yaw
direction). For example, a deflection of ±5o in pitch direction means that the thrust vector can be
deflected 5 degrees up or down.

Total impulse (I): The change in momentum that can be accomplished by the motor, expressed
in ‘Newton-second’ (Ns). For constant thrust, the total impulse equals the thrust times the
thrust duration. Since the thrust varies with (pressure) altitude, also the total impulse that a
motor delivers varies with altitude.

1
When comparing different kinds of propulsion systems, like chemical versus electrical, it is
more correct to use the total weight of the propulsion system instead of the propellants. For
example, for electrical systems one must also take into account the added weight due to the
need for a separate energy source.

45
B. Propellant properties
In the first part of this annex, some energetic properties are given for a number of rocket motor
propellants. These properties determine to a large extent rocket motor performances like thrust and
specific impulse (propellant consumption) or mass flow. All values have been determined based on the
assumption of chemical equilibrium.
In the second part, propellant densities are given. These allow the calculation of the required propellant
volume and/or propellant volume flow (throughput in litres per second) once the propellant mass and
mass flow is known.

Propellant energetic properties

In the following tables, the energetic properties of several important rocket propellants, including the
bipropellant combinations oxygen - hydrogen, oxygen – kerosene, nitrogen tetroxide - mono-methyl
hydrazine, and mixed oxides of nitrogen - mono-methyl hydrazine, and the monopropellant hydrazine,
are given, see Table B-1 – Table B-5. The energetic properties are flame temperature, molar mass,
specific heat ratio and characteristic velocity. The former three determine the latter property. All four
properties depend on the mixture ratio (bipropellants) or decomposition ratio (monopropellants) and the
pressure at which the reaction occurs. The latter dependence however is fairly limited and is therefore
here neglected. For more detailed data, the reader is referred to [1].

Table B-1: Oxygen-hydrogen energetic properties (pressure is 10 bar) [1]

Mixture ratio Flame temperature Molar mass Specific heat ratio Characteristic velocity
(-) (K) (kg/kmol) (-) (m/s)
2 1797,4 6 1,283 2367,0
2,25 1974,8 6,6 1,268 2393,6
2,5 2141,4 7,1 1,253 2412,5
2,75 2298,4 7,5 1,238 2426,3
3 2438,4 8 1,222 2432,4
3,5 2681,9 9 1,193 2431,8
4 2873,7 9,9 1,17 2414,4
4,5 3021,1 10,8 1,154 2385,3
5 3131,9 11,6 1,142 2349,2
5,5 3212,3 12,4 1,134 2308,8
6 3267,8 13,2 1,128 2266,4
6,5 3303,4 13,8 1,125 2223,4
7,5 3332,1 15,1 1,122 2139,8
10 3284,8 17,7 1,122 1964,3

46
Table B-2: Oxygen-kerosene energetic properties (pressure is 10 bar) [1]
Mixture ratio Flame temperature Molar mass Specific heat ratio Characteristic velocity
(-) (K) (kg/kmol) (-) (m/s)
1,5 2508,3 17,7 1,241 1655,1
1,6 2701,4 18,3 1,218 1698,2
1,7 2865,3 18,9 1,198 1730,8
1,8 3001,3 19,5 1,180 1754,4
1,9 3111,4 20 1,166 1770,0
2 3198,1 20,5 1,154 1779,0
2,1 3264,2 21 1,146 1782,3
2,2 3313,5 21,4 1,139 1781,4
2,3 3349,3 21,8 1,134 1777,3
2,4 3374,9 22,2 1,131 1771,0
2,5 3392,8 22,6 1,129 1763,2
2,75 3415 23,3 1,125 1741,0
3 3418 24 1,123 1717,5
3,25 3410 24,7 1,122 1694,5
3,5 3396,9 25,2 1,121 1672,5

Table B-3: Nitrogen tetra-oxide and mono-methyl hydrazine energetic properties (pressure is 10
bar) [1]
Mixture ratio Flame temperature Molar mass Specific heat ratio Characteristic velocity
(-) (K) (kg/kmol) (-) (m/s)
1 2355,9 16,7 1,252 1643,3
1,2 2654 18 1,217 1698,2
1,4 2878,5 19,2 1,186 1730,1
1,6 3033,5 20,2 1,161 1743,6
1,8 3126,8 21,1 1,144 1741,3
2 3178,8 21,9 1,135 1729,5
2,1 3183,2 22,2 1,132 1718,7
2,2 3187,5 22,5 1,13 1708,7
2,3 3187,2 22,9 1,129 1697,6
2,4 3183,2 23,1 1,129 1686,2
2,5 3176,4 23,4 1,128 1675,2
3 3117,5 24,5 1,129 1620,1

Table B-4: Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen and mono-methyl hydrazine energetic properties (pressure
is 10 bar) [1]
Mixture ratio Flame temperature Molar mass Specific heat ratio Characteristic velocity
(-) (K) (kg/kmol) (-) (m/s)
1 2359,5 16,7 1,252 1646,0
1,2 2657,4 18 1,217 1701,0
1,4 2881,7 19,1 1,186 1733,2
1,6 3036,8 20,1 1,161 1746,6
1,8 3130,9 21,0 1,145 1744,6
2 3178,1 21,8 1,135 1731,6
2,25 3194,8 22,6 1,130 1707,0
2,5 3185,0 23,3 1,128 1679,5
2,75 3161,0 23,9 1,128 1651,9
3 3129,2 24,5 1,129 1625,3

47
Table B-5: Hydrazine energetic properties at 10 bar pressure [2]
% of ammonia1 Chamber Average molar
Decomposed Temperature Mass
[K] [kg/kmol]
0 1638 19,2
20 1490 16,6
40 1338 14,6
60 1181 13
80 1022 11,7
1002 862 10,7
1) Ammonia is a product of the hydrazine decomposition reaction.
2) Specific heat ratio is 1,364 with characteristic velocity being 1214 m/s.

Propellant mass density

Typical mass density values of some liquid propellants are given in table B-6. Since mass density
depends (slightly) on temperature also the associated temperature is given.

Table B-6: Mass density of some oxidisers and fuels [1]

Propellant Acronym Mass density Temperature
(kg/m3) (K)
Hydrazine - 1008,5 293,15
Nitrogen Tetra-Oxide NTO 1450 293,15
Liquid Oxygen LOX 1140 90,3
Liquid Hydrogen LH2 73,8 16,8
Rocket Propellant-11 RP-1 773 298,15
Unsymmetrical DiMethyl Hydrazine UDMH 783 298,15
Mono-Methyl Hydrazine MMH 874 298,15
1) RP-1 is some sort of Kerosene.

For gases used in cold gas propulsion systems, mass density at a given (storage) temperature and
pressure can be determined using the ideal gas law. The only information required is the molar mass of
the gas. A typical value for helium, nitrogen and xenon gas density at 1 bar pressure and 273,15 K is
given in the table below.

Table B-7: Mass properties of some gases [3]

Gas Acronym Molar mass Mass density1
(kg/kmol) (kg/m3)
Helium He 4 0,179
Nitrogen N2 28 1,25
Xenon Xe 131,5 5,90
1) at 1 bar and 273,15 K.

Reference
1. Rocket propellant data handbook, E. Haverkamp, TH Haarlem, February 1991.

2. Hydrazine thrusters for space applications, D. Sutton, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
vol.25, pp.537-551, 1972.

3. Tabellenboekje voor onderwijs in de natuur- en scheikunde (in Dutch), 2nd edition, Wolters-
Noordhoff BV., Groningen, 1969.

48
C. Nozzle properties
The purpose of the nozzle of a rocket (jet) motor is to accelerate the flow to a high velocity. To this
end, the nozzle typically has a convergent-divergent shape. The minimum nozzle area is called the
throat area and the area where the flow leaves the nozzle is called the nozzle exit area. The ratio of the
nozzle exit area to the throat area is called the expansion ratio. To generate a high exhaust velocity, it is
necessary for the high-pressure gas in the combustion chamber to expand to a very low pressure in the
nozzle; thus allowing the conversion of thermal energy into kinetic energy of the jet. For the gas to
expand to a very low pressure in the nozzle, a large expansion ratio is required. Figure C-1 gives a
relation between the expansion ratio (vertical axis) and the pressure ratio (ratio between chamber
pressure and pressure in nozzle exit; horizontal axis) for various values of the specific heat ratio
(symbol = gamma or γ) of the expanding gases.

1000
Expansion Ratio [-]

100

10

gamma = 1,1

gamma = 1,2

gamma = 1,3

1
Figure C-1: Nozzle expansion ratio versus nozzle pressure ratio
10 100 1000 10000

Pressure Ratio [-]

49
D. Rocket motor performance calculation; an example
When selecting rocket engines, there is a possibility that not all performance data needed are available
from the manufacturer. In those cases, one could use simple theory to calculate some of these missing
data.
As an illustration, in this section a number of rocket motor performance parameters are calculated for
the European HM60 engine. The parameters calculated are:
• Thrust, specific impulse and mass flow based on ideal rocket motor theory1
• Propellant volume, density and throughput.

As inputs we use the following parameters taken from the HM60 [3]:
Type of propellants: liquid oxygen as oxidiser and liquid hydrogen as fuel
Oxidiser-to-fuel mass ratio in combustion chamber: 6,3 (overall mixture ratio 5,3)
Combustion chamber pressure: 105 bar
Mission time: 600 s
Expansion ratio: 45
Nozzle exit diameter: 1,76 m (circular cross-section)

Thrust calculation
According to ‘ideal rocket’ theory, thrust (N) is given by:

F = mv e + (p e − p a )A e

Where m is mass flow (kg/s), ve is exhaust velocity (m/s), pe is exit pressure (N/m2) and Ae is nozzle
exit area (m2).

The Mass flow can be determined using the relation:

pcA t
m=
c*

Where pc is the combustion chamber pressure, At the throat area and c* the characteristic velocity. Of
these, the combustion chamber pressure is given and the throat area can be determined using the given
expansion ratio and nozzle exit area. From annex B, we find for the characteristic velocity a value
somewhere in between 2266,4 and 2223,4 m/s. Using linear interpolation, we find a value for c* of
2240,6 m/s. It now follows for the mass flow in the thrust chamber:

105 ×10 5 ⋅ π / 4 ⋅1,76 2 / 45

m= = 253,4kg / s
2240,6

Exhaust velocity follows using:

  (γ −1)  
 2γ   pe  γ  
Ve =  RTc 1 −   
 γ − 1   pc   
  
Where γ is specific heat ratio, R is specific gas constant given by the ratio of the absolute gas constant
RA and the molar mass M, Tc the temperature in the combustion chamber, and pe/pc the inverse of the
nozzle pressure ratio.

1
Ideal rocket motor theory allows for the prediction of rocket thrust, specific impulse and mass flow
with an (in)accuracy better than 10-15%. For a detailed description of ideal rocket theory, the reader is
referred to for example [1, 2].

50
For the known mixture ratio and expansion ratio, the values for the above parameters follow directly
from annexes B and C. It follows for the value of the exhaust velocity:

  (1,126−1)  
 2 ⋅1,126 8314,32   1  1,126  
Ve =  ⋅ ⋅ 3289 ⋅ 1 −     = 4190m / s
 1,126 − 1 13,6   400  
  

Exit pressure follows from the known pressure ratio and combustion pressure, giving an exit pressure
of 0,25 x 105 N/m2 (0,25 bar). Taking an atmospheric pressure of 0 bar, it follows for the thrust:

( )
F = 253,4 × 4190 + 0,25 × 10 5 ⋅ π / 4 ⋅1,76 2 = 1123 K kN

Specific impulse calculation

The specific impulse follows using:

F
I sp =
(m ⋅ g o )
Where go is the acceleration of free fall at sea level (9,80665 m/s2). It follows:

1123 × 10 3
I sp = = 451,9s
(253,4 ⋅ 9,80665)

Propellant mass calculation

Using the earlier calculated mass flow and the given oxidiser-to-fuel mass ratio, we find for the
oxidiser (subscript ‘ox’) and hydrogen mass flow (subscript ‘f’), respectively:

O/F 6,3
m ox = ⋅m = ⋅ 253,4 = 218,7 kg / s
O / F +1 7,3

And:

mf = m − mox = 253,4 − 218,7 = 34,7kg / s

For the given burn time we find for the propellant mass:

M ox = m ox ⋅ t b = 218,7 ⋅ 600 = 131220kg

M f = m f ⋅ t b = 34,7 ⋅ 600 = 20820kg
M tot = M ox + M f = 131220 + 20820 = 152040kg

51
Propellant volume and throughput calculation

Using annex B, we find as fuel density 73,8 kg/m3 and oxidiser density 1140 kg/m3. Using this data, it
follows for the propellant volume:

Vox = M ox / ρox = 131220 / 1140 = 115,1m3

Vf = M f / ρ f = 20820 / 73,8 = 282,1m3
Vtot = Vox + Vf = 115,1 + 282,1 = 397,2m3

And for the propellant density:

ρ p = M tot / Vtot = 152040 / 397,2 = 382,8kg / m 3

For the propellant throughput follows:

Q ox = m ox / ρ ox = 218,7 / 1140 = 192l / s

Q f = m f / ρ f = 34,7 / 73,8 = 470l / s

Summary of results

The table below summarises some of the calculated data. For comparison, also the actual values are
given.

Table D-1: HM60 calculated versus actual engine characteristics

Parameter Calculated value Practice [3] Difference
Vacuum thrust (kN) 1123 1075 +4,5%
Vacuum specific impulse (sec) 451,9 430 +5,1%
Mass flow (kg/s) 253,4 255 -0,6%
Oxidiser mass (kg) 131220 130600 +0,5%
Fuel mass (kg) 20820 25600 -18,7%
Oxidiser volume (m3) 115,1 120 -4,1%
Fuel volume (m3) 282,1 390 -27,7

Discussion

Comparing the results, we find that most calculated data fall within 10% of the actual data. The only
exception is the hydrogen mass and consequently also the hydrogen volume. To explain for the larger
difference in hydrogen mass, it is mentioned that the HM60 uses additional fuel to provide cooling for
the engine and to pressurise the fuel tank. This is indicated by the overall mixture ratio being different
from the mixture ratio in the combustion chamber. When taking this difference into account, we find a
total fuel mass of 24748 kg, which leaves a difference of only –3,3%.

References
1. Rocket propulsion elements (5th ed.), G.P. Sutton, John Wiley & Sons, 1986
2. Space propulsion analysis and design, R.W. Humble et al, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Primis
Custom Publishing, 1995.
3. Ariane 5 Main Stage Propulsion System, SEP bulletin, June 1991.

52