Dennis Organ is generally considered the father of OCB.

Organ (1988) defines OCB as

“individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal
reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization”
(p. 4). Organ’s definition of OCB includes three critical aspects that are central to this construct.
First, OCBs are thought of as discretionary behaviors, which are not part of the job description,
and are performed by the employee as a result of personal choice. Second, OCBs go above and
beyond that which is an enforceable requirement of the job description. Finally, OCBs contribute
positively to overall organizational effectiveness.

Organ’s (1988) definition of OCB has generated a great deal of criticism. The very nature of the
construct makes it difficult to operationally define. Critics started questioning whether or not
OCBs, as defined by Organ, were discretionary in nature. Organ (1997), in response to
criticisms, notes that since his original definition, jobs have moved away from a clearly defined
set of tasks and responsibilities and have evolved into much more ambiguous roles. Without a
defined role, it quickly becomes difficult to define what is outside of that role. What might be
considered an extra-role behavior to one manager or subordinate might be considered in-role to
another. What behaviors are and are not extra-role also vary greatly by job. However, at some
point there must be some sort of a distinction. Certainly, not every single productive thing
everyone does at work is part of task performance. If every beneficial action that an employee
performs at work is defined as part of the ‘job,’ then OCB ceases to exist.

Another area of substantial debate is the idea that OCBs are not formally rewarded. Organ (1997)
explains that OCBs may at some point encourage some sort of reward, but that these rewards
would be indirect, uncertain, and not within the contractually guarantied formal rewards system.
However, Organ admits that there has been some research that proves OCBs are just as likely to
lead to monetary reward than in-role performance. Thus, Organ has suggested that we eliminate
this path of thinking when considering the definition of OCB. Instead, he would prefer us to
consider OCB as “performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which
task performance takes place” (Organ, 1997, p. 95).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_citizenship_behavior

Two main facets of OCB are mentioned in previous studies: (1) OCB altruistic, and (2) OCB compliance.
Whereas altruism appears to represent the help to specific persons, generalized compliance is a factor
defined by a more impersonal sort of conscientiousness. It implies more of a "good soldier" or "good
citizen" syndrome of doing things that are "right and proper", but doing them for the sake of the system
rather than for specific persons. In the view of Smith et al. (1983), the two elements represent distinct
classes of citizenship.

http://docs.google.com/viewer?
a=v&q=cache:gjbQHK6jn3QJ:poli.haifa.ac.il/~eranv/material_vigoda/Tez-
Abstract.doc+organisational+citizenship+behavior&hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiD2PwxCQoXKCrs
kUqyaC9i92oLJmMVcVF2xYDJwUXtTKCen1gRmYxCKExX6aX5TBAUh12GCj_0Lf7IvGvG2jEaJ_BmBF6dmoX
3cmBLgTNuDsgBlZkvu-Xk6yaY9esPx6AF0yH1&sig=AHIEtbSH2bS8XjCRFUcFe_BNat9Ma38tKQ&pli=1

Organ's (1988) five categories of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)

Conscientiousness means that employees carry out inrole behaviors (i.e., individual task performance)
well beyond the minimum required levels. Altruism implies that they give help to others. Civic virtue
suggests that employees responsibly participate in the political life of the organization. Sportsmanship
indicates that people do not complain, but have positive attitudes. Courtesy means that they treat
others with respect.

http://www.allbusiness.com/labor-employment/human-resources-personnel-management/11444369-
1.html

Organizational Citizenship Behavior Concepts

Organizational citizen is a person who exhibits discretionary behaviors beyond its role,
duties and official job description. An organizational citizen is not seeking rewards from the
organization for his discretionary behaviors. In fact, his behavior roots in his job devotion on
the belief that his discretionary behavior will be helpful organization progress. Therefore, he
makes additional attempts for improvement and advancement of the organization. [2] Earlier
researches in OCB were mostly conducted to identify employees’ responsibilities and/or
behaviors in organization that were often overlooked. Although the measurements of these
behaviors were incomplete in traditional job performance evaluations and even sometimes
were overlooked, but they were helpful in improving organizational effectiveness [3].

Organizational citizenship behavior is a personal and volunteer behavior that is not

mentioned directly in official rewards system of an organization. However, it contributes to
effectiveness and efficiency in an organization [4]. A collection of volunteer and non-
obligatory behavior that is not defined in the official employee job descriptions but contribute
to effective improvement of duties and roles in an organization [5]. These definitions
emphasize on three main characteristics of citizenship behavior. The behavior should: 1) be
voluntary (they are not predefined obligations and are not included in official job
descriptions), 2) be beneficial to organization and 3) be multi-dimensional.,A good
organizational citizen not only should be aware of current issues of an organization but also
should express an opinion about them and actively participate in solving organizational
problems [6].,This set of behaviors is not explicitly and directly mentioned in official rewards
system of an organization but it contributes to effectiveness of organizational operations [7].
This background identifies two main approaches related to the definition of OCB.
Intra-role and Extra-role Behavior
Earlier researchers defined organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) without regard to
intra-role performance. They stressed that OCB should be considered as an extra-role
behavior. This assumption emphasizes the fact that for a factor,as an important determinant
activity, to be considered as an OCB activity depends on how wide employees interpret
(define) the scope of their job responsibilities [8].,An applied theory follows this argument:
the definition of OCB is reflective of the understanding of employees from the scope of their
job responsibilities. A number of studies confirmed this theory. They proved that the
boundary is not well defined - it varies from employee to employee. The behavior also
changes from employees to supervisors within intra-role and extra-role.
Consequently, this approach is in conflict with what researches mainly conceptualize as
OCB.,Some other researches describe differences in behavior from one hand and OCB
conceptualization from the other and try to find relationship between them. For example,
Organ believes that there is a critical difference between these two types of activity; are
these behaviors rewarded; and, are they punishable in case of omission. OCB and related
activities should be understood independent of official reward system as OCB is considered
a behavior that is not rewarded by the organization. [6]
Positive Behaviors in Organization
Another approach considers OCB independent of job performance. Using this approach
makes differentiation between intra-role and extra-role performances unnecessary. This
approach considers OCB as a general concept that includes all employees’ positive and
constructive behaviors within an organization along with their complete and responsible
contributions. [7] Graham classifies organizational citizenship behavior and believes that
these behaviors are reflective of the salary an organization is paying to an employee. In this
context, organizational citizenship rights include employment equality, employee evaluation,
and attending to employee complains. When employees realize that they have
organizational citizenship rights, they are most likely to show citizenship behavior
(obligatory type). On the other hand, the organizational social rights - including equal
treatments of employees for salary and benefit increases, and social status - have similar
influence on employees’ behavior. When employees believe that they have organizational
social rights, they show loyalty to organization and express citizenship behavior (loyalty
type).
When employees observe that their policy rights are respected in the organization and they
are allowed to participate in decision making in organizational policy formulation, they show
citizenship behavior (participatory type). [3] Citizenship behavior is generally a valuable and
beneficial behavior that employees exhibit voluntary and on their own. Based on these
definitions, an individual as an organizational citizen is expected to contribute more than
what is required of his role and beyond his official responsibilities towards organizational
Objectives. In other word, OCB structure is looking out to identify, manage and evaluate
extra-role behavior of employees in an organization. These behaviors improve
organizational effectiveness. [3]

http://www.wbiconpro.com/27.Nezakati.pdf

A study to improve OCB

http://www.mssanz.org.au/MODSIM03/Volume_03/B14/03_Chien_Behaviours.pdf
http://docs.google.com/viewer?
a=v&q=cache:fVECtzhlH3UJ:www.icaew.com/index.cfm/route/116497/icaew_ga/pdf+organisational+ci
tizenship+behavior&hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi598-
tqyATGRtQyAzVhwGa30lVEMFBOk6VeH30yEonbsuuF8aK2X089-
3sMlyG5hA7FQYxZUwk1lxdDWqBWegwXlyDH9zE-
BgbERnxKWcQqeurWTaeAuHZBFvL1xAbgjlFNWQi&sig=AHIEtbSbFb8KCg53D27yvEKaR-nkhk4T8A

Importance of OCB

The theory of OCB includes introducing the proper decision making styles among the servant serving
during the job in the firm. Every day market trend and style keeps on changing to set new and high set
of standard, the organization has to follow the certain principles of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
to achieve the fleet of glory.  This factor infact adds in the mindset of the employee’s new innovative
ideas and sportsmanship to work collectively and effectively in making the organization successful. This
infact introduces the selfless concern to work as team not as a group for the success of the firm. So the
organizations hire the human resources department to bridge the gap of proper communication channel
between the employees on one hand and the management team on other hand. If the communication
between the two teams is not channeled properly then it can lead to dangerous scenario like employees
leaving the organization. So to retain the employees the human resources departments play a vital role.

The Organizational Citizenship Behavior introduces the new innovative ideas, which are channeled to
the employees in time to time through proper media or source. The organization even arranges
seminars, which lays the guidelines how to implement the theory of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
among the employees. Although it may not be a mandatory for any individual to attend the theory of
OCB but it informs the employees of the firm about the changes occurring in the firm from time to time.
Thus it introduces civic virtue among the employees for the growth of the organization. The OCB factor
infact bridges the gap not only between the management team and employee, but also removes the
conflict among them to unite together to march forward to attain success. It self motivates the
individuals to attain the peak of success in the competitive world.

http://www.organizationalculturefacts.com/organizational-citizenship-behavior.html

Antecedents of OCB

It is important to note that OCBs have been categorised on the basis of common themes or
dimensions, and include altruism or helping behaviour, conscientiousness, organisational
compliance, individual initiative and civic virtue (Podsakoff et al, 2000). Some researchers (e.g.
Williams & Anderson, 1991) have also divided OCB into two types: behaviour that is directed at
individuals in the organisation (OCBI) and behaviour that is concerned with helping the
organisation as a whole (OCBO). A wide range of employee, task, organisational and leader
characteristics are consistently found to predict different types of OCB across a range of
occupations (Podsakoff et al, 2000). This section considers the various individual and
organisational variables commonly found to affect an employee's willingness to engage in OCB.
Job satisfaction and organisational commitment

Along with job satisfaction, affective organisational commitment is the most common affective
dimension cited as an antecedent of OCB. Affective commitment is conceptualized as a strong
belief in, and acceptance of, an organisation's goals and a strong desire to maintain membership
in the organisation (Van Dyne et al., 1995). Because affective commitment maintains
behavioural direction when there is little expectation of formal rewards (Allen & Meyer, 1996),
it would seem logical that affective commitment drives those behaviours that do not depend
primarily on reinforcement or formal rewards.

Leader behaviours

Leadership appears to have a strong influence on an employee's willingness to engage in OCBs.

However, rather than being associated with a particular leadership style, research finds that it is
the quality of an employee's relationship with his or her leader that counts (Podsakoff et al.,
2000). The quality of the relationship between a subordinate and a leader is often called leader-
member exchange (LMX). Another leadership variable positively related to OCB is the leaders'
contingent reward behaviours, such as expressing satisfaction or appreciation for good
performance (Podsakoff et al, 2000). Leadership behaviours may also influence OCB indirectly
via employee perceptions of fairness or justice in the workplace.

Fairness perceptions

Fairness or justice perceptions refer to whether or not employees feel organisational decisions
are made equitably and with the necessary employee input (usually called procedural justice)
and whether or not employees perceive that they are fairly rewarded given their level of training,
tenure, responsibility or workload (called distributive justice). Perceptions of fairness are
positively related to OCB (Moorman, 1991).

Role perceptions

Role perceptions (or role stressors as they are sometimes called) include perceptions such as role
conflict and role ambiguity, both of which have been found to be significantly negatively related
to OCBs. On the other hand, role clarity and role facilitation are positively related (Podsakoff et
al., 2000). However, since both role ambiguity and role conflict are known to affect employee
satisfaction, and satisfaction is related to OCB, it is likely that at least a portion of the
relationship between ambiguity, conflict and OCBs is mediated by satisfaction.

Individual dispositions

Personality variables including positive affectivity, negative affectivity, conscientiousness and

agreeableness have all been found to predispose people to orientations that make them more
likely to engage in OCBs (Organ & Ryan, 1995). OCB does not seem to depend on traits such as
extraversion, introversion, or openness to change. The fact that OCB is conceptualised as a set of
behaviours primarily influenced by perceptions of the workplace (rather than by enduring
personal traits) might be why measures of personality have not been widely applied in studies of
OCB. Nonetheless, personality may be an important measure in order to control for its influence
on behaviour or to investigate any moderating effects it may have.

How these characteristics relate to burnout

In considering how these same variables might exacerbate teacher strain and exhaustion (via low
LMX, low rewards, injustice, etc), and how strain might in turn affect OCB, it is tempting to
conclude prima facie that workers who experience high levels of strain will engage in less OCB.
Indeed, experimental social research has found that a reliable after-effect of task overload, lack
of feedback and other stressors is a disinclination to help others (Cohen, 1980; Motowildo,
Packard & Manning, 1986). However, this assumption has not been empirically tested in
organisational or educational contexts, and in fact other social psychological research suggests
that people obtain intrinsic satisfaction, a "warm afterglow" and feelings of "success" subsequent
to engaging in helpful or prosocial behaviours (Krebs, 1970; Tang, Hamid & Ibrahim, 1998).
Thus, in a complex and ever-changing work environment, the relationship between OCB and
stress is not likely to be as clear-cut as in experimental situations. The following section
summarizes relevant findings on a notable type of stress - psychological burnout - in an attempt
to shed light on the possible relationships between stress and OCB.

http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/han02173.htm

EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT

Employee engagement, also called work engagement or worker engagement, is a business

management concept. An "engaged employee" is one who is fully involved in, and enthusiastic about,
his or her work, and thus will act in a way that furthers their organization's interests. According to
Scarlett Surveys, "Employee Engagement is a measureable degree of an employee's positive or negative
emotional attachment to their job, colleagues and organization which profoundly influences their
willingness to learn & perform at work". Thus engagement is distinctively different from satisfaction,
motivation, culture, climate and opinion and very difficult to measure.

The 3 aspects of employee engagement

Global studies suggest that there are three basic aspects of employee engagement:
· The employees and their own unique psychological make up and experience.
· The employers and their ability to create the conditions that promote employee
engagement.
· Interaction between employees at all levels.
Employee engagement creates greater motivation within employees for the work they do
and increases their commitment to the organisation. It is about creating an enthusiasm for
their roles, their work and the organisation, and ensuring they are aligned with the values
of the organisation, well informed and well integrated with their colleagues and the fabric
or culture of the
organisation.
http://www.opcuk.com/downloads/defining_employee_engagement.pdf
Websites are so vague for this!!!
http://books.google.co.in/books?
id=Vnjy9qFf54QC&pg=PT196&dq=employee+engagement+activities&hl=en&ei=JLo-
TdmaMsXHrQejuuncCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&
q=employee%20engagement%20&f=false

http://books.google.co.in/books?
id=l9VNaswCg8sC&pg=PR6&dq=employee+engagement+activities&hl=en&ei=JLo-
TdmaMsXHrQejuuncCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CFMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage
&q=employee%20engagement%20activities&f=false

http://docs.google.com/viewer?
a=v&q=cache:nKlR6DQo7joJ:www.learnership.co.uk/archive/29.pdf+employee+engagement+meaning&
hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiDJFdUmWYE_wW6ZUj-TbxeIb33cejdHt29a1NBYxxMJ7-jZfCIY-
eJjp53rc1fnpx5PVadHEOL-ek4DR0kiBz9QU-
RE9Qpq41TZLaYf_kCybXfHd3TCXxjc1QfAybLJf5n9OMt&sig=AHIEtbRDXZI-KFuRfK1DVJOfJiRzpBkuZQ

Differences between actively, moderately and non engaged persons

4 drivers of engagement

http://books.google.co.in/books?id=nMUExSMU-
CcC&pg=PA292&dq=employee+engagement+activities&hl=en&ei=JLo-
TdmaMsXHrQejuuncCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGoQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage
&q=employee%20engagement%20activities&f=false

At least four of the studies agreed on these eight key drivers.

 Trust and integrity – how well managers communicate and 'walk the talk'.
 Nature of the job –Is it mentally stimulating day-to-day?
 Line of sight between employee performance and company performance – Does the
employee understand how their work contributes to the company's performance?
 Career Growth opportunities –Are there future opportunities for growth?
 Pride about the company – How much self-esteem does the employee feel by being
associated with their company?
 Coworkers/team members – significantly influence one's level of engagement
 Employee development – Is the company making an effort to develop the employee's
skills?
 Relationship with one's manager – Does the employee value his or her relationship with
his or her manager?

Other key findings include the fact that larger companies are more challenged to engage
employees than are smaller companies, while employee age drives a clear difference in the
importance of certain drivers. For example, employees under age 44 rank "challenging
environment/career growth opportunities" much higher than do older employees, who value
"recognition and reward for their contributions".

http://www.management-issues.com/2007/3/8/opinion/employee-engagement-what-exactly-is-it.asp

OCB and Employee engagement

http://www.employment-studies.co.uk/news/129theme.php

Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ( OCB) literature - this predates employee engagement, but is
highly relevant to it. The review of OCB literature by Barkworth (2004) (paper presented as Appendix 2
in Robinson et al 2004) defines its key characteristic as behaviour that is discretionary or 'extra-role', so
that the employee has a choice over whether they perform such behaviour. These behaviours include
voluntarily helping of others, such as assisting those who have fallen behind in their work, and
identifying and stopping work-related problems in the first place. As these types of behaviour are not
normally part of the reward system, absence of such behaviours is therefore not punishable by the
organisation but performance of them should lead to effective running of it.

2.11 Over 30 different forms of OCBs have been identified and defined and these have been classified by
Podsakoff et al. (2000) in Barkworth's paper (2004) (paper presented as Appendix 2 in Robinson et al)
into seven themes:

* Helping behaviour - voluntarily helping others

* Sportsmanship - being able to carry on with a positive attitude in the face of adversity and being
willing to set aside personal interests for the good of the group
* Organisational loyalty - promoting the organisation to the outside world, and staying committed to
it, even when doing so could involve a personal sacrifice
* Organisational compliance - following organisational rules even when not being monitored
* Individual initiative - demonstrating performance over and above what is expected
* Civic virtue - macro-level interest in the organisation as a whole, such as a loyal citizen would display
towards their country
* Self-development - voluntarily improving one's own knowledge, skills and abilities in such a way as
to be helpful to the organisation.

2.12 OCB links very strongly to employee engagement as it focuses on securing commitment and
involvement which lies outside contractual parameters - often referred to as the individual 'going the
extra mile'.

2.13 In terms of the impact of OCBs on organisational effectiveness, three behaviours: helping
behaviour, sportsmanship and civic virtue, appear to lead to performance gains. The fact that helping
behaviour was not beneficial in all studies 2 raises the issue of the context in which the behaviours are
to occur, as they will not be suitable in all situations.

2.14 Further, Barksworth (2004) (paper presented as Appendix 2 in Robinson et al 2004) notes research
by Organ and Ryan (1995), which found that attitudinal variables such as job satisfaction, organisational
commitment, fairness and leader supportiveness all have a positive relationship with OCB. Task-related
variables are also identified in this literature as important antecedents to OCB. Barksworth (2004) (paper
presented as Appendix 2 in Robinson et al 2004) quotes Podsakoff's (2000) findings that such variables
as feedback and satisfying tasks are significantly correlated to altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness,
sportsmanship and civic virtue.

2.15 Variables that have a negative relationship include breach of the psychological contract 3, abusive
supervision and task routinisation. All of these issues are, in some way, linked to leadership style and
behaviour, either directly or more subtly. Therefore, the obvious starting point in trying to harness OCB
should be from the top-down, as the impact made by leaders and managers does seem to affect the
demonstration of OCB. This finding links strongly to the role of management in securing engagement -
see later discussion.

2.16 How does employee engagement differ? It appears that engagement, although sharing strong
characteristics with each of these two concepts is about more than commitment and/or OCB on their
own. Rafferty et al (2005) draw the distinction on the basis that engagement is a two-way mutual
process between the employee and the organisation. Sharpley (2006) (as cited in Harrad 2006) also
points out that it is important to distinguish between motivation and engagement, as it is possible to be
motivated in one's job without necessarily feeling an attachment to the organisation. In Sharpley's
(2006) (as cited in Harrad 2006) definition of engagement there must be a mutual feeling of support
between the employee and the organisation.

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/05/09111348/3

http://docs.google.com/viewer?
a=v&q=cache:fdUVkQhw0lcJ:www.ilr.cornell.edu/cahrs/research/pubs/SpecialTopics/upload/Employee
EngagementFinal.pdf+Employee+engagement+and+OCB&hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgfBqIh5Zx
vhpQvmcAJvULG5iQ3cg-yjuqwk-9vjrHEFM_9JNaMCc2jDtS6pdWbvOWiIykh-
uc7sBjI42dGUCoMlCPlsu9maqB6ybBI7K8N_foQTSJUORvSKOZI55bgNJ-
IoOb9&sig=AHIEtbR11bEMxVsL2k8U6TLrzOdz1A-xGQ