Motivating Students To Engage in Learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation

Abstract
Motivating Students to Engage in Learning:

The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation
Brett Virginia
([email protected])
Jones Tech
Abstract:
The purpose of this article is to present a model
of academic motivation that can be used by
instructors to design courses that will engage
students in learning. The model, based on
research and theory, consists of five components
that an instructor should consider when designing
instruction: (1) empowerment, (2) usefulness, (3)
success, (4) interest, and (5) caring. In this
article, I describe the components of the model
by discussing the key concepts of the
components, summarizing the background
research and theories that support the importance
of the components, and providing questions,
suggestions, and examples that instructors should
consider when designing instruction. My hope is
that novice, as well as experienced, instructors
will find this model and the associated
suggestions and examples useful as a reference
tool to which they can refer when designing
instruction.
Copyright © 2010, International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Abstract
Service Learning as an Opportunity for

Personal and Social Transformation
Steven Roosevelt
([email protected])
Meyers University
Abstract:
Service-learning can be used as a teaching tool to
promote social justice, and its implementation
can encourage both students’ personal
development and social engagement. In this
article, I illustrate how service-learning can help
students become more self-aware, appreciative of
diversity, and agents of social change. This
process involves students reaching out to
marginalized populations through community
placements, reaching in through detailed
reflection and introspection about their attitudes
and experiences, and reaching around their
communities through advocacy and activism to
address social problems that are evident at field
sites. I include supporting qualitative data that
document how these experiences impacted
students’ personal growth and civic participation.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Abstract
Photovoice as a Teaching Tool: Learning By

Doing with Visual Methods
University of
Kara
Saskatchewa ([email protected])
Schell
n
University of
Alana
Ferguson
n
Rita University of
Hamolin Saskatchewa ([email protected])
e n
University of
Jenn
Shea
n
Roanne University Of
([email protected]
Thomas- Saskatchewa
)
MacLean n
Abstract:
There has been a lack of research done on in-class
teaching and learning using visual methods. The
purpose of this article is to demonstrate an enriched
teaching and learning experience, facilitated by a
Photovoice project, in an Advanced Methodology
class where sociology graduate students were
exposed to various social research methods and
methodologies. Students were asked to take
photographs that would represent a research interest
or a lived experience based in their own social world.
The article weaves four students and the professor’s
experiences to document the impact the Photovoice
project had on each of them. Through this process, it
was found that Photovoice is a successful tool for
conducting research, teaching students to think
critically, and introducing students to a new medium
to create knowledge. Students experienced what it is
like to be a researcher and a participant in a
qualitative research project and discovered the
overwhelming potential visual methods have to
inform society about lived experiences.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Abstract
An Instructional Model for Preparing

Teachers for Fieldwork
California
Jacqueline State
([email protected])
Hughes University,
Bakersfield
Abstract:
Teacher education and the teaching profession
are adapting to innovative methods to ensure the
professional longevity and effectiveness of those
who become educators. This is particularly
important because of the early, and sometimes
abrupt, exit of beginning teachers from the
profession. Clearly, to mitigate such early exodus
from the profession, those responsible for teacher
education must examine how they prepare
student teachers and whether or not they are
equipped to face the realities of the classroom
when they enter the profession. This paper
presents a modality that engages pre-
professionals or student teachers in meaningful
and productive field experiences that will
improve student teachers’ learning. The author
presents an instructional model that can be
applied to prepare student teachers for more
effective field experiences that will improve their
learning.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2009, Volume 21, Number 3, 340-352
http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/ ISSN 1812-9129
Photovoice as a Teaching Tool:
Learning by Doing with Visual Methods
Kara Schell, Alana Ferguson,
Rita Hamoline, Jennifer Shea, and Roanne Thomas-Maclean
University of Saskatchewan
There has been a lack of research done on in-class teaching and learning using visual methods. The
purpose of this article is to demonstrate an enriched teaching and learning experience, facilitated by
a Photovoice project, in an Advanced Methodology class where sociology graduate students were
exposed to various social research methods and methodologies. Students were asked to take
photographs that would represent a research interest or a lived experience based in their own social
world. The article weaves four students and the professor’s experiences to document the impact the
Photovoice project had on each of them. Through this process, it was found that Photovoice is a
successful tool for conducting research, teaching students to think critically, and introducing students
to a new medium to create knowledge. Students experienced what it is like to be a researcher and a
participant in a qualitative research project and discovered the overwhelming potential visual
methods have to inform society about lived experiences.
Increasingly, qualitative researchers have embraced
visual methods, including photography, as a means to
create knowledge and convey understanding (Gibbs,
Friese, & Mangabeira, 2002; Pink, Kurti & Afonso,
2004). However, there has been little discussion about
the ways in which students and other researchers might
begin to learn about the instructional uses of
photography. Visual methods have tremendous
potential both inside and outside of the classroom.
However, without discussion of pedagogical uses, the
potential of these methods for furthering understanding
of various social issues may not be recognized, even
though scholars such as Harrison (2002) state that
visual imagery can give strong insight into “wider
cultural perceptions, categories, and metaphors, and
provide us with views of how things are or should be”
(p. 857). Our work, shared in this article, represents
one example of the ways in which visual imagery can
be used to enhance learning experiences.
Bagley and Cancienne (2002) write of “voices of
imagery” (p. 126), which is an appropriate way to
describe our unique work with photography that bridges
some of the gaps between teaching, learning, and
research in the context of visual methods. This article
features a compilation of voices and imagery resulting
from a Photovoice project in a research methods course
at the University of Saskatchewan, in Canada. Wang
(1999) defines Photovoice as a “process which people
can identify, represent, and enhance their community
through a specific photographic technique” (p. 185). It
enables participants to share their stories by taking
photographs and involves selecting images that most
accurately reflect the issues, explaining what the
photographs mean, and identifying theories, issues and
themes that appear (Wang, 2005). It is often used in
community-based participatory research projects and
employed with the intentions of 1) empowering those
who are silenced, and 2) promoting social change
(Wang, 2005) in areas such as health (Carlson,
Engebretson & Chamberlain, 2006), Indigenous studies
(Castleden, Garvin & Huu-ay-aht First Nations, 2008;
Moffit & Vollman, 2004), women’s issues (Frohmann,
2005), and economically and ethnically diverse groups
of people (Radley, Hodgetts & Cullen, 2005).
The course, entitled Advanced Methodology, is
taken for fulfillment of graduate degrees in the
Department of Sociology. In 2007, the class included
several assignments and labs that encouraged students
to learn qualitative research techniques and to
experience being a researcher “in the field.” The
instructor, Dr. Roanne Thomas-MacLean, assigned a
photography lab based on the Photovoice concept
developed by Wang and Burris (1997). The focus of
the assignment, through the application of photography,
data analysis, and knowledge dissemination, was not
only to foster and enhance research skills but also to
provide insight about issues relevant to qualitative
research, including an awareness of social issues
(Carlson, Engebretson & Chamberlain, 2006), the links
between the researcher and the researched (Shah, 2006;
Snelling, 2005), and the self-reflective and interpretive
nature of qualitative social science methods (Creswell,
2003; Mason, 2002).
We have brought together voices that describe this
visual assignment, which utilized photography as a way
to attach imagery to lived experiences. This work
details an exceptional teaching and learning experience
for students and the instructor. As students in the class,
participating in this assignment not only gave us unique
insight into our social lives but also presented us with
an opportunity to explore ideas and create our own
meaning by applying our knowledge and actively
engaging in the learning process. It was a positive
learning experience in which we could begin to explore
Schell, Ferguson, Hamoline, Shea, and Thomas-Maclean Photovoice 341
researcher and participant dynamics in sociological,
visual, and qualitative methods. The inclusion of visual
methods as a learning tool in the classroom proved to
be very powerful. As for the instructor, it was the first
time she developed collaborative relationships with
students more akin to a research team rather than the
student-teacher relationship. This is the only course
resulting in a publication for all authors, whose history
includes many years of undergraduate and graduate
courses as students and well over ten years of university
teaching for the instructor.
Although we discuss the process in more detail in
the methodology section of this article, in summary, the
class was introduced to Photovoice through
presentations and journal articles utilizing the method.
Each student was asked to create his or her own
Photovoice project that incorporated ongoing research
or conveyed a personal experience. Herein, we discuss
the elements involved in the Photovoice assignment and
focus on the benefits of this class project, which
facilitated an immense learning experience for us
compared to other classroom settings. We were able to
view our world, as sociology students and as
individuals, through a new lens, to develop as
qualitative researchers, and to expand our
understanding of meaning and knowledge. This article
is essentially our “voices of imagery” (Bagley &
Cancienne, 2002, p. 126) which were brought together
in the context of our course.
Relevant Literature
Key ideas associated with sociological research
and visual images provide the foundations for our work.
The first issue discussed here is the use of visual images
in sociological research. We then highlight issues
associated with teaching visual sociology in the
classroom setting.
Visual Sociology in Research Methods
A multidisciplinary review of the literature shows
that there has been an evolution of visual research over
time. Some forms were already being employed in the
early nineteenth century (Banks, 1998), and changing
technologies and influential researchers have continued
to expand the understanding and use of visual research:
Mead and Bateson’s (1942) anthropological research is
regarded as highly influential; Garfinkel’s (1967) work
in ethnomethodology established the basis for
expanding visual research to other disciplines; Collier
and Collier (1986) closely examined the use of
photography in ethnographic fieldwork; and Becker’s
sociological work (1974) was important in establishing
the connection between photography and social
research (in Riley & Manias, 2003). However, despite
the development of visual research and the rich history
of photography in anthropology (Cheatwood, 1978),
visual methods have only played a minor role in social
research (Riley & Manias, 2003).
Existing literature makes it clear that there are a
variety of ways images can be used in research: as
documentation; in analysis; as a catalyst to create
knowledge and develop understanding; to track data;
and as data themselves (see Glover-Graf, 2000; Killion,
2001; Riley & Manias, 2004; Samuels, 2004).
Photography is a “powerful research tool” (Riley &
Manias, 2003, p. 89), and while the various uses of
images will depend on the focus and objectives of the
research topic, there is the suggestion that it is possible
to approach any image as sociological inquiry (Grady,
2001). Images have complex histories, including who
produced them, who the intended audience is, and what
they were used for, and “encode an enormous amount
of information in a single display or representation”
(Grady, 2001, p. 85). As Killion (2001) states, “A
single photograph may contain a thousand references”
(p. 50). In sociological inquiry, which explores the
complexity and depth of significance of those things
that often seem commonplace or mundane (Grady,
2001), questions are regularly asked that should
uncover “fascinating, useful and important information
even in seed catalogues” (p. 94). This implies that
photographs of any kind can be highly useful for
research, since they have the potential to stimulate ideas
or raise questions when approached sociologically.
There are a variety of methods used to integrate
photographs into sociology in order to conduct research
and create knowledge. The choice to use photo novella,
Photovoice, or photo elicitation, and the decision to
have photographs taken by the researcher, a participant,
or a professional, provide a number of options to
explore research topics. Each will have different
implications for the research and depend on the nature
of the research focus. What the research question is,
what type of information the researcher wants to gather,
and what type of knowledge the researcher wants to
produce are all issues that need to be taken into account
when deciding how to incorporate photographs in
research (Glover-Graf, 2000; Killion, 2001; Samuels,
2004; Goopy & Lloyd, 2005/2006; Farough, 2006).
Another important element to consider when utilizing
photographs in research is the interpretations of the
photographs – how they are explained and how they are
presented – because people will understand the images
based on their own cultural knowledge (Killion, 2001).
The literature suggests that the value of
photographs to sociological research, however they are
used, lies in their ability to create and support meaningmaking.
Photographs are used to help focus responses
to particular ideas, connect the world of the researcher
and researched, create richer data, and act as a means to
help enhance memory (see Riley & Manias, 2004;
Samuels, 2004; Goopy & Lloyd, 2005/2006; Farough,
2006), thereby eliciting understanding. For example,
nursing students who used photographs to explain their
conceptions of culture’s effects on health were able to
see gaps in knowledge, were exposed to their own
biases, and were able “to see the world through the eyes
of other persons, perhaps for the first time” (Killion,
2001, p. 53). The value of photographs in exploring
understanding and creating new ideas is discussed in
the literature, indicating its use in facilitating meaning
making. As McAllister and Rowe (2003) state,
“analytic skills [including interpretive and meaningmaking
skills] require a degree of playfulness,
passionate engagement, and creativity” that often come
from engaging in unique methods (p. 297).
Teaching Visual Sociology
The literature focusing on teaching visual
sociology creates a picture of the complexity involved
in incorporating the medium in the classroom. Grady
(2001) suggests that many are uncertain about
incorporating visual images because of a discomfort
with camera technology and an unfamiliarity with ideas
and conventions in art history and film criticism.
Therefore, future visual researchers must develop skills
in order to work with photographs, including
developing an understanding of the mechanics of
photography. The widespread use of cameras today
may create the assumption that there is general comfort
and experience with taking photographs, but
professional photography skills are necessary to create
a useful product that will help further sociological
knowledge. Students and researchers need to step
outside of the discipline of sociology in order to learn
about photography technology, including types of
cameras, equipment involved, and techniques used to
take photographs (Cheatwood, 1978). In addition to
knowing the equipment, it is also vital to know how to
take photographs, to have the ability to see the world
with a photographer’s eye, and to become familiar with
editing (Cheatwood, 1978; Grady, 2001).
Along with the mechanics of photography, it is
essential to learn how to think with a critical eye. In
order to make photography sociological, individuals
must learn the broader connection of “visual
conceptualization to the study of society” (Cheatwood,
1978, p. 388). In other words, students and researchers
must be able to see the connections between
photographs and sociological thought. At the same
time, visual images can be used as a way to develop a
critical or qualitative eye (McAllister & Rowe, 2003),
or sociological imagination (Grady, 2001; Hanson,
2002). In addition to analyzing the images, researchers
must also learn how to effectively present their research
and ideas. Therefore, teaching visual sociology should
make students think about the most appropriate way to
package their product, how to present the images to
their audience, and how to link those images to theories
and ideas so they become clear to the audience
(Cheatwood, 1978).
There is also some discussion in the current
literature directed at the actual teaching of visual
sociology in a classroom setting. The variety of uses of
visual images and the various techniques used in
research creates a range of options for the classroom
setting (Grady, 2001), and a review of current literature
indicates that there are opportunities to incorporate
lessons in the classroom that encourage the growth of
visual sociologists and qualitative researchers.
Sociologically analyzing images in the classroom is a
common suggestion to help develop skills in visual
sociology and qualitative research (for example, see
Grady, 2001; McAllister & Rowe, 2003). Showing
students images should also encourage their
imaginations and stimulate their senses (McAllister &
Rowe, 2003). Some literature presents the option of
students generating knowledge in visual sociology by
taking photographs themselves in order to create
understandings of a particular subject or issue such as
health (see Killion, 2001) or disability (see Glover-
Graf, 2000). As Glover-Graf stated, “deep
understandings are gained when students generate
rather than repeat knowledge” (p. 287). Supporting
students sharing their own work, as well as encouraging
classroom discussions, are also techniques that are
beneficial to instructors teaching visual sociologists and
qualitative researchers. Looking at other people’s work
allows one to improve his or her own skills (Grady,
2001), discussion can impress in students the variety of
perspectives that exist (Killion, 2001; McAllister &
Rowe, 2003), and photographs can stimulate discussion
and actually increase participation (Killion, 2001;
Hanson, 2002).
Including visual images and visual research
techniques in classroom instruction should increase the
acceptance of and familiarity with visual sociology and
support the growth of the discipline as its boundaries
are stretched and its capabilities for knowledge creation
are expanded. The visual image is one more tool to
gain understanding of the social world. Exploring the
possibilities of visual images and photography in
sociology will produce new ways to learn and understand:
“As studies show success in thinking and learning visually
instead of or in addition to traditional lectures and verbal
description, a shift in technique is required” (Stokes, 2002,
p. 14). By incorporating visual sociology in the
classroom, such as the case with this Photovoice
assignment, instructors support students’ growth in the
discipline, encourage them to grow as researchers, and
give them the opportunity to learn by doing.
Method
Eleven graduate students from a variety of
disciplines were enrolled in this class. There were
eight women and three men in the class, and the ages
of the students varied: eight were 20 -30 years of age,
two were between age 31-40, and one student was
between ages 41-50. The instructor designed the
course based on previous teaching experiences in the
area of qualitative methods and sociology and
provided students with opportunities to engage in
hands-on exercises comparable to field research. Prior
to beginning the assignment, students received
assignment guidelines and ethics guidelines and
viewed the work of a guest speaker who utilized
Photovoice in her doctoral research. Students were
asked to view the Photovoice website
(www.photovoice.com), and reading materials
pertaining to Photovoice were assigned, including the
work of Carlson, Engebretson and Chamgerlain
(2006), Goopy and Lloyd (2005/2006), and Samuels
(2004). Students were also encouraged to pull from
other course material that would further their ability to
carry out the assignment. While all students had used
digital cameras previously, none had completed any
formal photography or digital camera training.
Cameras were inexpensive models which are widely
available, so no high end or professional
photographers’ cameras were used for the assignment.
The assignment required students to select a topic
to explore, which could be related to current graduate
research or another well-defined topic of interest. The
students were invited to take as many photographs as
they wished but were asked to choose four to eight of
the most valuable to analyze and present. Students
were free to determine the value of the photographs
based on their own consideration, but assignment
guidelines included suggestions such as choosing the
photographs that most revealed the topic or were the
most visually compelling. Following guidelines for
the interpretation of photographic data and pulling
from previous knowledge of sociological theories,
themes and issues, each student was asked to analyze
his or her photographs and share the images and their
interpretations with the class in an eight to ten minute
PowerPoint presentation. The presentations
incorporated a brief explanation of each photograph in
such a way as to explain the significance of the image
– both its intended meaning and its sociological
significance. The presentations had the mimetic
quality of conference presentations with regards to
time, theoretical background, theme, delivery, and
post-presentation questions from peers. Each student
also had to prepare a two to three page brief
highlighting the project’s design, method, and
findings, which was submitted to the instructor.
The methodology noted above provides a general
overview of the assignment and its intended outcomes.
There was variation in topic, theoretical basis, research
procedure, selection criteria, and process of analysis
among the class because the assignment criteria
presented certain freedoms that gave the students the
opportunity to make decisions about the direction of
their work. We, the first four contributing authors of
this article, were students in the class and have each
described our personal, unique account of the
Photovoice project. Our photographs document key
substantive areas in sociology – family, health, religion,
and identity. Kara Schell portrays the changes her
family experienced as her grandmother recovered from
the aftermath of a stroke. Alana Ferguson’s work
depicts a few days in the life of a young mother with
her newborn child and the challenges that this young
woman faced. Rita Hamoline links her project to
ongoing research into the effects of religious
institutions on the health and everyday lives of women.
Jennifer Shea explores the topic of Inter-Provincial
migration, reflecting on her move from the shores of
Newfoundland to the prairies of Saskatchewan.
Following is Dr. Thomas-MacLean’s reflections upon
this assignment. We then recount the things we have
learned from this hands-on classroom experience that
instilled within us the value of images as a teaching
tool, a research method, and a means to construct
knowledge and create understanding.
The Lived Experience
Kara Schell. For this assignment, I decided to
focus on my experiences within a family trying to adapt
and manage after a grandmother suffered a stroke. It
was an opportunity to understand the impact an
individual’s health condition has on a family, as
everybody was involved in aiding her recovery,
creating an environment that would work with her new
limitations, and figuring out how to exist with the
changes that had occurred. Before picking up a camera,
I spent time brainstorming ideas about my own
understanding of the situation and discussed
experiences with family members, considering both the
tangible impact in daily life and the more subjective
thoughts and emotions. I then began taking pictures
that would translate those ideas visually, capturing
images of obvious physical implications caregiving had
around the home (see Appendix A, Photograph 1), and
images that presented or symbolized concerns,
difficulties, and the emotional impact of the situation. I
was able to encapsulate many themes and issues in the
photographs. Two major sociological themes covered
were health and the family, and I was able to cover
issues of changing roles and responsibilities,
dynamics in family relations, the physical presence
of caregiving, the impact on work and daily life, and
the emotions involved. One example is a picture of a
long, empty road surrounded by nothing but fields at
dusk (see Appendix A, Photograph 2). It came about
after a family member and I had both verbalized
thoughts about how difficult and uncertain the path
as a caregiver was. The picture represents a number
of emotions that we had experienced throughout the
process, such as feeling lost, not having a clear
direction in it all, and trying to navigate alone along
an empty path.
This assignment presented opportunities to
engage in new experiences and develop a range of
useful skills throughout the process. The act of
taking photographs required creativity that does not
often get a chance to surface in the classroom setting.
Taking pictures with the purpose of conveying
meaning allowed me to discover a new way of
looking at the world, and there was much careful
consideration needed at this stage of the assignment
as I decided what I would photograph to represent
ideas. When the photographs had been taken, I then
had to consider how to present my ideas, which
images to use, and how to convey the meaning I
attached to each. At that point in the process, I spent
much time thinking about the metaphors, symbolism,
and layers of meaning that were situated in both the
photographs and the issues that I was trying to
present, and I also had to consider how others would
understand the meanings I was conveying. To then
apply my own experiences to sociological thought, I
was required to link my photographs to broader
sociological themes and consider the connections
between my own experiences and bigger issues in
society. I also had to decide how to best present my
product to the class and consider how to clearly
explain my ideas to a wider audience. Sharing my
assignment with the class was a beneficial
experience because it allowed me to develop skills
necessary for presentations and gave me practice in
that type of setting. In general, the whole process of
this assignment was very beneficial to me as a
student, a researcher, and as an individual. It shed
light on a new type of medium to present ideas, and
the project expanded my vocabulary by introducing
me to the use of visual images as a way to convey
and create meaning. I was able to apply knowledge
– theoretical and practical – that I had learned in the
classroom to the assignment, which is an opportunity
not always presented, and most importantly, I was
able to create meaning myself. This Photovoice
project was one of the most instructive and
stimulating assignments I have experienced as a
student, and the opportunity to engage in such a
challenging and rewarding process benefited me
extensively.
Alana Ferguson. I took pictures with a young new
mother who was facing many changes and challenges in
her life. She chose which images would best reflect her
experiences in her new role as a mom, and together we
took fifteen photos inside her home and around the city
in which we live. Her narrative flowed out as we
looked at the photographs and discussed their
significance. The use of images captured emotions and
metaphors where words would not have been enough,
so she was able to express to me her lived experiences
in depth. I was able to connect two main sociological
themes out of her Photovoice, one being the social
stigma the healthcare system attaches to being young
and having a baby. She described a picture of a hospital
(see Appendix A, Photograph 3) as the beginning of
many frustrations that resulted from being treated
unfairly and being made to feel as if she was too young
to have a baby. Other pictures were also taken to
signify the stigmatisation from healthcare workers, but
many photos were captured to represent experiences of
caregiving and to make meaning out of being a mother.
This second theme of caregiving reveals insights found
in the perspective of both sociology of the family and
sociology of religion. Family life was often a struggle
with a husband who was taking full time classes and
leaving her with a lot of responsibility. However, it
was essential for her to acknowledge the support she
did have in her life through a picture of a sign that said
“Faith, Family, Friends.” (see Appendix A, Photograph
4). She felt that without these three things in her life
she could not properly raise a child. Despite the
rollercoaster of emotions and experiences she has had,
she was thankful to be blessed with her baby girl and
viewed her as a gift from God.
The process of working closely with this
participant in such a creative way allowed me to
personally experience the importance of visual methods
in qualitative research. This project facilitated an
immense personal learning opportunity that I can
recognize on three main levels. First, invaluable
research skills were presented to me in working with
Photovoice around the exploration of participantresearcher
dynamics. Having experienced the role of
researcher in working with this young mother greatly
helped me with my Master’s thesis. I was able to learn
what researchers and participants go through together in
participatory research projects; it truly is a joint
endeavour, and often the methodical process is equally
as important as the findings. The second learning
opportunity was through the exposure to connecting
visual images to lived experiences or social realities.
Pictures really do speak volumes of words, and in this
case, the photographs told stories. I was able to see
firsthand the power of Photovoice as a technique to
capture detailed narrative about incidents and emotions
in life and then connect those to the social world around
us. The third level of learning for me came with
presenting this project to the class. It gave me brilliant
insight into how difficult it is to choose which aspects
of research projects to present, how important it is to
be true to a participant’s words but still offer your own
interpretation, and how much of an impact Photovoice
projects can have on other researchers. I related to
others in the class through having undergone a similar
research experience and also through seeing the
emotional connectivity classmates had within their own
Photovoice projects. This was an amazing assignment
to prepare myself for future qualitative projects. I am
thankful to have been given this in-class opportunity to
expand as a researcher, but I am also thankful to have
learned a lot about myself as a person.
Rita Hamoline. This assignment allowed me to
face, examine, and define issues that arose from a
public conflict that was intimately connected to a
personal experience. I drew from sociological concepts
emerging from feminist, conflict, social control and
social constructionist theories. I incorporated
knowledge gained from the sociology of health,
religion, medical sociology, ethnic, and gender relations
that informed the premise for my Master’s thesis. In
The Sociological Imagination (1959), C. Wright Mills
wrote that “urgent public issues and insistent human
troubles” (p. 21) are inexorably connected. The public
and the private cannot be disassociated. Feminists have
long used the phrase “the personal is political,” and I
found that this assignment allowed me, with the use of
a sociological imagination, to center my thoughts on
what the project would reveal.
Keeping C. Wright Mills’ theories in mind
regarding the interconnections between public issues
and private problems, I set out on a cool and gray
February morning to find locations and situations that
would help me link my Master of Arts research to the
Photovoice assignment. I took approximately 50
photographs that focused on the potential for personal
conflict and social identity fragmentation in the lives of
Roman Catholic women who try to balance the choice
between secular contraceptive technologies and
faithfulness to rigid Catholic health mandates for
women regarding birth control, sexuality and personal
agency. The public struggle for women’s autonomy
regarding reproductive choices and historical efforts to
control women’s rights through regulation of their
private sexuality by the Catholic Church fits Mills’
proposed links between the public and the private.
My class presentation and report for the assignment
juxtaposed images of Mary as the eternal and
sacrosanct Virgin against Eve as the eternal and
consummate sinner. The photos noted in this article
illustrate the power of Photovoice concepts and
techniques to help graduate students explore the
creativity of using photography in qualitative research
techniques for knowledge creation and dissemination. I
fashioned a mini-narrative, or a visual metaphor, to
capture the contrast between images of traditional
expectations of female behaviour in the Catholic
Church (see Appendix A, Photograph 5) and women’s
reality of making and living out choices in their
everyday lives in a contemporary world. As a student, I
made meaningful connections in my research between
abstract theory and real life applicability that helped me
to focus my thoughts and create a template for future
work. The old picture, with its worn and faded print
removed from the fragile fame, is recast against a white
cloth (see Appendix A, Photograph 6). The composition
of the photograph suggests a disconnect between
tradition and reality, and the white cloth is a contrast
between the whiteness of purity to which all Catholic
women are to aspire and the white shroud of death that
symbolizes an absence of opportunities to engage in
meaningful debate around Catholic women’s identities
as publicly faithful women and private arbiters of
personal autonomy.
Jennifer Shea. For my Photovoice assignment, I
focused on my recent move and adjustment to
Saskatchewan from Newfoundland. Two key
sociological themes were incorporated: Inter-Provincial
migration and cultural adjustment. As a
Newfoundlander, migration and the acculturation to
new cultures has always been of interest to me given
the high out-migration rates experienced by my birth
province. As Finnie (1999) argues, movement within
Canada enhances diversity through the blending of
provincial cultures and our knowledge of these. In
thinking through this project, I referred to Marshall and
Foster’s (2002) work in which they applied Bourdieu’s
notion of habitus to highlight “the fields of interaction
between two distinctive cultures” (p.64). Habitus refers
to individual’s agency, as exercised through existing
social conventions, rules, and so on. While
Newfoundland and Saskatchewan are unique in their
cultural backgrounds, I was also drawn to identifying
the cultural similarities that are shared by the two. This
assignment provided me the opportunity to further
reflect on the sociological issues and my social
experiences of enculturation in moving to a new
province.
The pictures I took for this assignment were taken
on a cold, dull Sunday in late February of 2007. I drove
through the city seeking images that would reflect my
thoughts and experiences of a new cultural and social
setting. Throughout my drive in the city, I observed
what was different or unique during my adjustment to a
new community, comparing these visual images to what
I had left behind in Newfoundland. I chose to divide my
pictures in three predefined themes: architecture, nature
(see Appendix A, Photograph 7), and animals. In my
final analysis I chose the most compelling, personal
images to include for the in-class presentation and my
assignment write-up. During the presentation, I shared
my narrative and explained my thematic analysis of the
eight images I selected to discuss. A photo of a granary
is one example of an image that was captured, taken
just outside of the city of Saskatoon, to highlight my
theme of architecture (see Appendix, Photograph 8).
Prior to my move to the province of Saskatchewan, I
had never seen a granary. For me the granary
represents a quiet beauty, as well as a shift in
economies. Coming from a fishing dependent province,
I grew up surrounded by the ocean and was used to
seeing boats and water. Having family members
engaged in the fishing livelihood, I recognized that
farming holds the same importance and is as entrenched
in Saskatchewan’s culture as fishing is in
Newfoundland. Although the two industries are very
different, this observed commonality between the two
provinces offered me a sense of comfort and connection
with the home I left behind.
This assignment meant a great deal to me both
personally and academically. Personally this project
gave me the opportunity to reflect upon my move out
west, what it meant to me, and what I left behind.
Academically it provided me with an extremely
valuable learning experience. Through the hands-on
application of the assignment, I felt immersed in this
qualitative method. I feel that I have gained knowledge
and understanding which would have been impossible
to achieve from just completing related readings. This
assignment allowed me to understand roles and
experiences of both the researcher and participant. In
my experiences as a participant, I reflected upon my
future role as a researcher. This project enabled me to
understand how participants may respond to me as a
researcher when I carry out my future research. I
thought about how they may feel in regards to the use
of this method and the topic that we will explore
together. This assignment and my reflection of both
roles will benefit my future research incorporating
Photovoice, as I now feel more knowledgeable about
the method and the meanings and experiences attached
to its application.
Dr. Roanne Thomas-MacLean: Notes from the
instructor. My previous qualitative courses
incorporated assignments and activities that provide
students with opportunities to develop understandings
of methods through close approximation of what
happens in the field. For example, my classes have
utilized mock focus group discussions and interviews.
This course represented the first use of an assignment
utilizing visual methods, prompted by its growing
prominence in qualitative research and based on my
own research of Aboriginal women’s experiences with
breast cancer utilizing Photovoice (Thomas-MacLean,
Poudrier, & Brooks, 2008). Its growing popularity
makes it essential for students to acquire the necessary
skills to use the method in data collection and analysis.
I was quite apprehensive about the process, but the
class in which students shared their photos was the
most profound classroom experience I have had in
about ten years of teaching, as demonstrated in this
article. In fact, while students in other classes produced
“journal-quality” papers, this was the first teachinglearning
experience that lent itself to the actual
production of a manuscript and ongoing collaboration.
I believe it was the nature of Photovoice and the
immediacy of the immersion into one another’s work
that helped to facilitate the collaborative process
between the co-authors of this article. However, our
intent in producing this article has been to promote the
use of visual methods in teaching and learning, and it is
in the spirit of this intent that I offer some ideas about
the benefits and challenges of using photography in the
classroom along with some pragmatic suggestions for
those who might wish to incorporate visual methods in
their own courses.
After completing the assignment, I asked the
students to share what they saw as the benefits of this
assignment. Students liked the fact that they were
asked to do something creative, that they had freedom
to explore whatever subjects they chose, and that they
had the opportunity to share their work with their
classmates. The sharing of the work was vital to the
assignment as it allowed students to see critical thinking
in action as each of them presented their work and their
rationale for taking certain photos. These elements of
sharing interpretations and ideas as they occurred may
be unique to photographs. Students could immediately
see and begin to interpret the “data” or photos of others.
This made the Photovoice assignment quite different
from others such as mock interviews, which provided
opportunities for skill development but did not allow
students to see and hear thought processes in action.
Photos provided immediate feedback to the studentpresenter
but also reminded students that there is a level
of interpretation that occurs when research findings are
read, interpretations that are well beyond the control of
the researcher. Thus, students felt the assignment
helped develop aspects of critical thinking, both as a
collective group and individually. In reflecting upon
photos to be taken and selecting photos to be shared,
students were allowed to branch off into new areas, to
bring their research topics into focus, or to understand
their interests more deeply. The photos required a level
of reflection that exceeded what conventionally occurs
when students get to know a topic through a literature
review and provided detailed perspectives on a variety
of substantive areas within sociology, including family,
religion, gender, and place/space. In short, the use of
Photovoice provided unique learning opportunities for
me and for the students.
Challenges associated with this assignment were
very much centered upon dilemmas faced regularly by
qualitative researchers. Students said they had to work
to envision pictures that could capture experience but
that they also began to appreciate the complexities of
qualitative methods, both for participants and
researchers. While such work has been common to
other assignments (i.e., interviews), working with
photographs seemed to require more awareness of the
skills involved with interpreting data. For instance,
some students said that the selection process was
challenging. Interestingly, this challenge could also be
viewed as a benefit if considered part of the
development of critical thought. Other challenges were
associated with the personal nature of photography and
with balancing personal involvement and work. This
aspect of the assignment provided students with some
firsthand experience in reflexivity, a concept that does
not as readily emerge from an experiential point of
view with respect to interview and focus group
facilitation and analysis. The students’ challenges were
therefore directly connected to the benefits of the
project, thereby illustrating the opportunities for critical
and analytical thinking provided by Photovoice.
More pragmatically, from an instructor’s point of
view, there are a series of challenges that must be
addressed if using visual methods in the classroom.
First, all of the students in the class had access to digital
cameras. While disposable cameras have been used in
Photovoice research, and they are quite accessible, they
are not always reliable. If visual methods are to be
embraced, institutions will likely have to support such
work through the establishment of qualitative research
centers. A second, related challenge associated with
this work is that Photovoice is at a nascent stage.
Students may not have a clear understanding of the
importance of visual methods and their potential use for
understanding social issues. While preparation for this
assignment involved a guest speaker, articles, a
handout, and class discussions, it is possible that more
information about Photovoice could have been
beneficial.
Discussion
While emphasis in the article is on the value of this
Photovoice assignment from a sociological perspective,
our own experiences reveal the compelling potential of
incorporating Photovoice as a teaching and learning
tool into other disciplines such as social work, nursing,
education, and medicine. It presented to us a new way
of understanding the world, it was a challenging and
creative way to encourage critical thinking skills, and
the hands-on nature of the project allowed us to learn
and apply practical research skills, which are all lessons
that can be of use to other disciplines. The assignment
benefited us in a variety of ways, and as a result we
were able to learn not only as sociology students but
also as qualitative researchers and as individuals.
Our experience of Photovoice gave us valuable
hands-on research experience, which was extremely
valuable to our graduate research and our following
work in academic and professional fields. It was
incredibly instructive to learn by doing, and we not only
gained experience specific to the Photovoice process as
we went through the steps to complete the assignment,
but we also learned more broadly as researchers. The
assignment was open-ended in a number of ways,
which required us to make choices that would impact
how our assignments were completed. This was similar
to those decisions made as a research project is planned
and carried out, and exposure to that process benefited
each of us as we were beginning to engage in our
graduate research. The whole of the project gave us a
new level of understanding of the complexities
involved in a research process because we were able to
learn by doing. This Photovoice assignment also
developed our presentation skills, as we were
challenged to decide how to package the project, how to
present the images, and how to convey to the audience
the connection of the photographs to theories and ideas.
The opportunity to create a presentation allowed us to
understand the importance of translating knowledge
effectively, and presenting our research helped us
acquire more skills and experience to prepare us for
conferences and other academic and professional
presentations.
We also filled various roles in the research,
therefore experiencing the project from the points of
view of both researcher and participant. As
participants, we were asked to share our stories or
ideas and portray experiences in photographs. This
was useful as it allowed us to understand the time,
thought, and oftentimes self-disclosure we as
researchers ask of participants. The lesson informed,
and continues to impact, the relationships with our
own participants, as we appreciate the vulnerability
and generosity of those who are involved in our work.
As researchers, we were responsible for analyzing
those personal stories and subjective ideas in order to
connect them to broader ideas within the discipline.
We experienced the great responsibility of
constructing academic themes and ideas to share
publicly from very personal, private stories, which
provided us with a greater appreciation of the
intricacies of qualitative research.
Engaging in the assignment also allowed us to
grow more specifically as qualitative researchers, which
again benefited us academically and professionally.
The assignment allowed us to learn and apply technical
skills of qualitative research such as creating a research
focus, selecting which photographs to use as data, and
analyzing images to create meaning. Because of the
complex nature of qualitative data, we were engaged in
critical thought throughout the assignment in order to
create and present ideas that were meaningful, credible,
and authentic, which we understood more fully after
engaging in the process ourselves. In addition, there
are other skills valuable to qualitative research,
including compassion, passion, integrity, tolerance of
ambiguity, and the willingness to play with ideas
(McAllister & Rowe, 2003, p. 296). Experiencing the
perspectives of the participant and the researcher in this
project allowed us to recognize the importance of these
skills in qualitative research and informed our
understanding of researcher-participant relations.
In addition to developing research skills both
specific to Photovoice and more generally as
qualitative researchers, this assignment also
presented the use of visual images as a legitimate and
valuable way to construct knowledge and create
understanding about the surrounding world. Using
photographs to convey meaning in an academic
setting opened our eyes to a new way to approach
issues, which presented us with another outlet to
explore sociological issues. We were able to use
Photovoice to focus on key areas within the
discipline, such as family, health, religion, and
identity, and it allowed us to construct and express
meaning about themes using a new and creative tool.
The addition of this method in research expands our
ability to express ideas and convey meaning.
Another valuable component of this Photovoice
assignment involves the critical thinking it promoted
throughout the process. We were charged with
generating our own knowledge, and applying this
creative approach sociologically required thought as
we developed our research focus, decided how to
express ideas in photographs, chose which pictures to
present, applied sociological analysis to those
images, and presented them to the class. The
freedom we each had to make decisions about our
assignments created much variation in the process of
taking photographs, the selection of images, the
analysis of the data and connection to themes, and
the theories that directed our understandings. We
were all expected to apply our previous sociological
training to the assignment in order to make meaning
and develop connections between images and
themes, affirming that the history of sociological
theory is not only “a repository of illuminating
insights, but that quality of mind we prize and try
and develop in our students, the sociological
imagination, is, at its simplest, an alert consciousness
poised for insight” (Grady, 2001, p. 97). The
sociological imagination developed through years of
undergraduate and graduate schooling was spurred
on by the creativity demanded by this assignment,
and it led to layers of meaning and depth of
understanding. We also learned from others by
sharing our photographs and their meaning and
sociological themes. It was useful to see the various
perspectives that were constructed out of the same
assignment; every classmate had a unique way of
carrying out the project, of choosing various themes
and ideas to focus on, and of capturing certain
images to convey ideas, which served as a reminder
that each individual has a unique way of seeing the
world.
Through our engagement with this project, our
personal understandings of various social issues
expanded, our critical thinking and research skills
grew, and our understanding of photographic
methods emerged. We were able to see the benefits
and strengths of combining imagery and social
theory within a class setting and, by extension, a
larger dedicated social research agenda.
Conclusions
In the context of teaching and learning
sociology, we have demonstrated immense learning
experiences that can be translated into other
disciplines. Individually this project facilitated
visual insight into our own social lives, challenged
us to think and see the world in a new way, and
brought invaluable research experience through our
engagement in the process and involvement as both
participant and researcher. We have shared the value
of a creative qualitative research method and suggest
that its application in the classroom setting would
have benefits beyond sociology. As demonstrated by
our individual stories, each of us had a profound
learning experience because of this assignment, and
as a result we have grown as researchers, as
sociologists, and as individuals. In this assignment
we were able to capture our experiences through
photos and then present them to the class, where we
could reflect and learn from others’ experiences as
well. Our “modes of thought” as researchers were
enhanced through learning practical research skills.
Also, our values and “structures of feeling” were
deeply reflected on and made meaning out of by
choosing a personal social experience to capture and
present visually. With the advent of new
technologies, it is clear that visual images will only
become more prevalent and accessible. Our work
shows the importance of engaging with visual
methods as teachers and as students. We strongly
encourage other instructors to experiment with
Photovoice and other visual techniques to encourage
critical thinking, enhance social learning, and expand
our ideas of how we can create knowledge and
convey understanding.
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_______________________
KARA SCHELL is a Master of Arts graduate in
sociology at the University of Saskatchewan. Her
thesis explored the experiences of women with arm
morbidity after breast cancer, which focused on major
areas of health, disability, gender roles, and identity.
She is now in Vancouver, British Columbia, working as
a Research and Evaluation Analyst for a health research
funding organization.
ALANA FERGUSON is a Master of Arts graduate
from the Department of Sociology, University of
Saskatchewan. Her thesis applied innovative qualitative
methodologies and methods; including ethnodrama,
participatory action research, and autoethnography. She
currently works as a Health Research Facilitator for the
office of the Associate Vice President Research-Health
(University of Saskatchewan)/Vice President Research
and Innovation (Saskatoon Health Region).
RITA HAMOLINE is a PhD candidate in the
Department of Sociology at the University of
Saskatchewan. Her dissertation employs qualitative
methodology, specifically applied phenomenology, to
reveal how primary care physicians find meaning in
their work. This research aims to identify strategies
that family practice physicians use to create and sustain
balance and fulfillment in their professional lives. She
works at two research positions at the University of
Saskatchewan that deal with cancer survivorship.
JENNIFER SHEA is a Ph.D. Candidate in Sociology at
the University of Saskatchewan. Her research areas
include: Aboriginal Health, qualitative health research,
visual methods, youth, and gender. She is currently
engaged in a community-based qualitative study with
First Nations female youth that incorporates Photovoice
as a part of the research design.
ROANNE THOMAS-MACLEAN is Associate
Professor in the Department of Sociology. She holds a
Canadian Institutes of Health Research/Saskatchewan
Health Research Foundation New Investigator Award
and recently received the University of Saskatchewan’s
Distinguished Researcher Award. Roanne is also the
Co-Director of the Qualitative Research Centre, and has
developed and taught both undergraduate and graduate
courses in qualitative methods.
Acknowledgements
We want to acknowledge our fellow students in the
class and all those people who contributed to or
supported our Photovoice assignments. We would also
like to thank one another for the encouragement and
cooperation in all our academic endeavours based on
this assignment.
Appendix A
Photograph 1 Photograph 2
International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2009, Volume 21, Number 2, 252-257 http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/ ISSN
1812-9129 An Instructional Model for Preparing Teachers for Fieldwork
Jacqueline Hughes
California State University, Bakersfield
Teacher education and the teaching profession are adapting to innovative methods to ensure the
professional longevity and effectiveness of those who become educators. This is particularly
important because of the early, and sometimes abrupt, exit of beginning teachers from the
profession. Clearly, to mitigate such early exodus from the profession, those responsible for teacher
education must examine how they prepare student teachers and whether or not they are equipped to
face the realities of the classroom when they enter the profession. This paper presents a modality that
engages pre-professionals or student teachers in meaningful and productive field experiences that
will improve student teachers’ learning. The author presents an instructional model that can be
applied to prepare student teachers for more effective field experiences that will improve their
learning.
Teacher educators are constantly faced with the challenge of providing student teachers with learning
opportunities that will “promote effective teaching and that will maximize student learning” (Ostorga & Lopez-
Estrada, 2009, p. 18). Educators believe that integrating field experiences into coursework is an effective approach
to meeting this challenge (Chiang, 2008) because such experiences modify and enrich student teachers’ thinking and
conceptual understanding about teaching and learning (Loyens & Gijbels, 2008; Parkison, 2009; Cherubini, 2008;
Loyens, Rikers, & Schmidt, 2008). Challenging pre-services teachers thinking is likely to improve their conceptual
understanding of teaching and learning theories, increase of transferability of skills, and improve future learning
(Renkl, 2009; Wilson, Floden & Ferrini-Mundy, 2001), thus making student teachers more effective in the
classroom.
The inference here is that to enhance student teachers’ learning and improve their ability to apply the acquired
knowledge, learning must take place in an environment that facilitates the desired learning outcomes, particularly as
they relate to application of knowledge in different situations (Woolfolk, 2004). In other words, experiences in the
learning environment must be replicated in the environment in which student teachers would eventually apply their
knowledge, as well as one that presents a wide range of learning opportunities that mirror those likely to be
encountered in the future. For example, if the learning is preparing students to become teachers, they should be
given learning opportunities in a public school setting and classroom where they can test their acquired knowledge
of teaching and learning. (The same case is true of the pre-professional medical student who wants to become a
surgeon; he or she must be given learning opportunities in the operating room to hone surgical skills before
operating on a patient.) The environment must present opportunities to allow learners to frame their knowledge and
understanding of the issues and contexts that are relevant to their discipline. These opportunities can be on-the-job
training such as in the case of the medical students who assume an internship at a hospital to hone their skills. Here
the medical intern is assigned a resident advisor who provides learning opportunities such as diagnosing a disease or
providing feedback, allowing the medical students to reflect on their action (diagnosis) and providing other
opportunities for learning that will facilitate understanding. The medical interns learn from the resident advisor as
well as from their peers as they seek to refine their understanding of a specific issue. The same approach is used in
the teacher preparation process where, at the end of the coursework, student teachers engage in student teaching
under the authority of a master teacher and the watchful eye of a university supervisor.
It is important to recognize that respected authorities in the profession suggest that the quality of the time spent
in the classrooms and the expertise of those involved (master teacher and field supervisor), as well as the feedback
provided, are significant factors in determining the value of field experience (Shantz & Ward, 2000; Tang & Chow,
2007; Whitney, Golez, Nagel & Nieto 2002). Additionally, evidence has shown that teacher preparation activities
such as dialogues with colleagues, instructors, and master teachers (Penlington, 2008); cooperative group discourse
(Gillies & Boyle, 2008); reflective thinking (Chiang, 2008); and the use of classroom video to encourage discussion
and problem-solving (Borko, Jacobs, Eitelgorg, & Pittman, 2008) have proven to be effective in enhancing student
teachers’ field experience because they allow student teachers to analyze and reflect on their experiences as they
relate to theory. Clearly, for fieldwork experiences to serve as productive learning opportunities (Wilson, et al.
2001), an intense emphasis must be placed on the learning that occurs in the field by providing student teachers with
the skills necessary to effectively comprehend the
Hughes Preparing Teachers for Fieldwork 253
meaning of their observation (Tang, 2004). Basically, student teachers must be trained to analyze their field
observations in order to enhance their understanding of teaching and learning.
Although teacher educators agree that fieldwork activities are an effective mechanism to address the theory-
practice chasm (Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2001), some admit that they find it difficult providing quality
field experiences that will facilitate learning (Beck & Kosnick, 2002; Clark, 2002: Laboskey & Richert, 2002). Yet,
other educators believe that the fieldwork component of teacher preparation is overly focused on outcomes rather
than on the process of learning that occurs during fieldwork (Ward & McCotter, 2004). As a result of the latter, the
benefits of fieldwork activities are not fully realized. Despite the important role fieldwork plays in student teacher
development and the variety of methods (e.g. analysis of case studies and videos of classroom teaching) used to
facilitate student teachers’ conceptual understanding of teaching and learning, there is no consensus on how to best
prepare teachers to engage in meaningful and productive fieldwork (i.e. how best to interpret and to make sense of
what is observed so that it changes teacher practice).
For student teachers to make meaning of their field experiences in a way that their conceptual understanding is
improved, they must have some knowledge of the environment and be able to apply that knowledge to the
experiences and events in the new environment. More importantly, the pre-service teacher must be able to reflect
and analyze his/her experiences and events and integrate this new knowledge within his/her existing knowledge. For
example, student teachers who have learned classroom management techniques through coursework and field based
activities could effectively apply that knowledge in developing and implementing a classroom management plan in
their classroom, create an engaging learning environment for their students, and make necessary adjustments to the
plan as the need arises. This is not to suggest the ability to apply the knowledge learned in context specific situations
to general situations is easy or automatic. Teachers must first understand the situations they encounter and use their
understanding to determine what action to take. To develop this ability, student teachers must not only be given
adequate exposure through field experiences to a variety of classroom situations but also must be taught how to use,
or make meaning of, their fieldwork experiences to enhance their understanding of the teaching and learning
process. It is the process of reflecting on their experiences that will enhance the learning experience of student
teachers and increase transferability.
Therefore, for field experiences to be effective, emphasis must be placed on preparation for field activities that
has as its core the early and consistent training in the techniques and skills of classroom observation. It is to this end
that this study proposes a model for preparing student teachers so they can effectively participate in classroom
observation and fieldwork.
Theoretical Framework
According to Dewey (1933), ‘deliberate thought and deliberate action’ do not occur automatically; therefore,
teacher educators must train student teachers to think reflectively about their learning experiences. It is this
reflective practice that will make learning more meaningful. The process of reflective thought involves “active,
persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that
supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (p. 9). Further study of reflective thinking as defined by
Dewey (1933) yields that reflective thinking:
emancipates us from merely impulsive and merely routine activity. Put in positive terms, thinking enables us to
direct our activities with foresight and to plan according to ends-in-view, or purposes of which we are aware. It
enables us to act in deliberate and intentional fashion to attain future objects or to come into command of what
is now distant and lacking. (Dewey, 1933, p. 17)
Dewey further asserts that reflective thinking is “the kind of thinking that consists in the turning a subject over in the
mind and giving it serious and consecutive consideration” (p. 3). It is important to note that reflective thinking
“involves (1) a state of doubt, hesitation, perplexity, mental difficulty, in which thinking originates, and (2) an act of
searching, hunting, inquiring, to find material that will resolve the doubt, settle and dispose of the perplexity”
(Dewey, 1933, p. 12). Training student teachers how to think reflectively, to manage their doubts and lack of
understanding through inquiry and the acquisition of information, is one approach teacher educators can use to
enhance teacher effectiveness and promoting student learning. Given the value associated with reflective thinking,
teacher educators should make explicit attempts to facilitate the development of this skill in their student teachers.
An Instructional Model for Fieldwork Preparation
For student teachers to obtain the maximum benefits of fieldwork, they must be trained to effectively use the
knowledge acquired in the program courses in order to understand the teaching and learning situations they will
encounter in the field. To accomplish this goal, teacher educators should identify with specificity what they expect
student teachers to do when in the field. Once the purpose and goal of fieldwork is clearly established, teacher
educators should create authentic learning opportunities for student teachers to apply their knowledge in a wide
range of situations, reflect and clarify their application of this knowledge, and integrate the new knowledge within
the context of teaching. It is through this process that students will be able to forge links between theory and practice
as well as acquire skill sets that would broaden their understanding of the practical complexities of teaching and
learning (Boreen, Johnson, Niday & Potts, 2000; Moore, 2003).
The Concept Attainment Model (CAM) by Joyce, Weils & Calhoun (2004) (see Table 1), provides the
framework for creating meaningful field experiences because it illuminates the process of conceptual understanding
by clearly illustrating how students acquire (analysis and reflection) and apply (integration) the knowledge.
Furthermore, this model illustrates the process for framing and reframing teaching concepts with the support of their
instructor and peers (Loghran, 2002; Ward & McCotter, 2004).
It is important to note that this model contains three phases (See Table 1): presentation of data and identification
of the concept to be learned; testing attainment of the concept; and analysis of thinking strategies (Joyce, et al.,
2004). During Phase One, presentation of data and identification of concept, the instructor presents the concept
(making content accessible, accessing learning, etc.) to the student teachers with examples to aid in their
understanding. The student teachers then engage in identifying the attributes of this concept. Once the student
teachers identify the attributes (defining factors) of the concepts, they name and define the concept based on the
attributes they have collected. As the training moves to Phase Two, testing attainment of the concept, students add
more attributes (defining factors) to clarify their understanding of the concept and reframe the concept with the help
of the instructor and peers. The instructor checks for comprehension of the concept by engaging students in
reflecting, problem posing, and dialogue activities. In the final phase, or what has been designated here as Phase
Three, analysis of thinking strategies, students are asked to reflect on their experiences and thought processes
regarding “how” and “why” they formed their hypotheses and to make any necessary changes.
The Concept Attainment Model by Joyce, et al. (2004) was adapted to meet the author’s conception of an
instructional model for fieldwork. In this adaptation, the title and process in each of three phases has been modified
to reflect the author’s perspective and perception of an instructional model for fieldwork preparation. For example,
Phase One of the original model (Joyce, et al., 2004) was changed to Step One, Identify and define the
teaching/learning concept; Phase Two was changed to Step Two, Assessing understanding of concept; and Phase
Three was renamed Step Three, Making the connection.
Training for fieldwork. In the program, training for fieldwork begins in a course designated for enhancing
observation skills and occurs through a variety of instructional opportunities designed to prepare student teachers to
effectively engage the learning environment prior to entering the field to conduct observations. The preparation for
field observation should focus on the knowledge and skill sets teachers need in the classroom to effectively make
sense of their observation experience. The course curriculum may consist of an introduction to basic observation
skills, for example, establishing an observation focus, collecting data relevant to the focus, analyzing the data, and
demonstrating conceptual understanding. The course instructor can develop a variety of learning opportunities that
allow student teachers to acquire these skills before entering the field. One way to do this is to introduce new
teaching/learning concepts through case studies and video illustrations and have the student teachers identify the
teaching/learning concepts, identify attributes of the concept, define the concept, gather evidence to support the
definition, and refine the definition by discussing their observation with the instructor and classmates. Finally,
student teachers may demonstrate their understanding of the concept by developing examples of the concept that
demonstrate an integration of the newly formed knowledge.
For clarity, for example, student teachers are enrolled in a methods course where they are learning about
motivating students and making content accessible. After a lecture on these topics, the instructor directs the student
teacher to go into the field to observe how teachers motivate students or how they make content accessible to
students. Before entering the field, student teachers must establish the observation focus (i.e. what to look for in the
classroom). For example, the student teacher may decide to focus on how the teacher makes content accessible to
English Language Learners (ELLs) by looking for modifications of teaching strategies. (See Table 2). Once the
observation focus is established, the student teacher visits a classroom to collect data that is relevant to the focus.
Table 1
Concept Attainment Model
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Presentation of Data and Testing Attainment of the Concepts Analysis of Thinking
Identification of Concepts Strategies
Teacher presents labeled examples Students identify additional unlabeled examples Students describe thoughts
as appropriate
Students compare attributes on Teacher confirms hypotheses, names concepts, Students discuss role of
positive and negative examples and restates definitions according to essential hypotheses and attributes
attributes
Students generate and test na na
hypotheses
Students state a definition Students generate examples Students discuss type and
according to the essential number of hypotheses
attributes
Table 2
Example of the Instructional Model for Fieldwork
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Identify Instructional Provide Evidence of Testing Understanding of Concept
Practice Learning & Teaching
Situations
Making content accessible In the classroom student teacher Reflection of observation conducted in the
to English Language records evidence relevant to making field and its connection to theory taught in
Learners (ELL) content assessable to ELL their preparatory coursework
1 • Identify an What is seen is the classroom? After reflection student teachers will:
example of course concept 1 • Classroom teacher 1 • Look for examples of how the
in school classroom teaches a Social Studies lesson on teacher makes content accessible to all
2 • Provide how a bill becomes a law students
evidence of the concept 2 • Seek additional data to reinforce
Teacher modifies lesson for ELL as the framing of the concept of making content
follows: accessible to learners
1 • Uses personal or prior 3 • Validate what is seen in the field
knowledge to introduce lesson by through discussion
asking students “what is a bill? What 4 • Interprets the evidence gathered
is a law?” and reframe the concept based on discussion
2 • Explains concepts in (and ongoing reflection) with instructor and
lesson with illustrations peers
3 • Make visual aid of the 5 • Connect related factors to
lesson concepts
0 • Uses Scaffolding 6 • Integrates knowledge of what
1 • Chunks content was taught and what was observed
2 • Checks for 7 • Develop a new understanding
understanding by asking questions
and/or creating a chart on how a bill
becomes a law.
3 • Provides opportunities
for students to work in groups
4 • Uses words in the
students’ language to help them
connect points.
5 • Draws on students
culture and personal knowledge
6 • Checks for
understanding
7 • Restates and reframes
lesson for those who do not
understand lesson.

For example, the student teacher is placed in a Social Studies classroom to look for evidence of the teacher’s
adapting the lesson to ELLs. For clarity, for example, the lesson taught might be how a bill becomes a law.
The student teacher observes the teacher using the students’ prior knowledge by asking “What is a bill? What is
a law?” The teacher may create a chart on how a bill becomes a law and draws on the students’ culture and personal
knowledge to promote understanding. The student teacher observes the teacher using an illustration of how
household rules are established and asks students to identify how rules are made in their home.
In Step Two, the student teacher will use the evidence gathered and her prior knowledge to refine and clarify
her observation and perception of the concept in an attempt to enhance her understanding. Additional evidence may
be gathered if student teachers are unclear about the activity or believe that they lack sufficient evidence to make
sense of how the lesson was accessible to ELLs. A critical component in this step is the ability of student teachers to
distinguish between relevant and irrelevant aspects of the activity and focus only on those aspects that are germane
to the concept. For example, student teachers may find students’ discussion about their household rules and how
they were created to be relevant, while discussions about the rules in a game might be irrelevant to the concept being
taught.
Using the data collected in their fieldwork, student teachers participate in discussions (inquiry) with their peers
and instructor as a way to refine their thoughts and validate their understanding. The defining and refining process
leads to Step Three, in which student teachers apply and integrate their knowledge of the concept by framing the
concept and generating examples that reflect their understanding, in this case by providing an explanation of
how/why the illustration (e.g. chart of how a bill becomes a law) made the content accessible for English Language
Learners. The student teacher may, for example, say that the teacher’s approach was effective because the students
were given opportunities to check their understanding by correctly answering questions about how a bill becomes a
law. These activities may serve to validate student teachers’ understanding and provide opportunities to reframe
their conceptualization through inquiry, discussion, data collection and illustration.
Conclusion
Before teachers enter the profession, they must be trained to be effective observers of classroom interaction so
that their learning and understanding of the teaching process can be cultivated and enhanced. To accomplish this, we
must create an enabling environment for pre-professional teachers to undergo regular training in observational skills.
It is this understanding that will facilitate student teachers’ skill sets to enable their overall development and increase
the likelihood of a change in their teaching practice.
Similarly, involvement in structured field experiences with an integrated reflective component will enhance the
preparation of students as they enter into their teaching experience. Training for fieldwork with specific focus on
reflective thinking is a way to bridge that gap between theory and practice. Further, training in classroom
observation assists student teachers to organize their thoughts and make sense of teaching and learning concepts.
Such reflection and inquiry promote a model of learning that views teaching as an ongoing process of knowledge
building and is adaptable to teaching contexts.
As long as teaching remains a dynamic process, teacher educators will continue to face the challenge of how
best to prepare teachers for contemporary classrooms. It is not enough to prepare student teachers with theories
about teaching or with a knapsack full of “strategies.”
It is incumbent upon teacher educators to enhance the experience of student teachers by exposing them to both
theoretical development and very real, structured, reflective, on-going field experiences. Furthermore, to fulfill the
promise of an effective field placement, the field experience must be accompanied by a clear, systematic approach to
the process, goals, and the outcome of the experience.
To contribute to literature in the field, future research should conduct a comparative analysis of how this model
operates with ethnic, minority, and predominantly white school settings, urban versus rural settings, and affluent
versus not-so-affluent settings. The results of such studies could yield an ingredient for educational policies that
would improve teacher training.
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____________________________
JACQUELINE HUGHES is an associate professor at California State University, Bakersfield. She teaches
Educational Psychology and Foundations of Education courses in the Department of Teacher Education.

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