AIR SAMPLING METHODS

SUBMITTED TO :- SUBMITTED BY :-
Dr. POONAM SHIV PRAKASH SINGH MONIKA SHREE
SYAL ROLL NO:- 201515 ROLL NO:- 201518
PROFESSOR ME(I&C) MODULAR BATCH - 2020
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
NITTTR CHANDIGARH
 CONTENTS

• AIR SAMPLING
• TYPES OF CONTAMINANT
• CONTAMINANT DEFINITIONS
• AIR SAMPLING CALCULATION
• AIR SAMPLING METHOD
• SOME NEW METHODS OF AIR SAMPLING
• RESEARCH PAPER
• REFERENCES
 AIR SAMPLING

✔ Air pollution sampling : Related to analysis of pollutants in a given volume of

air.
✔ Air sampling: Capturing the contaminant from a known volume of air, measuring the
amount of contaminant captured, and expressing it as a concentration
✔ The air is passed through a filter medium (normally a paper for solid & liquid
contaminants and a sorbent for gases).
✔ The volume of air is measured against the amount of contaminant captured. This gives the
concentration, which is expressed either as milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3 ) or parts
per million (PPM).
✔ The volume of air is calculated by multiplying the flow rate through the filter medium
by the time in minutes.
 TYPES OF CONTAMINANT

There are three types of contaminant according to their physical properties:

✔ Particulate
✔ Vapour
✔ Gases

❖ Particulates can be further subdivided into five types:

Aerosols
Dust
Fume
Smoke
Mist
 CONTAMINANT DEFINITIONS
❖ Aerosol : Dispersion of solid particles of microscopic size in air.
❖ Dust: Solid particulate capable of temporary suspension in air.
❖ Fume: Solid particles produced by condensation from the gaseous phase. Fumes are
usually derived from the heating of a solid to its melting point and the subsequent
cooling of the gas produced.
❖ Smoke: Particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of organic matter
consisting predominantly of carbon and oxides of carbon.
❖ Mist: Dispersion in air of liquid droplets usually large enough to be seen by the
naked eye.
❖ Vapour: Gaseous phase of a substance that usually exists as a liquid or solid at
normal room temperature and pressure.
❖ Gas: A substance which does not normally exist as a liquid or solid at normal room
 AIR SAMPLING CALCULATION

❖ An air sample requires three basic measurements:

✔ Amount of pollutant collected
✔ Flow of air through the medium
✔ The run time in minutes

Flow × time(in minute)= Volume of air through filter in cubic meter

Concentration in microgram per cubic meter or in PPM

 AIR SAMPLING
METHODS

• Air pollutant sampling are of two types :-

Air sampling based on the particulate pollutant

Air sampling based on the gaseous and vapor pollutant
 AIR SAMPLING BASED ON THE PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS

❖ Air sampling techniques for particulate pollutants

SEDIMENTATION
FILTRATION
IMPINGEMENT
PRECIPITATION
▪ THERMAL PRECIPITAION
▪ ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION
 SEDIMENTATION
• Used to collect settle able particulate that settle out of the atmosphere as a result of
the gravitation force
• Particulate pollutant having
size more than of 10 mirco meter can be
collected with 99% efficiency
•The sampler consists of simple dust jar
fitted with a funnel
• A liquid is added to collector
to prevent the solids blown out from
the jar by air
• Collected dust is evaporated to dryness
and then weighed in mg
• Sampling period is 30 days
 FILTRATION

✔ Technique used in the collection of air pollutants of size smaller than 10 micro meter
in diameter
✔ The particulates are removed from the air sample by suction apparatus through a
porous filter where particulates are deposited
✔ The glass fiber filter of porous size less than 0.1 micro meter is used in high volume
sampler
✔ Sampling period: 24 hours
✔ Air volume sucked: 2000 cubic meter
✔ Particulate concentration: micro gram per cubic meter
CONTINUED ……
 PRECIPITATION
✔ Precipitation are two types---
Thermal precipitation
Electrostatic precipitation

❖ THERMAL PRECIPITATION :- Thermal precipitation is based on the principle

that the particles move from higher temperature towards the lower temperature
region under a strong temperature gradient, a small particle move to lower
temperature and get deposited there.
▪ The temperature gradients are normally of the order of 3000 ° C per centimeter
▪ This technique is used to collect the particle of size 0.001 micrometer with high
efficiency
 CONTINUED…..

✔ ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION:-
▪ These precipitators are an electrically charged to force radioactive
particulates to migrate out the air steam onto a collection surface
▪ In this precipitators two electrodes are used positive and negative
▪ When the air stream with particulates pass through the electrodes
particles pick up negative charge and migrate towards inner post of the
precipitators where got discharged and deposited on the positive
electrodes
 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION:-
ESP for air sampling
 IMPINGEMENT

✔ Based on the inertial technique in which particles are collected from the
high velocity air steam directed toward the obstacles placed across the path
of air stream
✔ Particulates collide with the obstacle and air changes its direction
✔ If the obstacle are adhesive surface then particles are impacted on it and
this is known as dry impingement
✔ If obstacle is wet by any liquid then it is called wet impingement
 AIR SAMPLING OF THE GASEOUS POLLUTANTS

✔ ABSORPTION SAMPLING
✔ ADSORPTION SAMPLING
✔ CONDENSATION SAMPLING
 ABSORPTION SAMPLING

❖ Gaseous pollutants are absorbed in a solvent when both the pollutant and absorbent
are in close contact

❖ Liquid react with the gaseous pollutant to form a non gaseous pollutant
ALKALINE FOR ACIDIC GASES
ACIDIC SOLUTION FOR ALKALINE GASES
OILS FOR HYDROCARBONS
 ADSORPTION SAMPLING

✔ Gaseous pollutants are adsorbed on the solid surface of activated carbon, silica gel,
activated alumina and molecular sieve
✔ As the surface area increases the adsorption increases
 CONDENSATION SAMPLING

The conversion of a vapour or gas to a liquid

✔ Method used to collect the radioactive gases, hydrocarbons and non reactive
vapors
✔ Air pollutant can be trapped by condensation reaction
✔ As the gaseous pollutant pass through the different temperature range of condensers
where the temperature is below the boiling point, the gaseous pollutant will trap in the
liquid
 SOME NEW METHODS OF AIR SAMPLING
❖ Bubble Sampling
✔ Air drawn into the impinger is forced through a nozzle, which is covered to a liquid
such as high purity water.
✔ The pollutant dissolves in the liquid and is subsequently analyzed, usually by
colorimetric techniques.
❖ Sorbent Sampling
✔ Sorbents are normally contained in a small glass tube with sealed ends.
✔ Air is drawn through the sorbent, which captures molecules of the gas or vapour to
be sampled.
✔ The trapped contaminants are released using solvent washing or heat to a gas
chromatograph (GC) for analysis. One of the best known sorbents is charcoal.
 PPT-2 Measurement of Automobile Pollution

SUBMTTED TO :-
Dr. POONAM SYAL SUBMITTED BY :-
PROFESSOR SHIV PRAKASH SINGH MONIKA SHREE
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT ROLL NO:- 201515 ROLL NO:- 201518
NITTTR CHANDIGARH ME(I&C) MODULAR BATCH - 2020
 Contents

What is smoke ?

Composition

Effect of smoke

Smoke meters

Smoke measurements

Case studies
Great smog of London
Great smog of Delhi
 Smoke

Smoke is a collection or airborne solid and particulates and gases emitted when a material
undergoes combustion or pyrolysis.

Smoke is an aerosol (or mist) of solid particles and liquid droplets that are close to the
ideal range of sizes for scattering of visible light.

A smoke particle has a diameter of 1 – 10 microns.

An unwanted by-product of fires.

Smoke is also a component of internal combustion engine exhaust gas, particularly diesel
exhaust.
 Composition

Composition of smoke depends on the nature of burning fuel and conditions of

combustion.

Naked eyes detects particle sizes greater than 7 micro meters. Visible particle emitted
from a fire are referred to as smoke. Invisible particles are generally referred to as gas or
fumes.
 Composition
Primarily it is composed of
Nitrogen oxides
Sulphur Dioxides
Hydrogen Sulphide
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Monoxide
Hydrogen cyanide
Ammonia
Aromatic components like benzene.
 Effects of smoke
Effect on Health

Cause breathing problems

Lethal for elder people and can increase the incidence of asthma in children

Particles of toxic chemicals in smoke are easily inhaled through lungs and can
cause serious problems for health

Heavy smoke results in a low production of vitamin D leading to the cases of

rickets among people

Can cause severe eye problems including burning of eyes

 Effects of smoke

Smoke can damage the ability of plants to store food and water that also damages the
reproduction and plant growth

Smoke can create acid deposits in the form of rain. These acidic deposits and acidic rain
end up on soil and Water that can damage plants and animals

It can cause water pollution.

Heavy smoke can result in a smoke cloud that can reduce visibility by 70 percent
 Smoke meters

For measuring the smoke density Smoke meters are generally used.

Smoke meters also referred as opacity meters, detect and measure the amount of light
blocked in smoke in smoke emitted by diesel engines from trucks, ship, buses, cars,
locomotives and large stacks from industrial operations.

Smoke meters read out displays the smoke density giving a measure of the efficiency of
combustion.

Diagnostic tool to ensure proper maintenance of diesel engines for improved fuel economy
and protection of environment.
 Smoke density

Smoke density is a term usually associated with opacity measurements. The optical
measurement relationships follow the Beer-Lambert exponential laws.
Beer-Lambert Law is usually expressed as
T=e ^ -KL
where T is transmittance
K is the smoke density factor in units of inverse length
L is path length Of the measured smoke sample column.

Conceptually , the smoke density terms represents the exponential light loss sensitive
per unit length of the smoke column.
 Smoke density
Smoke density in an air is measured, like fog and smog ,by having a beam of light of
known intensity a given distance away and measuring how much light get through.
This can be done by having the light source or by having the light next to the measuring
head and a retro reflector (one that returns a beam along its own path)out there.
Smoke of engine exhaust is visible indicator of the combustion process in
the engine.

Smoke is due to the incomplete combustion. Smoke in diesel engine is

divided into three categories viz.- blue, white and black.

Visible method of analysis is used for quantifying the three types of smoke.
 Filtration type Smoke meter

In the filtration type smoke meters like Bosch smoke meter, a fixed volume of the
exhaust gas is drawn through a white filter paper of the specified quality.

The density of the smoke stained obtain on the filter paper is evaluated using a
reflectance meter which gives the measure of smoke density of diesel exhaust gas.
 Light Extinction /Absorption Smoke meters
Mostly light extinction /absorption smoke
meters based on Beer- Lamberts law
The light extinction type smoke meters
‘opacimeters’ as these provides a more realistic
measurement of the visible smoke emission
from the diesel engines.
Particles which are the smaller than the
wavelengths of emitted radiations absorbed it
,while the particles larger than the wavelength
scattered it .
These instruments have been designed to
quantify the visible black smoke emission
utilizing such physical phenomenon as the
extinction of light beam by scattering and
absorption
 Opacimeters

Measures the decrease in the light intensity due to the absorption and scattering as the beam
crosses the stack according to the Beers – Lambert’s Law.

Operational principle of these instruments is that a collimated beam of visible light is directed
through a gas stream towards receiving optics.

The receiving optics measure the decrease in light intensity, and the instrument electronics
convert the signal to an instrument output.

These instruments measure the smoke density in transmission ,opacity, Ringelmann units or
optical density (extinction) and/ or mass concentration of particles in mg/Nm3
 Smoke Measurement

Smoke Measurement broadly classified into two groups:

1) Comparison method

2) Obscuration method
 Comparison Method

Ringlemann Chart is used in this process. The charts shows five shades of grey from
pure white to an all-black section.

In use, the chart is set up at eye level line with the stack at such distance that the section
appears to the different degree of uniform grey shades.

Ringlemann number ranging from 0 (no smoke) to No. 5 (dense black smoke)
Ringlemann’s Chart
Ringlemann’s Chart
 Ringelmann Smoke Chart

Ringelmann Smoke chart, giving shades of gray by which the density of columns of smoke
rising from stacks may be compared.

Ringelmann Charts was used by the engineers of the technological branch of the U.S.
Geological survey (which later formed the nucleus of the present Bureau of Mines)in their
studies of smokeless combustion beginning at St. Louis in 1904 and by 1910.

Chart is used as a device for determining whether emission of smoke are within limits of
standards of permissibility (statutes and ordinances) established and expressed with
reference to the chart.
 Obscuration Method
Divided into 3 types
Light Extinction type-Intensity of light beam is reduced by smoke which is a measure of
smoke intensity. Ex. Hartridge smoke meter.
A continuously taken exhaust sample is passed through a tube of about 45 cm length
which has light source at one end and photo detector at the other end. The amount of
light passed through the column is used as an indication of smoke level or smoke density.

Light Extinction type Obscuration method

 Obscuration Method (Continued…)

2. Construction filtering type – Measurement of smoke intensity achieved by continuously

passing exhaust gas through a moving strip of filter paper and collecting particles.
Example – Van Brand Smoke meter

Continuously filtering type Obscuration Method

 Obscuration Method (Continued…)
3. Spot Filtering Type-A smoke strain obtained by filtering a given quantity of
exhaust gas through a fixed filter paper is used for the measurement of smoke intensity.
Ex. Bosch Smoke meter.

Spot filtering type obscuration method

 Obscuration method
Smoke is measured by measurement of light absorbed (opacity) in a defined specific
length of column of exhaust gas. The smoke meter employing this principle are known as
light extinction type smoke meter such as Hartridge or AVL smoke meters
 Case Study-I

Great smog of Delhi

•Dated: 1 to 9 November, 2016
•Air Quality of Delhi and National Capital Territory between
•Air Pollution at this time peaked on both PM 2.5 and PM 10 levels. This is reported as
one of the worst levels of Air Quality in Delhi since 1999.
•Primary sources of smoke being those from the burning of crop stubbles, lit
garbage and road dust. This period also coincided with the Indian festival Diwali, which
is celebrated by firing firecrackers.
 Great Smog of Delhi

• Air quality can be measured by the amount of PM 2.5 and PM 10 particulates

suspended in air.

• The reported Smog in Delhi on Nov 7th, 2016 the PM 2.5 levels shot up to 999, while
recommended is 60 micrograms. At the same time PM 10 shot to 999, instead of the
recommended limit of 100.

• Visibility had reduced to about 200 meters around Nov 7th, 2016 though the
temperature in New Delhi during that period was between 19 to 21 ºC
 Effects of Great Smoke of Delhi

Delhi government declared a health advisory

• Breathlessness
• Chest constriction
• Irritation in eyes
• Asthma
• Allergy
 Short-Terms effects

• The Chief Minister of Delhi at that time, Arvind Kejriwal came out with the below
proposed action items to attempt reduce the air pollution
• All Delhi schools will remain shut for the next 3 days.
• For the next 5 days, no construction and demolition work will take place in Delhi.
• All diesel generator sets have been banned for the next 10 days, except at hospitals
and in emergencies.
• The Delhi government will supply power to unauthorized colonies which use diesel
generators.
 Short-Terms effects

• The coal-based Badarpur power plant will be shut down for 10 days.
There will be no fly ash transportation from the power plant.
• The Environment department will launch an app to monitor the
burning of leaves.
• Vacuum cleaning of roads will start from November 10.
• Water sprinkling will start on all roads from tomorrow.
• People should stay at home as much as they can and they should try
working from home.
• If need be, the odd-even traffic scheme + will be brought back for a
short while.
 Long term effects

• On November 25, 2016, the Supreme Court of India banned the sale
of firecrackers in Delhi to alleviate pollution.

• In another measure, the Badarpur power plant will remain shut at least
until January 31, 2017. This power plant is very old and polluting,
and even before the Great Smog, environmentalists had advocated for
its permanent shutdown.
 Case study- II

• Great Smog of London

• A period of cold weather, combined with an anticyclone and windless
conditions, collected airborne pollutants – mostly arising from the use of coal
– to form a thick layer of smog over the city.
• It lasted from Friday, 5 December to Tuesday, 9 December 1952 and then
dispersed quickly when the weather changed.
• Government medical reports in the following weeks, however, estimated that
up until 8 December, 4,000 people had died as a direct result of the smog and
100,000 more were made ill by the smog's effects on the human respiratory
tract. More recent research suggests that the total number of fatalities was
considerably greater, about 12,000.
ORSAT APPARATUS
 ORSAT APPARATUS

Three way
stopcock
Flue gas

Water reservoir
Water tube

graduated burette

Fused Calcium
Chloride
KOH(CO2) ammonical cuprous
chloride (CO) Rubber tube

alkaline pyrogallic
acid (O2)
 WORKING

• Flue gas is passed through fused Calcium Chloride which absorbs the water
vapor present due to its hygroscopic properties.
• Three way stopcock is opened and the flue gas is filled in the graduated
burette.
• The whole set up is water jacketed to maintain a constant temperature.
• The stopcock of the KOH reservoir is opened and the water reservoir is
moved up.
• Water inflows in the graduated burette and pushes the gas to flow in
the KOH reservoir.
• In that reservoir carbon dioxide is absorbed. The whole CO2 in the sample is
absorbed.
• The water reservoir is brought down so that the air again can rush to the
burette.
• Again the stopcock of the alkaline pyrogallic acid reservoir is opened and
the water reservoir is moved up.
• Water inflows in the graduated burette and pushes the gas to flow in
the alkaline pyrogallic acid reservoir where the absorption of Oxygen
takes place.
• The same process is repeated with the ammonical cuprous chloride
reservoir.
• The Volume increase of all the reservoir is measured and the amount
of Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide and Oxygen are determined.
 PPT-3 Gas Analyzers

SUBMTTED TO :-
Dr. POONAM SYAL
PROFESSOR
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
NITTTR CHANDIGARH SUBMITTED BY :-
SHIV PRAKASH SINGH MONIKA SHREE
ROLL NO:- 201515 ROLL NO:- 201518
ME(I&C) MODULAR BATCH - 2020
 Gas Analyzer

An instrument capable of analysing the species of chemical gases present in the sample.

Identifies the species

Give measurement value of the quantity which it displays either in numerical form or
shows it graphically.
 Classification of Gas Analyzer

Gas chromatograph
IR Gas analyzer
Thermal conductivity gas analyzer
Paramagnetic gas analyzer
ORSAT Apparatus
Methanometer
Gravimetric Gas Analyzer
Electrochemical Analyzer
 Gas chromatograph

Gas chromatography involves a sample injected onto the head of the

chromatographic column.

The sample is transported through the column by the flow of inert gaseous
mobile phase.

The column itself contains a liquid stationary phase which is adsorbed onto
the surface of an inert Solid.
Gas Chromatograph
 Instrumental Components

Carrier gas: The carrier gas must be chemically inert.

Commonly used gases include nitrogen, helium, argon etc.
The choice of carrier gas is often dependent upon the type of detector which is
used.

Sample injection port: For optimum column efficiency, the sample should not be
too large, and should be introduced onto the column as a "plug" of vapour - slow
injection of large samples causes band broadening and & loss of resolution.
The most common injection method is where a micro syringe is used to inject
sample through a rubber septum into a flash vaporizer port at the head of the
column
 Columns

Two general types of column, packed and capillary (also known as open tubular).
Packed columns contain a finely divided. inert, solid support material coated with
liquid stationary phase. Most packed columns are I.5 m 10 m in length and have an
internal diameter of 2 - 4mm.
Capillary columns have an internal diameter of a few tenths of a millimetre.
They can be one of two types; wall-coated open tubular (WCOT) - Consist of a
capillary tube whose walls are coated with liquid stationary phase.
Support-coated open tubular (SCOT) - Inner wall of the capillary is lined with a thin
layer of support material such as diatomaceous earth.
 Column temperature
For precise work, column temperature must be controlled to within tenths of a column temperature must be controlled
to within tenths of a the degree.

The optimum column temperature is dependent upon the boiling point of the sample.

As a rule of thumb, a temperature slightly above the average boiling point of the sample results in an elution time of
2–30 minutes.

Minimal temperatures give good resolution

Detectors
There arc many detectors which can be used in gas chromatography.

Different detectors will give different types of selectivity.

A non-selective detector responds to all compounds except the carrier gas.

a selective detector responds to a range of compounds with a common physical or chemical and a specific detector
responds to a Single chemical
 IR Gas Analyzer
An infrared gas analyzer measures trace gases by determining the absorption of an emitted infrared light
source through a certain air sample

Trace gases found in the Earth's atmosphere get excited under specific wavelengths found in the infrared
range

Testing of how much of the light is absorbed by the air

Different molecules in the air absorb different frequencies of light

Air with lots of a certain gas will absorb more of a certain frequency. allowing the sensor to report a high
concentration of the corresponding molecule.

IR Gas analyzer can be of two types

I. Non-Dispersive IR-Analyzer
2. Dispersive IR analyzer
Dispersive IR Analyzer
 Working Principle

Main components are an infrared source (lamp), a sample chamber or light

tube, a wavelength sample chamber
Gas concentration is measured electro-optically by its absorption of a
specific wavelength in the infrared (IR)
IR light is directed through the sample chamber towards the detector.
In parallel there is another chamber with an enclosed reference gas,
typically nitrogen.
The detector has an optical filter in front of it that eliminates all light except
the wavelength that the selected gas molecules can absorb.
 Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR) detectors

Industry standard method of measuring the concentration of carbon oxides

( CO & CO2 )

Each constituent gas in a sample will absorb some infrared at a particular

frequency

By shining an infra-red beam through a sample cell (containing CO or

CO2), and measuring the amount of infra-red absorbed by the sample at
the necessary wavelength, a NDIR detector is able to measure the
volumetric concentration of CO or CO2 in the sample
 Non Dispersive IR-Analyzer

A non-dispersive infrared sensor (NDIR) sensor is a simple spectroscopic device often used as gas
detector.

Non-dispersive because wavelength which passes through the sampling chamber is not pre-filtered
instead a filter is used before the detector
 COMPONENTS OF AN NDIR SENSOR

An infrared (IR) source (lamp),

a sample chamber or light tube,
a light filter
an infrared detector

▪IR light is directed through the sample chamber towards the detector
▪In parallel there is another chamber with an enclosed reference gas, typically nitrogen.
▪Gas in the sample chamber causes absorption of specific wavelengths according to the Beer—Lambert law,
and attenuation of these wavelengths is measured by the detector to determine the gas concentration.
▪Detector has an optical filter in front of it that eliminates all light except the wavelength that the selected
gas molecules can absorb.

Ideally other gas molecules do not absorb light at this wavelength, and do not affect the amount of light
reaching the detector.
Difference in energy between the sample and the reference cell is proportional to the carbon monoxide
concentration.
 Nitrogen Dioxide – Chemiluminescence detector

A chemi - luminescence detector (CLD) is the industry standard method of measuring

nitric oxide (NO) concentration.
Reaction between NO and O3 (ozone ) emits light.
This reaction is the basis for the CLD in which the photons produced are detected by
photo multiplier tube (PMT).
The CLD output voltage is proportional to NO concentration.
NO molecules react with ozone to form the activated species NO2 * according to the
next mechanism:

NO + O3 NO2 * + O2
NO2 * NO2 + hϑ

As the activated species , NO2 *,reverts to a lower energy state, its emits broad-band
radiation.
CHEMILUMINESCENCE DETECTOR
Chemi-luminescent NOX Analyzer
 Thermal conductivity gas analyzer
Each gas the ability to conduct heat at a specific rate known as the thermal
conductivity of the gas

This property is utilized in the thermal conductivity detector

Heated metal filaments are exposed to the reference and sample gases

Amount of heat carried away by the gases changes the rate of cooling of the wire
filament and therefore its temperature.

This temperature change causes a resistance change

Since the filaments are arranged in a Wheatstone bridge ,the resistance change
can be converted to an electrical current that is available as an output signal.
Thermal conductivity gas analyzer
 Working Principle
The gas analyzer sensor uses four matched filaments that change resistance
according to the thermal conductivity of the gas passing over it
When all four resistances are the same, V(out) is zero and the bridge is
considered balanced
When zeroing, the reference gas is passed over all the filaments, the resistances
will be the same (because filaments are matched) and the bridge is balanced
When the gas to be measured is introduced into the sample gas stream. the two
Katharometer elements in this gas stream will be cooled to a greater extent than
the two elements in the reference gas
The bridge circuit will be unbalanced. producing a signal voltage related to the
measure gas content of the sample gas
This relationship is non-linear
 Applications

Thermal conductivity analyzer has wide application in industry where it is

desirable to analyze a two gas mixture

Applications include welding shield gas mixtures, food packaging mixtures, leak
detection mixtures and heat treating atmosphere

Each gas has a known thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is measured with a sensor that employs four matched

filaments that change resistance according to the thermal conductivity of the gas
passing over it
 Paramagnetic type gas analyzer

This analyzer is a dumbbell type paramagnetic oxygen analyzer

Based - Magnetic susceptibility of oxygen gas is larger than coexisting

gases, stable measurement is ensured unaffected by coexisting gases

Detector does not have a heating part such as heater

Therefore, this analyzer is suited for measuring the oxygen concentration in

flammable gas

Running cost can be saved since reference gas is not required

 Paramagnetic type gas analyzer

Principle of measurement is dependent on the strong magnetic property of the oxygen

molecules.

Measurement is almost unaffected by other molecules weaker in magnetic property than

oxygen.

Some of its features are –

1. Suited for measuring oxygen in flammable gas
2. Small sized and easy to handle
3. Usable with the wide range of power supplies
4. Output is linear
Paramagnetic type gas analyzer
 Working Principle

In the cell two glass spheres filled with nitrogen gas are suspended with strong
metal
At first, the spheres are kept in balance in an in homogeneous magnetic field
When oxygen molecules having a large magnetic susceptibility flow there, the
molecules are pulled toward the stronger magnetic field zone and the spheres are
moved away from the zone
Resulting deviation of the spheres is detected with the light source, reflecting
mirror and light receiving element. and a current is flowed through the feedback
loop to control so that the spheres can return to the initial balanced state
Current flowing through the feedback loop is proportional to oxygen
concentration
Oxygen concentration is converted into an electric signal
 PPT-4

SUBMTTED TO :-
SUBMITTED BY :-
Dr. POONAM SYAL
SHIV PRAKASH SINGH MONIKA SHREE
PROFESSOR
ROLL NO:- 201515 ROLL NO:- 201518
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
ME(I&C) MODULAR BATCH - 2020
NITTTR CHANDIGARH
 INTRODUCTION
Waste:
Depending on their physical state they are classified as:

❑ Liquid wastes
❑ Gaseous wastes
❑ Solid wastes.

Solid waste: Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined
residential, industrial and commercial activities in a given area.

• Material ,Substance or byproducts eliminated or discarded as no longer useful or required after

the completion of a process.
• It may be categorized according to its origin.(Domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or
industrial).
• According to it’s contents (organic material, inorganic-glass, metal, plastic paper etc.)
• According to hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious etc.)

81
 Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is the process of collection, transportation and disposal of solid waste in a
systematic, economic and hygienic manner.

‘Or’

Solid-waste management is the process of the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is
discarded because it is of no longer use.

82
 Classification of solid waste
Solid wastes are classified as:

✔ Based on their sources of origin:

❑ Residential wastes
❑ Commercial wastes
❑ Institutional waste
❑ Municipal wastes
❑ Industrial wastes
❑ Agricultural wastes
✔ Based on physical nature:
❑ Garbage
❑ Ashes
❑ Combustible and non-combustible wastes
❑ Demolition and construction wastes
❑ Hazardous wastes

83
 Type Description Sources
S. No.

1. Garbage Residual vegetable or animal Houses, Hotels, Dairies, Meat

(Biodegradable wastes resulting from the handling, stalls etc.
preparation, cooking and eating of foods. They
food wastes)
are putrescible, and decompose rapidly,
especially in warm weather.

2. Combustible and Combustible solid wastes, as Households, Offices, Hotels,

non-combustible solid paper, cardboard, plastics, textile, rubber,
Markets etc.
leather, wood, furniture and garden trimmings.
waste
Non- combustible solid wastes as glass,
crockery, tin cans, ferrous and non ferrous
metals.

7
3. Ashes Residues remaining after the Fire places and Kitchens of
burning of wood, coal, coke and other
houses, hotels, hostels etc.
combustible wastes.

4. Demolition and Inert wastes such as dirt, stones, Demolition and Construction
construction concrete, bricks, pieces of plumbing and
of buildings
heating and electrical parts
wastes

5. Industrial wastes They are specific for a specific Different types of Industries,
industry. Their characteristics vary widely as
Thermal power plants etc.
inert, highly biodegradable, toxic, reactive,
odorous, corrosive, hot, cold, coloured,
viscous, inflammable and dusty

85
Solid Waste Management System

Waste collection into dust bins

On-site handling, storage and processing

Transportation

Processing

Disposal

86
 Solid Waste in India
7.2 million tones of hazardous waste
One Sq km of additional landfill area every-year
Rs 1600 crore for treatment & disposal of these wastes
In addition to this industries discharge about 150 million tones of high volume low hazard waste every year,
which is mostly dumped on open low lying land areas.
Source: Ministry of Environment & Forest
MSW Generation in India

As per estimates more than 55 million tons of MSW is generated in India per year, the yearly increase is estimated
to be about 5%
It is estimated that Solid waste generated in small, medium and large cities and towns in India is about 0.1 kg,
0.3-0.4 kg and 0.5kg per capita per day responsibility.
The estimated annual increase in per capita waste generation is about 1.33% per year
 Effects of waste if not managed wisely

Affects our health

Affects our socio-economic conditions

Affects our coastal and marine environment

Affects our climate

 Waste Management Matrix
Reduce at source (clean technology)

Reuse to extend life cycle

1. Secondary reuse as such
2. Refurbishing before reuse
3. Remanufacturing

Recycle for economic utilization

1. Waste to energy/cogeneration
2. Co processing in industry
3. Material recovery as raw material

Safe disposal: worst case landfill

Solid Waste Management Pyramid
Solid Waste Management Pyramid
 Reducing Waste Generation

Reducing generation of waste requires initiatives like Product & Process innovation
to convert the material resources in an Eco efficient manner to enhance productivity
and convert most material into product with low or no waste generation.

All environmental pollution arises Of waste generation can be arrested using clean
technology.
 Reuse For Lifecycle Effect

Reuse of discarded materials without any prior processing or modification for a lower
end use reduces the pressure of waste generation at next best option to reducing waste
generation at source.

Examples may include reuse of bottles, packing materials & second hand goods.
 Recycling for impact mitigation

Recycling turns material that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources
generating a host of environment ,financial and social benefits like

(1) Prevent the emission of many green house gases and water soil pollutants
(2) Saves energy/saves money
(3) Creates job and income
(4) Valuable raw materials and low cost
(5) Stimulates development of green technology
(6) Conserves resources for future
(7) Reduce pressure on reducing environment
(8) Reversing the adverse environmental impact
 Methodology for Waste Generation

Waste auditing
1. Waste classification
2. Waste quantification
Waste collection & segregation
Waste handling, storage & transportation
Waste processing, recycling and Disposal
Waste to Wealth ( Secondary production)
Waste to Wealth (co processing)
Waste to Energy ( Cogeneration)
Waste disposal (landfill & composting)
 Frame work for waste Management
Policy framework
Regulatory framework
Orgaware for regulation
Techno ware for excellence
Human ware for Accomplishment
Research and innovation for impact mitigation
Judicial framework
Public interest Activism
 POLICY FRAMEWORK: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Levies/fee for solid waste generation

Incentives for waste minimization/recycling
Adopting legislation for regulation
Establishing environment standards
Creating local municipal authorities
Prescribing regulatory framework
Establishing enforcement systems
Establishing judicial tribunals
Promoting environmental education and awareness
Promote environmental research and technology
Market based intervention for waste minimization
 Innovative Ideas & Initiatives

Waste segregation & Marketing centers

Waste exchange to promote recycling
Promotion of refurbishing industry
Packaging material return mechanism
Waste to energy projects in PPP mode
Plastic waste to fuel conversion projects
Rapid composting facilities for agriculture
Plastic and construction wastes in roads
SWM Technology Roadmap
 ZERO IMPACT MANUFACTURING INITIATIVE (ZIMI)

ZIMI is a unique methodology for pollution prevention leveraging clean technology

options for eco- efficient manufacturing via total utilization and conservation of
resources with zero emission keeping the ultimate goal of zero environmental impact of
a stated industrial enterprises with substantial payback on investment

Features of ZIMI

Zero freshwater
Zero energy
Zero prime materials
Zero non-renewable resources
Zero waste
Zero emission
 Solid Waste Management Rules

The Ministry of environment, forest ,climate change,Govt of India has notified:

(1) Plastic waste Management Rule,2016

(2) E- Waste Management Rule, 2016
(3) Bio Medical Waste Management Rule,2016
(4) Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rule,2016
(5) Hazardous & Other Waste Management & Transboundary Movement Rule,2016
 MSW Segregation

MSW usually contain food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textile,glass,metals etc. In
addition domestic hazardous wastes like batteries and consumer electronics, pesticide
cans, paint drums, sanitary waste, non functional CFL bulbs, tube lights and broken
thermometers containing mercury, some biomedical Waste such as gauges, discarded
insulin or other injections(syringes and needles), small Amount of C & D waste, e-waste
also gets mixed up with MSW.
 Waste to Fuel

Important properties to study

Proximate analysis
1. Moisture
2. Volatile combustible matter (950°c)
3. Fixed carbon
4. Ash

Fusing point of Ash

Ultimate analysis
Energy content
 Energy Content Estimation

E(MJ/kg)=[0.051(F+3.6(CP)]+0.352(PLR)
Where,
E = Energy content
F = Percentage Weight of food in the waste
CP = Percentage of cardboard and paper
PLR = Percentage of plastic, leather and rubber
 E-Waste

E -Waste Discarded Electrical or Electronic devices

Eg. Smart phones ,Printers,cartridges,,digital cameras etc.

Issues related to E waste

Emissions of dioxins/heavy metals- lead, cadmium, mercury

Other contaminants like brominated flame Retardants (BFRs)
Spent fluid/ chemicals in soil
Groundwater contamination
Non recyclables diverted to landfills hence risk of Leachate
Exposure to toxics due to release in air, water and soil
 Plastic Diesel (Light Diesel Oil)

Union minister of science and technology and Earth sciences Harsh Vardhan on
August29,2019, inaugurated a demonstration plant for converting plastic waste to Diesel
based on at the Indian institute for petroleum(IIP) of council of scientific and industrial
research (CSIR) in Dehradun. The plant which was developed based on the technology
by IIP researchers, can convert one ton of plastic waste into 800 litres of diesel
everyday. The fuel will be of automotive grade. It meets the specifications for use in
vehicles. GAIL(India) has sponsored the technology development and provided
technical support for the Endeavour. Using the technology, polyolefin waste can be
converted into diesel. This type of waste accounts for about 70% of total plastic waste in
the country and is the least biodegradable.
 Plastic Waste Management

Marking or Labeling
1. Each plastic carry bag and multilayer packaging shall have the following
information printed in English namely:
Name, registration number of the manufacturer and thickness of carry bag
Name and registration number of the manufacturer in case of multilayered packaging;
and
Name and certificate number in case of carry bags made from compostable plastic
1. Each recycled carry bag shall bear a label or a mark “Recycled” as shown below and
shall confirm to the Indian standard: IS 14534: 1998 titled as “Guidelines for
Recycling of Plastic” as amended from time to time.
2. Each carry bag made from compostable plastics shall bear a label “compostable”
and shall conform to the Indian standard :IS or ISO 17088 :2008 titled as
specifications of “Compostable plastics”.
 C & D Waste Related Codes

IS 383: 2016 (Third revision January 2016)

coarse and fine aggregate for concrete

IRC 121: 2017

Guidelines for use of construction and Demolition Waste in Road Sectors
It contains chapters on scope of guidelines, Advantages and Limitations of
using processed C & D waste products in Road Sector, Typical properties of
processed C & D waste, etc.

Utilization of Recycled produce of construction & Demolition waste a ready

reckoner: October 2018
 RDF/SRF
Using waste that cannot be recycled as an energy source is one way to reduce the amount of
waste that is sent to landfill

Known as Refuse derived fuel (RDF) or Solid recovered fuel(SRF)

RDF is produced from domestic and business waste which includes biodegradable materials
as well as plastics. Non combustible materials such as glass and metals are removed, and the
residual material is then shredded.RDF is used to generate energy at recovery facilities.

SRF is a high quality alternative to fossil fuels produced from generally commercial waste
including paper, card, wood , textile and plastic. Solid recovered fuel has gone through
additional processing to improve the quality and value. It has a higher colorific value than
RDF and it is used in facilities such as cement kilns.
 Treatment and disposal of solid waste

Several methods are used for treatment and disposal. These are:
1.Composting
2.Incineration
3.Landfilling
4.Pyrolysis
5.Recycling
 Composting

It is a process in which organic matter of solid waste is decomposed and

converted to humus and mineral compounds.
Compost is the end product of composting, which
used as fertilizer.
Three methods of composting:
(a) composting by trenching
(b) open windrow composting
(c) mechanical composting
 Composting by trenching
Trenches 3 - 12 m long, 2 – 3 m wide and 1- 2 m deep with spacing 2 m.
Dry wastes are filled up in 15 cm. On top of each layer 5 cm thick sandwiching layer of animal
dung is sprayed in semi liquid form.
Biological action starts in 2- 3 days and decomposition starts.
Solid waste stabilize in 4- 6 months and changed into brown colored odorless powdery form
known as humus.
 Open windrow composting
Large materials like broken glass, stone, plastic articles are removed.
Remaining solid wastes is dumped on ground in form
of piles of 0.6 – 1 m height.
The width and length of piles are kept 1- 2 m and 6 m
respectively.
Moisture content maintained at 60%.
Temp. increases in side pile.
After pile for turned for cooling and aeration to avoid
anaerobic decomposition.
The complete process may take 4- 6 week.
 Mechanical composting
It requires small area compare to trenching and open windrow composting.
The stabilization of waste takes 3- 6 days.
The operation involved are reception of refuse segregation shredding stabilization
marketing the humus.
 Incineration

Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic

substances contained in waste materials.
Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal
treatment".
Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat.
Incinerators are used for this process.
Important points regarding incineration

Supplying of solid waste should be continuous.

Waste should be proper mixed with fuel for
complete combustion.
Temp. should not less than 670 ˚C.

Advantages
Most hygienic method. Disadvantages
Complete destruction of pathogens. Large initial expense.
No odor trouble. Care and attention required otherwise
Heat generated may be used for steam power. incomplete combustion will increase air
pollution.
Clinkers produced may be used for road
construction. Residues required to be disposed which require
money.
Less space required.
Large no of vehicles required for transportation.
Adverse weather condition has no effect.
 Landfilling
A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form
of waste treatment.
Historically, landfills have been the most common methods of organized waste disposal
and remain so in many places around the world.
The dumping is done with layers of 1-2 m.
The layer is covered with soil of 20 cm thickness.
Advantages
Simple method.
No costly plant required.
No residues or by products need to be disposed.
Separation not required.
Unused land can be used.
Methane gas can be used as fuel.

Disadvantages
Large land required.
Proper dumping site may not be available.
Odor problem.
Leachate should be collected regularly.
Methane gas should be collected properly.
Green house gas problem.
 Pyrolysis

Heating of the solid waste at very high temp. in absence of air.

Carried out at temp. between 500 ˚C – 1000 ˚C.
Gas, liquid and chars are the by products.
 Recycling
Recycling is processing used materials into new products .
It reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution
(from incineration) and water pollution
(from land filling).
Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the
"Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" waste hierarchy.
Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, and electronics.
Although similar in effect, the composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste – such as food
or garden waste – is not typically considered recycling.
Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection centre or picked up from the
curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials.
THANKS