Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields in Bone Healing Mole
Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields in Bone Healing Mole
Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields in Bone Healing Mole
Review
Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields in Bone Healing: Molecular
Pathways and Clinical Applications
Laura Caliogna 1, Marta Medetti 1, Valentina Bina 2,*, Alice Maria Brancato 1, Alberto Castelli 1, Eugenio Jannelli 1,
Alessandro Ivone 1, Giulia Gastaldi 2,3, Salvatore Annunziata 1, Mario Mosconi 1 and Gianluigi Pasta 1
1 Orthopedics and Traumatology Clinic, IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
[email protected] (L.C.); [email protected] (M.M.);
[email protected] (A.M.B.); [email protected] (A.C.);
[email protected] (E.J.); [email protected] (A.I.);
[email protected] (S.A.); [email protected] (M.M.); [email protected] (G.P.)
2 Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; [email protected]
3 Centre for Health Technologies, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: In this article, we provide an extensive review of the recent literature of the signaling
pathways modulated by Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields (PEMFs) and PEMFs clinical application. A
review of the literature was performed on two medical electronic databases (PubMed and Embase)
from 3 to 5 March 2021. Three authors performed the evaluation of the studies and the data
extraction. All studies for this review were selected following these inclusion criteria: studies written
in English, studies available in full text and studies published in peer‐reviewed journal. Molecular
Citation: Caliogna, L.; Medetti, M.;
biology, identifying cell membrane receptors and pathways involved in bone healing, and studying
Bina, V.; Brancato, A.M.; Castelli, A.;
PEMFs target of action are giving a solid basis for clinical applications of PEMFs. However, further
Jannelli, E.; Ivone, A.; Gastaldi, G.;
Annunziata, S.; Mosconi, M.; et al.
biology studies and clinical trials with clear and standardized parameters (intensity, frequency,
Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields in dose, duration, type of coil) are required to clarify the precise dose–response relationship and to
Bone Healing: Molecular Pathways understand the real applications in clinical practice of PEMFs.
and Clinical Applications. Int. J. Mol.
Sci. 2021, 22, 7403. https://doi.org/ Keywords: pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs); biophysical stimulation; osteogenic
10.3390/ijms22147403 differentiation; fracture repair; fracture healing; bone regeneration
Academic Editor: Emerito Carlos
Rodriguez‐Merchan
1. Introduction
Received: 30 May 2021
Accepted: 6 July 2021
Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields (PEMFs) are widely used in orthopedic clinical
Published: 9 July 2021
practices to promote bone healing processes [1]. In the 1950s, a group of Japanese
researchers discovered the piezoelectric properties of the bone; Fukada and Yasuda
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays demonstrated that in the compression areas the bone is electronegative and causes bone
neutral with regard to jurisdictional resorption, whereas areas under tension are electropositive and produce bone [2].
claims in published maps and Nowadays, bone responses to PEMFs have been widely studied. In the literature,
institutional affiliations. skeletal cells responses to PEMFs have been therapeutically evaluated with devices that
expose bone cells to electromagnetic fields in order to stimulate extracellular matrix
synthesis for bone and cartilage repair. Understanding the molecular pathways after
PEMFs exposure provides important details for their clinical application.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. The aim of the review is to highlight the molecular cell responses to PEMFs and their
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. clinical uses in promoting bone repair, tissue engineering and regeneration.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
2. Materials and Methods
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
A review of the literature was performed on two medical electronic databases
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses (PubMed https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (accessed on 3–5 March 2021) and Embase
/by/4.0/). https://www.embase.com (accessed on 3–5 March 2021)) from 3 to 5 March 2021. Three
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147403 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 2 of 18
authors performed the evaluation of the studies and the data extraction. All studies for
this review were selected by following these inclusion criteria:
All studies were written in the English language
All studies were an available full text
All studies were published in peer‐reviewed journals
The study selection and the data extraction were performed independently by three
authors. All discrepancies (disagreement) were discussed between the authors and the
senior investigators revised the work.
Eligible studies for the review were selected by screening the titles and abstracts
using the following three strings, both in PubMed and in Embase:
bone physiology AND fracture healing.
electromagnetic field AND fracture healing.
electromagnetic field AND bone pathway.
In the first string, we selected only the reviews from 2018 to 2020, in the second all
the works in the same period and in the third, all works in the last 10 years.
The research using “bone physiology AND fracture healing” produced 155 articles
in PubMed and 55 articles in Embase. The two databases share 30 articles. At the end of
the reading and screening process a total of 6 articles were identified and selected also by
checking the bibliography of all the articles examined.
Using the second strings in PubMed we found 26 articles and in Embase 61 articles.
The two databases have in common 23 articles and for this review after reading the texts
were selected 2 articles and 1 article were selected checking the bibliography in all articles
examined.
The research using the third string produced in PubMed 66 articles and in Embase
65 and the two databases have in common 38 articles. After reading the texts were selected
6 articles and more 10 articles were selected checking the bibliography in all articles
examined.
To evaluate the clinical application of PEMFs the following strings in PubMed and in
Embase were used. Fracture healing and magnetic field
Magnetic field AND delayed union
Electromagnetic field AND bone healing
All the selected articles of the first two strings were full text, published in the last 10
years (the first two strings), whereas the selected articles from the third string were
published in 2019–2020.
The research in PubMed using fracture healing AND magnetic field produced 79
articles and in Embase 91 articles. The two databases have in common 11 articles and for
this review after reading the texts, were selected 13 articles and 1 article meeting the
inclusion criteria were identified, by checking the bibliography in all articles examined.
The research in PubMed using magnetic field AND delayed union produced 5
articles and in Embase 24 articles. The two databases have in common only one article and
for this review after reading the texts was selected only one article identified in the
bibliography in the examined articles.
Using the “electromagnetic field AND bone healing” string, we found 32 articles in
PubMed and 56 in Embase.
The two databases had 25 articles in common, and for this review two articles were
selected.
3. Physical Stimulations in Bone Healing
In the last decades, many efforts have been done to understand musculoskeletal
tissue regeneration. Biological, chemical, and physiological factors, which play key roles
in musculoskeletal tissue development, have been extensively explored. However, the use
of physical stimulation is increasing, showing extreme importance in the processes of
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 3 of 18
4. Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields (PEMFs)
PEMFs are generated from an alternate current being passed through a coil. They are
low‐frequency magnetic fields with a specific waveform and amplitude, characterized by
a constant variation of the magnetic field amplitude over time. PEMFs have been
approved by the FDA to treat bone fractures since 1979 as a safe and effective treatment
for nonunion of bone, congenital pseudoarthrosis, and failed fusions. Despite its clinical
use, cell responses activated by electromagnetic fields in bone tissue are not yet
completely known.
Several studies both in vitro and in vivo had been conducted to explore PEMFs effects
on osteoprogenitor cells and the skeletal system. The most common cells lines used in
vitro are BM‐MSCs (Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells) and ADSCs (Adipose
Derived Stem Cells), while in vivo, the most used models are femoral or tibial osteotomy
in rats and rabbits.
Despite numerous studies about the effect of PEMFs stimulations on cells responses,
there is no consensus on the optimal parameters (frequency, intensity, and duration) that
will promote bone growth and bone healing.
Evidence in literature shows that the most common parameters used both in vitro
and in vivo are the following [3]:
intensity: ranging from 0.1 mT to 2 mT;
frequency: ranging from 15 Hz to 75 Hz;
duration: in vitro, the treatment duration ranges from 8 min to 24 h for many days
(from 1 to 28 days). In vivo, the treatment duration ranges from 1 h to 8 h for many
weeks (from 1 to 12 weeks).
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 4 of 18
Most in vitro experiments highlighted a gene expression increase of main bone mark‐
ers alkaline phosphatase (alp), runt‐related‐transcription factor 2 (runx‐2), osteocalcin
(ocn), and osteopontin (opn); then, the enhancement of alkaline phosphatase (ALP)enzy‐
matic activity and other typical bone matrix proteins was also detected.
Moreover, in vivo studies demonstrated that PEMFs have positive effects on bone
fractures: a decrease in healing time was observed in different animal models who have
had osteotomy.
Due to the central role of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) in physiological bone re‐
pair, in the last years several studies have been oriented towards the discovering of PEMFs
effects on MSCs osteogenic differentiation as well as the signaling pathways involved.
As described below, PEMFs can control the inflammatory microenvironment and
promote the MSCs differentiation, playing a pro‐osteogenic role.
5. PEMFs Molecular Pathways on Bone Healing
The usual bone healing process after bone fracture consists of four distinct phases.
However, these stages have considerable overlaps [4]:
1. Fracture and inflammatory phase.
2. Angio‐mesenchymal phase.
3. Bone formation.
4. Bone remodeling.
It has been observed that PEMF‐activated pathways take a role in bone healing
phases 2, 3, and 4, while inhibit the 1 inflammatory phase [5].
5.1. Inflammatory Phase and Wnt/β‐Catenin Signaling
This stage begins immediately following the fracture (Days 1 to 5). Blood vessels and
bone are broken, originating a hematoma around the fracture site. In literature it has been
demonstrated an important role and implication of Wnt signaling in the inflammatory
phase preceding tissue repair; however, even though the precise molecular network in‐
volved is not elucidated yet, in this review we considered Wnt signaling as a key player
in the modulation of this early phase. It has been demonstrated that PEMFs were able to
activate cell surface adenosine receptor (A2A), resulting in the activation of both canonical
(Wnt/β‐catenin) and non‐canonical (Wnt/Ca2+) Wnt pathways [6], as documented by the
increased expression of Wnt ligands such as WNT1, WNT3a, and WNT10b in association
with increases in both bone mass and strength [7].
Generally, the Wnt ligands activate a series of downstream intracellular signaling
pathways: the Wnt/β‐catenin, Wnt/Ca2+, Wnt/planar cell polarity (Wnt/PCP) or Wnt/pro‐
tein kinase A (Wnt/PKA) pathways. However, as the canonical Wnt/β‐catenin pathway is
the most well characterized, for a better comprehension of the molecular mechanisms in‐
volved, in this review we will summarize its intracellular cascade [7].
A distinctive feature of the canonical Wnt/β‐catenin pathway is the translocation of
the β‐catenin into the nucleus upon signaling activation. When no Wnt ligands are pre‐
sent, β‐catenin is degraded by a β‐catenin destruction complex, which includes axin, ade‐
nomatosis polyposis coli (APC), protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), glycogen synthase ki‐
nase 3 (GSK3), and casein kinase 1 α (CK1α), whereas the binding of WNTs to the receptor
complex, composed by Fz and LRP5/6 co‐receptors, triggers a series of events responsible
for the degradation of the destruction complex described above. The Wnt binding also
cause a diminished axin’ stability in the cytoplasm, and its translocation close to the cell
membrane where it interacts with the cytoplasmic tail of LPR5/6 receptor. This event in‐
duced the activation of DSH protein which plays a key role in the inhibition of GSK3,
protecting β‐catenin from its degradation and allowing the protein to accumulate in the
cell’s cytoplasm. Then, the stabilized β‐catenin enters the nucleus whereby interacting
with partner DNA‐binding proteins, such as LEF and TFCs, modulate the transcriptional
activity of target genes [8].
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 5 of 18
To conclude, the activation by PEMFs of adenosine receptors, especially A2A and A3,
is particularly relevant in this phase as well, since their activation inhibits the NF‐kB path‐
way, a molecular cascade involved in inflammatory processes [1].
5.2. Angio‐Mesenchymal Phase and VEGF Pathways
In the angio‐mesenchymal phase (Days 5 to 11), VEGF regulates the angiogenesis
process, which is closely connected to osteogenesis Type H vessels, so named for their
high expression of endomucin and CD31, that have recently been identified as able to
induce bone formation [9]. The VEGF pathway is the key regulator of vascular regenera‐
tion. It has been shown that both osteoblasts and hypertrophic chondrocytes express high
levels of VEGF, thereby promoting the invasion of blood vessels and transforming the
avascular cartilaginous matrix into a vascularized osseous tissue [10]. VEGF promotes
both vasculogenesis, helping aggregation and proliferation of endothelial mesenchymal
stem cells into a vascular plexus, and angiogenesis, stimulating the growth of new vessels
from the already existing ones. Therefore, VEGF plays a crucial role in the neo‐angiogen‐
esis and revascularization at the fracture site. It has been observed that the presence of
VEGF promotes fracture healing, while blocking of VEGF‐receptors leads to a delay or
interruption of the regenerative processes.
Many studies suggested that PEMFs play a promotion effect not only in osteogenesis
but also in angiogenesis, in different cellular model both in physiologic and pathologic
conditions [11,12]. Therefore, PEMFs may facilitate bone repair by inducing the activation
of diverse signaling pathways enhancing both osteogenesis and angiogenesis. Both the
FGF and VEGF signaling pathways have been demonstrated to be involved in the regula‐
tion of proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts and in angiogenesis required for
bone formation [10]. A study indicated that, in human umbilical vein, after the exposure
of endothelial cells (HUVECs) to PEMFs there was a 150% increase of FGF‐2 mRNA and
a 5‐fold rise of the protein, a molecular shift responsible for the augmented endothelial
cell proliferation and tubulization, key steps for new vessels formation [13]. The same re‐
sult has been documented by Delle Monache and colleagues, which revealed that in the
same cell type, the PEMFs treatment induced an increase of the protein expression of
phosphorylated VEGF receptor 2 (KDR/Flk‐1), promoting cell proliferation, migration
and tube formation of HUVECs [12].
5.3. Bone Formation
In that phase, MSCs previously recruited can differentiate into osteoblasts or chon‐
drocytes to initiate the bone formation. During the process of osteoblast differentiation,
RUNX‐2 is crucial for the commitment of MSCs to the osteoblast lineage and positively
influences early stages of osteoblast differentiation. Osterix (OSX) starts playing an im‐
portant role in osteoblast differentiation following RUNX2‐mediated mesenchymal con‐
densation. During the process of osteoblast differentiation, RUNX‐2 induces the expres‐
sion of bone matrix genes Collagen type 1 (col1a1), Osteopontin (opn), Bone Sialoprotein
(ibsp), and Osteocalcin (ocn). However, for further bone maturation, runx‐2 expression
must be downregulated [14].
At present, the molecular pathways known to be involved in bone formation and
activated by PEMFs exposure are as follows:
1. Bone Morphogenetic Protein Signaling Pathway (BMPs) and Tumor Growth Factor
β Signaling Pathway (TGF‐β)
2. Phosphoinositide 3‐Kinases/Akt/mammalian Target of Rapamycin Signaling Path‐
way (PI3K/Akt/mTOR)
3. Notch Signaling Pathway (NSP)
4. Mitogen‐Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK).
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 6 of 18
5.3.1. TGF‐β/BMPs Pathways
TGF‐βs and BMPs are cell regulatory proteins belonging to the TGF‐β superfamily,
which play critical role in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and development
in a wide range of biological systems.
Generally, the signaling starts with the ligand‐induced oligomerization of receptor
kinases and phosphorylation (activation) of the cytoplasmic effectors SMADs (Sma and
Mad Related Family): SMAD2 and SMAD3 for the TGF‐β pathway, or SMAD1/5/8 for the
bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) pathway. Upon phosphorylation, SMADs associate
with SMAD4 (co‐SMAD), responsible for the whole complex nuclear translocation. Acti‐
vated SMADs regulate diverse biological effects according to the partner proteins se‐
lected. Moreover, the activation of SMADs is balanced by the presence of inhibitory
SMADs (SMAD6, SMAD7) whose expression is induced by TGF‐β and BMP signaling as
part of a negative feedback loop.
TGF‐β Signaling Pathway
The TGF‐β signaling pathway plays an important role in the development, homeo‐
stasis, and repair of most tissues in organisms. TGF‐β is a potent immune suppressor, and
perturbation of the signaling is linked to autoimmunity, inflammation, and cancer [15].
Before binding to its receptors, TGF‐β is activated from a large latent complex composed
by LTBP (latent TGF‐β binding protein) and LAP (Latency‐Associated Peptide). Ligand
binding to the Type II receptor (TGF‐β RII) allows the recruitment and activation of Type
I receptor (TGF‐β RI). The activated TGF‐β RI then phosphorylates its downstream targets
SMAD2 and SMAD3 [16] which upon association with SMAD4, translocate into the nu‐
cleus, whereby interacting with other transcription factors, regulate gene expression.
However, a part the canonical (SMADs—dependent) signaling pathway activation, the
TGF‐β signaling may trigger SMADs independent pathways too, including Erk,
SAPK/JNK, and p38 MAPK signaling.
BMPs Signaling Pathway
BMPs (Bone Morphogenetic Proteins) are a large subclass (more than 20 members)
of the TGF‐β super family acting in many tissues under physiologic conditions. BMPs ac‐
complish their task via receptor‐mediated intracellular signaling, ending up with gene
expression regulation.
Two types of receptors are required in this process: type I and type II. While there is
only one type II BMP receptor (BmprII), there are three type I receptors: Alk2, Alk3, and
Alk6. Different combinations of type II and type I receptors determine the outcome of the
signaling pathway activation. The canonical BMP pathway acts through receptor I medi‐
ated phosphorylation of SMAD1, SMAD5, or SMAD8. Then, two phosphorylated SMADs
form a heterotrimeric complex with SMAD4. Finally, the formed heterotrimeric complex
translocates into the nucleus and cooperates with other transcription factors to modulate
the expression of target genes [17]. Even in this case, a part the canonical pathway activa‐
tion (SMADs—dependent), the BMPs signals may be transduced thanks to the intricate
crosstalk occurring between the BMPs and other important signaling pathways, such as
Wnt’s.
Both the TGF‐β and BMPs pathways have been found to have a key role in osteogenic
process; thus, as a master regulators of bone formation and healing, their activation after
PEMFs exposure has been widely investigated. Several studies demonstrated that PEMFs
stimulation could significantly increase the expression of TGF‐β in osteoblast‐like cells
[18]. Moreover, another study demonstrated that in human bone marrow stromal cells
(hBMSCs), PEMFs exposure was able to activate both the pathways inducing prolifera‐
tion, differentiation and mineralization of stem cells by up‐regulating the gene expression
of runx‐2 [19]. The activation of these signaling pathways has been also confirmed by both
in vitro and in vivo (clinical trials) studies, as they reported that PEMFs stimulation
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 7 of 18
induced an increased transcription and synthesis of BMPs in an intensity‐dependent man‐
ner [20]. To conclude, different studies highlighted a synergy between the PEMFs treat‐
ments and the administration of BMPs, suggesting that these two stimuli may work on
different intracellular pathways, enhancing new bone formation to a greater degree that
treating with either stimulus [5].
Crosstalk between WNT & BMPs Pathways
Both BMPs and Wnt ligands serve a role in the bone formation, as suggested by a
multitude of in vitro and in vivo studies. However, it seems that the crosstalk between
these two pathways in bone development is rather complicated, as the two signaling cas‐
cades interact differently according to the developmental stage considered [21]. In skeletal
development, the mesenchymal precursors undertake the osteogenic differentiation pro‐
cess upon the activation of Wnt/β‐catenin pathway; at this stage, the Wnt/β‐catenin sig‐
naling keep osteoprogenitors dividing preventing their further maturation, a step regu‐
lated by BMPs. Therefore, BMP and Wnt signals have opposing effects in osteoprogenitor
cells.
However, once osteoprogenitors become osteoblasts, Wnt and BMP signals function
cooperatively; both BMP2 and Wnt/β‐catenin pathways promote further differentiation,
as documented by the expression of ALP and ECM mineralization. However, what is
overt is that the outcome of the crosstalk between these two signaling pathways, strongly
depends on cell type considered, the step of bone formation or healing, and on the whole
cellular and extracellular contexts, as documented by the huge amount of data in litera‐
ture. This intricate relationship, takes place at different levels, as documented by the reg‐
ulation of both pathways in extracellular, cytoplasmic, and nuclear contexts.
Extracellular Regulation
In the extracellular environment, the binding of secreted molecules to components of
both signaling pathways may result either in activation or repression of the two molecular
cascades. For instance, the interaction occurring between sclerostin (SOST) with BMPs lig‐
ands and/or with the LRP6, prevents the pathways activation. On the other hand, other
secreted molecules work by enhancing and encouraging positive interactions between
WNTs and BMPs signals [21].
Intracellular Regulation
At the intracellular level, the transducer components of both signaling pathways in‐
teract with each other’s.
For instance, BMPs inhibit Wnt pathway through a direct interaction between DSH
and the phosphorylated SMAD1 creating an inhibitory complex which is broken upon
WNT3 stimulation. However, when the cells (bone marrow stromal cells) were treated
with both WNT3a and BMP2, the interaction between the two proteins was further en‐
hanced thanks to the phosphorylation of SMAD1.
However, the effect of Wnt signals on BMP pathway is still under deep investigation.
To date, there are authors showing an inhibitory effect on BMP signaling [21] and others
reporting a synergy between the two [22–26].
Finally, the interaction between β‐catenin and inhibitory SMADs might cause either
the β‐catenin degradation upon ubiquitination or the enhancement of the Wnt/β‐catenin
signaling pathway’s activation by promoting the formation of β‐catenin/LEF‐1 transcrip‐
tion complex. Accordingly, the outcome of the relationship depends on the whole cellular
context [21].
Nuclear Regulation
One of the most compelling evidence of the synergy and crosstalk between these two
signaling pathways is the regulation of gene expression at promoter level. As described
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above, upon signal activation, β‐catenin translocates into the nucleus to associate with
LEF/TFCs transcription factors, acting as a co‐activator. TCFs and LEF contain DNA bind‐
ing domains able to recognize conserved DNA sequences, a feature shared by the BMP’
signaling effector SMAD4. Indeed, many genes have been found to harbor the DNA bind‐
ing sites for both the TCFs/LEF complex and SMAD4. In most cases, the gene expression
of target genes is synergistically increased, rather than having one stimulus alone. Indeed,
when the SMAD4 binding sites were removed from the regulatory region, β‐catenin was
not able to cause a full transcriptional activity, and the same results were found about the
TCFs/LEF binding sites. [21].
5.3.2. PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling
The PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling is a crucial molecular cascade involved in a variety of
physiological cellular processes such as cell cycle and metabolism regulation, transcrip‐
tion and translation, cell differentiation, motility, and apoptosis [5]. Indeed, because of its
importance in core cell function, its proper signaling controls cell survival.
The mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a serine/threonine ki‐
nase that integrates inputs from nutrients and growth factors to control many fundamen‐
tal cellular processes through two distinct protein complexes mTORC1 and mTORC2. In
particular, mTORC1 has emerged as a common effector mediating the bone anabolic effect
of IGF1, WNTs, and BMPs; thus, a dysregulation of mTORC1 could contribute to various
skeletal diseases including osteoarthritis and osteoporosis [20]. Indeed, a study published
in 2018 revealed that in the presence of an inflammatory environment, after PEMFs expo‐
sure the MSC commitment shifted towards an osteoblastic phenotype through the activa‐
tion of the mTOR signaling pathway [27].
Furthermore, activation of PI3K/Akt signaling in MSCs under PEMFs osteogenic in‐
duction has been reported. Zhang and colleagues described increased levels of phosphor‐
ylated Akt, phosphorylated GSK3β, and nuclear β‐catenin, indicating the Akt/GSK3β/β‐
catenin axis is involved in osteogenic differentiation, following PEMF exposure [28]. The
involvement of Akt has been reported also by Poh and colleagues, who demonstrated that
after PEMFs exposure at selected parameters, the activation of Akt in adipose derived
mesenchymal stem cells, leads to a significant upregulation of bone‐specific genes [29].
5.3.3. Notch Signaling
The Notch Signaling Pathway (NSP) is a highly conserved pathway for cell–cell com‐
munication. NSP is involved in the regulation of several processes such as cell differenti‐
ation, proliferation, and specification. Actually, NSP is used by a variety of renewing adult
tissues to control both the undifferentiated state in the stem cell niche and the cell fate
commitment required for tissue homeostasis and renewal (Reactome Notch Signaling).
The Notch signaling is activated upon cell‐to‐cell contact through the interactions occur‐
ring between Notch receptors and the ligands Delta and Jagged. The ligand binding in‐
duces the cleavage of Notch receptor resulting in the release of Notch intracellular domain
(NICD), which translocates to the nucleus acting as a transcriptional co‐activator. How‐
ever, NICD requires a DNA‐binding protein, RBP‐J (recombination signal sequence‐bind‐
ing protein Jk), to activate the transcription of target genes. In the absence of NICD, the
gene expression of its target genes is repressed by RBP‐J, thanks to the recruitment of co‐
repressor complexes, whereas the binding of NICD displaces the co‐repressors further
allowing the recruitment of co‐activator complexes [30].
As a key regulator of cell differentiation, Bagheri and colleagues have found that after
PEMFs exposure, the hBMSCs were able to acquire an osteoblastic phenotype through the
activation of Notch signaling. Specifically, they reported an increase in the expression of
several players acting through the Notch‐4 signaling, such as NOTCH‐4, DLL4, HEY1,
HES1, and HES5 [22]. Moreover, the Notch pathway inhibitors inhibited the expression
of osteogenic markers, including DLX5, OSX, as well as HES1 and HES5, indicating that
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 9 of 18
the Notch signaling plays an important regulatory role in PEMFs‐induced osteogenic dif‐
ferentiation of hMSCs [5].
5.3.4. ERK/MAPK Signaling
The extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK) belongs to the mitogen‐activated
protein kinase (MAPK) family, which plays a role in the signal transduction, conveying
extracellular cues towards intracellular targets. These kinases have a variety of intracellu‐
lar targets, allowing them to control diverse cellular processes, like cell proliferation, cell
differentiation, and stress response. The MAPK pathway plays a critical role in PEMFs‐
induced osteogenic differentiation and osteoblasts’ viability and function. Extremely low‐
frequency pulsed electromagnetic fields (ELF‐PEMFs) treatment could significantly in‐
crease the total protein content, mitochondrial and ALP activity, and enhance the for‐
mation of mineralized matrix of human osteoblasts with a poor initial osteoblast function,
by triggering the ERK1/2 signaling pathway. When the cells were treated with an inhibitor
of the ERK1/2 signaling cascade, the positive effects of the ELF‐PEMFs treatment on oste‐
oblast function were impaired [31].
Several other studies revealed the involvement of this signaling pathway in the pro‐
liferation and osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow derived stem cells, following
PEMFs treatment. Specifically, upon PEMFs exposure, the cells displayed an augmented
proliferation, an increased expression of some bone specific genes, such runx‐2, ibsp, opn
and a rise of ALP enzymatic activity [5]. Moreover, also Poh and colleagues have revealed
the MAPK/ERK signaling activation after PEMFs exposure. Shortly after PEMFs stimula‐
tion it has been detected an increase in phosphorylated ERK1/2, a mechanism involved in
cell survival, growth and proliferation [29]. Interestingly, the PEMFs treatment, by acti‐
vating the ERK and p38 MAPK signaling, was able to modulate both the osteogenic and
osteoclastogenic activities necessary for bone homeostasis and physiology [32].
5.4. Bone Remodeling
In step 4, the mature osteoblasts begin to produce collagen and calcium deposits (Day
18 onwards, lasting months to years), allowing for the growth of primary bone in fracture
site, called woven bone or callus. If the process of union fails, the entire callus becomes
fibro‐tissue.
A key step of callus remodeling is the establishment of a fine balance between new
bone formation, deposited by osteoblasts and bone resorption, executed by osteoclasts.
In physiological conditions, both the processes are tightly regulated to achieve al‐
most‐zero changes in bone mass, allowing for bone tissue renewal over time. Both GH
and IGF‐I play key roles in the regulation of bone growth and homeostasis, thus control‐
ling bone mass. Indeed, GH through direct and indirect (IGF‐I mediated) stimulation in‐
duce osteoblasts proliferation and activity, promoting new bone deposition; however, its
presence also enhances the osteoclasts’ activity and differentiation, causing bone resorp‐
tion. The result is the increased rate of the overall bone remodeling, with different net
outcomes depending on the life stages considered. As a supportive element of the key role
exerted by GH, its depletion results in a reduced rate of bone remodeling and a gradual
loss of bone mineral density. Specifically, GH directly affects the resident chondrocytes of
epiphyseal growth plates, leading them towards the terminal differentiation [33].
5.4.1. GH
GH is a peptide hormone secreted from the pituitary gland under the control of hy‐
pothalamus. It exerts direct effect on various tissues including liver, kidney, muscle, cen‐
tral nervous system (CNS), and bone, through the interaction with its membrane receptor
(GHR). The GH has two different dependent and independent mechanisms of action, one
directly through the GHR and the other inducing IGF‐1 secretion. Circulating IGF‐1 is
mostly synthetized in the liver, but IGF‐1 is expressed in all tissues, suggesting that
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 10 of 18
autocrine/paracrine effects of local IGF‐1 may be a major mechanism controlling tissue
growth. The GHR system utilizes the Janus kinase (JAK) as a signal transducer activating
the transcription (STAT) signal transduction pathway [34].
The activated GHR is associated with JAK2, a tyrosine kinase that once activated by
GH, phosphorylates STATs‐1, ‐3, ‐5a, and 5b tyrosine’s. Therefore, STAT proteins translo‐
cate to the nucleus where they bind to the specific DNA sequences and activate gene tran‐
scription. In addition, recent studies have indicated that suppression of cytokine signaling
(SOCS) proteins also controls the GH signaling pathway [34]. These proteins play an im‐
portant role in growth and skeletal development as well as in inflammation. Chronic in‐
flammation is associated with altered growth and skeletal development, and the SOCS
proteins may also have an important role to play in mediating these effects. As GH and
IGF‐1 have a great effect on bone resorption and bone anabolism, and their administration
has a positive effect on osteoporosis and fracture healing, investigating the effects of
PEMFs on their effects would be a golden chance to clarify the molecular mechanisms
underneath bone healing processes. To date, there are no studies which put in evidence a
correlation between the PEMFs exposure and the activation of GH/IGF signaling path‐
ways in the framework of bone repair and healing. Therefore, to take steps forward in the
comprehension of PEMFs triggered cellular cascades, it would be of great interest inves‐
tigating the activation of this pathway too.
5.4.2. IGF
The insulin‐like growth factor (IGF) family consists of the ligands IGF‐I and IGF‐II,
the type I and type II IGF cell surface receptors, six specific high‐affinity binding proteins
(IGFBP‐1 to IGFBP‐6), IGFBP proteases, and other IGFBP‐interacting molecules [14].
The IGF‐I is the most abundant growth factor deposited in the bone matrix and stim‐
ulates cell proliferation and survival of osteoblasts. The primary function of IGF‐1 in the
bone matrix is to maintain bone mass and skeletal homeostasis during bone remodeling
[35].
Indeed, IGF‐1 promotes osteoclast differentiation, through the modulation of RANK
and RANKL expression, facilitating the physiological interaction between the osteoblast
and the osteoclast [36].
The results reported above are summarized in Table 1 and Figure 1.
Table 1. Molecular pathways activated by PEMFs exposure.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 11 of 18
Figure 1. Schematic representation of molecular pathways activated by pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs). Abbrevia‐
tions: A2A (adenosine receptor); alp (alkaline phosphatase gene); BMPs (bone morphogenetic proteins); ibsp (bone sialo‐
protein gene); col1 (collagen type 1 gene); ERK ( extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1/2); GH (growth hormone); GHR
(growth hormone receptor); IGF (insulin‐like growth factor); JAK‐STAT (Janus kinase‐ signal transucer activating the tran‐
scription); MAPK (mitogen‐activated protein kinase); mTOR (mammalian‐mechanistic target of rapamycin); NICD (Notch
intracellular domain); ocn (osteocalcin gene); opn (ostepontin gene); PTH (parathyroid hormone); runx‐2 (runt‐related‐
transcription factor 2 gene); SMAD proteins (small mothers against decapentaplegic); TGF‐β (transforming growth factor‐
β); TGF‐β RI/RII (TGF‐β receptor I/receptor II); VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor); VEGFR‐2 (vascular endothelial
growth factor receptor 2).
6. PEMFs Clinical Effects on Bone Healing
There are tens of thousands of fractures every week in the world, and patients spend
billions of dollars a year on treatments [37].
According to the Swedish Patient Register, an estimated 140,000 fractures are treated
in Sweden each year. However, national data based on classification and assessments by
orthopedic surgeons are scarce [38].
Though bone fracture is a common and costly condition, there is a scarcity of litera‐
ture focused on the additional costs of healthcare. Cost estimations for fracture healing
complications also differ widely in the current literature, depending on the type of com‐
plication studied and the method of cost analysis. In UK, a review of evidence on treat‐
ments cost for long bone fractures, reported a total cost of £15,566 ($27,100 AUD) for hu‐
meral fractures, £17,200 ($29,944 AUD) for femoral fractures and £16,330 ($28,429 AUD)
for tibial fractures. In US, treating tibial fractures was estimated as costly as $25,556 USD
($34,472 AUD) per patient, including inpatient, outpatient, and pharmaceutical costs [39].
PEMFs have been widely used to enhance bone repair, accelerating healing process
of recent fracture by promoting the callus formation [5], which can be achieved through
four distinct phases: inflammatory, angio‐mesenchymal, bone formation, and remodeling
phases.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 12 of 18
There is a lack of consensus in the literature about how to recognize fracture healing,
however radiological examinations are often used in the clinical practice. Radiologic eval‐
uation has historically relied upon radiographs and the most commonly fracture healing
criteria includes: bridging of the fracture by bone, callus, or trabeculae; bridging of the
fracture at three of four cortices; and obliteration of the fracture line and/or cortical conti‐
nuity [40]. Clinical healing can be defined as the lack of pain and movement at fracture
site [41].
A meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials published in 2014 demonstrated a
faster healing, expressed in time of radiological union, in patients treated with PEMFs
compared with patients treated with placebo, in acute non‐operatively treated fractures.
However, data from randomized trials were not sufficient to suggest an advantage in us‐
ing PEMFs in order to reduce the incidence of nonunion in acute fractures [42].
On the other side only three studies out of the sixteen were about PEMFs, hence the
authors could not be able to clarify the potential benefits of PEMFs.
Recent data from literature, based on systematic review and meta‐analysis of ran‐
domized controlled trials, showed an evidence of increased fracture healing rate and re‐
duced associated pain when PEMFs were used; otherwise, there is a lack of evidences
regarding the acceleration of the healing time [37].
Hanneman and colleagues in 2012 and 2014 have conducted two randomized con‐
trolled trials for non‐operative treatment of undisplaced scaphoid fractures [43,44]. The
authors suggested that the use of PEMFs in the non‐operative treatment of scaphoid frac‐
ture had no additional value, but in a well‐defined, stable, undisplaced scaphoid fracture,
the union can be accelerated.
Adie and colleagues, in a double‐blind randomized trial, suggested that PEMFs used
as adjuvant of surgery in tibial acute fractures do not prevent secondary surgical inter‐
ventions for delayed union or nonunion and do not improve radiographic union or pa‐
tient‐reported functional outcomes. However, it should be considered that this study had
a short follow‐up with low patient compliance (43% of patients provided radiographs at
three months, while 36% at six) [45].
Data from literature suggest that the use of PEMFs, as adjuvant in femoral neck frac‐
tures fixed with cannulate screws, is able to accelerate fracture healing and to reduce pain
[46].
Martinez and colleagues analyzed how electromagnetic therapy can affect the heal‐
ing of diaphyseal femoral fracture treated with fixation. They showed that PEMFs can
promote a faster bone healing [47].
There is a great variability in term of intensity and frequency in each of the reported
studies, as shown in Table 2. Actually, further studies are required to analyze and under‐
stand the dose–response relationship.
Table 2. Each single study had their parameter in terms of frequency, dose, and duration.
Frequency, Dose, Dura‐
Study Field of Application PEMFs (Device)
tion
Adjuvant in surgery (tib‐ EBI Bone Healing System (Bi‐ 10 h/day
Adie et al.
ial shaft) omet, New Jersey) 12 weeks
75 Hz, 2 mT
Adjuvant in surgery (fem‐
Faldini et al. Biostim (Igea,Carpi) 8 h/day
oral neck fractures)
90 days
Hanneman et al. 24 h/day
Acute scaphoid fractures Ossatec (Uden)
(2012) 6/12 weeks
Hanneman et al. 24 h/day
Acute scaphoid fractures Ossatec (Uden)
(2014) 6 weeks
Adjuvant in surgery (Di‐ 5–105 Hz, 0.5–2.0 mT
Martinez‐ Ron‐
aphiseal femoral frac‐ Authors provided 1 h/day
danelli et al.
tures) 8 weeks
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 13 of 18
The last phase of bone healing is the bone remodeling phase. In bone remodeling, 5–
10% of long bone fracture develop nonunion of fractures [41]. Nonunion occurs when the
bone healing process ceases. Identify nonunion in an early stage can be advantageous to
limit cost deriving form long period of treatments.
Recently, an Italian group of orthopedic surgeons developed a score, called FRACT‐
ING score, which estimates how long the fracture will take to consolidate. The FRACTING
score can be employed both to predict months needed for fracture healing and to identify,
immediately after operative treatment, patients at risk of prolonged healing. In patients
with high score values, new pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments to en‐
hance osteogenesis could be tested selectively, which may finally result in reduced disa‐
bility time and health cost savings [48].
PEMFs are an FDA‐approved treatment for fracture nonunions [49]. In literature the
efficacy of PEMFs in treating tibial delayed unions or nonunions has been reported from
45% to 87% [50].
Cebriàn and colleagues found a rate of union of 91% in patient with tibial pseudoar‐
throsis, treated by intramedullary nailing and PEMFs, while, in absence of stimulation,
the union rate was 83% [51].
A Chinese randomized controlled study investigated the clinical findings of the early
application of PEMFs in delayed union of long‐bone with a success rate of 77.4% at the
end of the study [52].
7. Discussion
PEMFs stimulation used for bone repair is widely use in orthopedics clinical practice
from nonunion to osteotomy [1].
The early application of PEMFs in fractures that are likely to require a long time to
heal is gaining increasing interest [50]. Indeed, the ability to stimulate the healing process
locally, without having systemic effects and adverse reactions, is a notable advantage. For
these reasons, many efforts have been done in recent years to unravel the molecular mech‐
anisms underlying PEMF‐mediated tissue repair and regeneration.
As described previously, our research in the literature highlighted how the PEMFs
stimulation always causes the same signaling pathway activation, despite the huge vari‐
ability between the selected PEMFs physical parameters and the cell lines considered.
These results may be indicative of a common conserved response mechanism to physical
stimuli. Moreover, even though the bone healing phases display a certain degree of over‐
lapping, the results in literature seem to indicate that the pathways activated upon phys‐
ical stimulation, were mainly involved in the bone formation phase: in fact, several studies
reported that PEMF treatments were able to induce an increase of the TGF‐β expression
and an augmented proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of stem cells, through the
activation of TGF‐β, BMP, ERK/MAPK, and Notch signaling [18,19,31,53]. In contrast, the
early inflammatory step seems to be attenuated by the influence of PEMFs stimuli. The
inflammatory response triggered by the rupture of blood vessels and bone, plays a crucial
role in bone healing allowing for the recruitment of cells necessary for tissue repair and
regeneration. In the literature, it is reported that the application of PEMFs may help in
modulating the inflammatory response, due to both the activation of Wnt and the inhibi‐
tion of NF‐kβ signaling upon ARs stimulation and the activation of mTOR signaling, re‐
sponsible for the regulation of cellular differentiation [1,27,54]. However, as the molecular
pathways strongly interact with each other’s, a deeper spatial‐temporal analysis of the
pathway’s activation and inhibition would help in the comprehension of the complex cel‐
lular responses. Finally, in our work we depicted the role of GH and IGF‐I in bone growth
and remodeling, required for the mature bone homeostasis. However, in the literature,
data about the role of PEMFs on this phase are missing; therefore, for this reason, its in‐
vestigation should be considered.
To sum up, all the data reported in literature give a solid base for the clinical appli‐
cation of PEMFs; unfortunately, the selected electromagnetic field parameters are very
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 14 of 18
different (frequency, waveform, and amplitude), thus preventing the possibility to carry
out accurate analysis. Despite this variability, the intense efforts done were able to deci‐
pher, at least in part, how PEMFs could interact with the cellular physiology. However,
limitations regard the scarce pool of molecular pathways investigated. Indeed, to deepen
the knowledge about the cellular responses to PEMFs stimulation, broader investigations
are required. For instance, it would be interesting analyzing in vivo the cell survival, apop‐
tosis, epigenetic changes, and stress responses as a way to have a broader look into the
whole cellular context and on pathophysiology of the tissues. Thus, a better comprehen‐
sion of the in vitro effects of PEMFs on biological systems would be a golden chance to
foresee the in vivo outcomes, where the pathophysiological dynamics are much more
complex. Unfortunately, to date, there is a great heterogeneity of the PEMFs physical pa‐
rameters used, both for in vitro and in vivo studies. As a consequence of lack of standard‐
ized experimental guidelines, controlled trials resulted with non‐comparable and incon‐
clusive data.
8. Conclusions
Further in vitro studies and clinical trials with clear and standardized parameters
(intensity, frequency, dose, duration, and type of coil) are required. Indeed, it is necessary
to clarify the real dose–response relationship to understand the plausible PEMFs applica‐
tions in the clinical practice, while also allowing a better management of financial re‐
sources in healthcare systems.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.C. and G.P.; methodology, A.C. and M.M. (Mario Mos‐
coni); investigation, M.M. (Marta Medetti), V.B., A.M.B., and A.I.; writing—original draft prepara‐
tion, L.C., M.M. (Marta Medetti), and V.B.; writing—review and editing, A.M.B., E.J., A.I., and S.A.;
visualization, A.M.B., E.J., and S.A.; supervision, A.C., G.G., and M.M. (Mario Mosconi); project ad‐
ministration, G.G. and G.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the man‐
uscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Abbreviations
A2A adenosine receptor
A3 adenosine receptor
ADSCs adipose‐derived stem cells
ALP/alp alkaline phosphatase protein/gene
Alk2 activin receptor‐like kinase‐2
Alk3 activin receptor‐like kinase‐3
Alk6 activin receptor‐like kinase‐6
APC adenomatous polyposis coli
BM‐MSCs bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells
BMPs bone morphogenetic proteins
BMP RI bone morphogenetic protein receptor I
BPS bone sialoprotein
CD31 cluster of differentiation 31
CK1 casein kinase 1
c‐fms colony‐stimulating factor‐1 receptor
CNS central nervous system
COL1/col1 collagen type 1 protein/gene
DSH disheveled
EF electrical stimulation
ELF‐PEMF extremely low‐frequency pulsed electromagnetic field
ERK extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1/2
FGF fibroblast growth factor
FGF‐2 fibroblast growth factor 2
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7403 15 of 18
Fz frizzled
GH growth hormone
GHR growth hormone receptor
GSK3 glycogen synthase kinase 3
hBMSCs human bone marrow stromal cells
HUVECs human umbilical vein endothelial cells
IGF insulin‐like growth factor
IGFBP Insulin‐like growth factor binding protein
JAK janus kinase
KDR/Flk‐1 phosphorylated vegf receptor 2
LAP latency‐associated propeptide
LEF lymphoid enhancer factor family
LIPUS low‐intensity pulsed ultrasound
LRP low‐density lipoprotein receptor‐related protein
LTBP latent TGF‐β binding protein
MAPK mitogen‐activated protein kinase
MCSF monocyte/macrophage colony‐stimulating factor
MSCs mesenchymal stem cells
mTOR mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin
NF‐kB nuclear factor kappa‐light‐chain‐enhancer of activated B cells
NICD notch intracellular domain
NSP notch signaling pathway
OCN/ocn osteocalcin protein/gene
OPN/opn osteopontin protein/gene
OSX/osx osterix protein/gene
PCP planar cell polarity
PEMFs pulsed electromagnetic fields
PI3K/Akt/mTOR phosphoinositide 3‐kinases/akt/mammalian target of rapamycin
PKA protein kinase A
PP2A protein phosphatase 2 A
PTH parathyroid hormone
RANK receptor activator of nuclear factor κ B
RANK‐L nuclear factor kappa B ligand
RUNX‐2/runx‐2 runt‐related transcription factor 2 protein/gene
SAPK/JNK stress‐activated protein kinase/c‐Jun NH2‐terminal kinase
SMAD small mothers against decapentaplegic
SOCS suppression of cytokine signaling
SOST sclerostin
STAT signal transducer activating the transcription
TCF T cell factor
TGF‐β transforming growth factor‐β
TGF‐β R I transforming growth factor‐β receptor I
TGF‐β R II transforming growth factor‐β receptor II
VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor
VEGFR‐2 vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2
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