NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS

AARON LANDESMAN

C ONTENTS
1. Introduction to finite fields 2
2. Definition and constructions of fields 3
2.1. The definition of a field 3
2.2. Constructing field extensions by adjoining elements 4
3. A quick intro to field theory 7
3.1. Maps of fields 7
3.2. Characteristic of a field 8
3.3. Showing the characteristic of any finite field is a prime 8
4. Algebraic closures 10
5. Characterization of finite fields 12
6. Properties of finite fields 14
6.1. The multiplicative group of a finite field 14
6.2. Frobenius 15
6.3. Containments of finite fields 16
Appendix A. Existence of algebraic closures 18
Appendix B. Basics of rings 20
B.1. Quotients 21
References 21

1
2 AARON LANDESMAN

1. I NTRODUCTION TO FINITE FIELDS

In this course, we’ll discuss the theory of finite fields. Along the
way, we’ll learn a bit about field theory more generally. So, the nat-
ural place to start is: what is a field? Many fields appear in nature,
such as the real numbers, the complex numbers the rational num-
bers, and even finite fields! Before giving a formal definition, let’s
see some examples.
Example 1.1. The rational numbers Q = ba : a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0 are

a field. The key properties are that we can multiply rational num-
bers, add rational numbers (via addition of fractions) and further
that nonzero rational numbers have inverses. That is, ba · ba = 1 when-
ever a 6= 0.
Now, let’s see some examples of finite fields.
Example 1.2. Consider the field F2 , the finite field with two ele-
ments. Call these elements 0, 1. The addition law is given by 0 + a =
a + 0 = a and 1 + 1 = 0. The multiplication law is given by 1 · a = a
and 0 · a = 0. 1 is invertible and its inverse is given by 1 since
1 · 1 = 1. This can succinctly be described by Z/2Z.
Example 1.3. Next, let’s consider the finite field with 3 elements. As
above, we can consider Z/3Z. Elements can be added and multi-
plied by reducing addition and multiplication in Z modulo 3. The
key property to check is that nonzero elements have inverses (mean-
ing that for any nonzero a there is some b with ab = 1). Indeed,
1 · 1 = 1 and 2 · 2 = 1.
Warning 1.4. So far, we have seen that Z/2Z and Z/3Z are fields.
However, Z/4Z is not a field! The way to see this is that there is no
element a ∈ Z/4Z with 2a = 1. Indeed, either 2a = 2 or 2a = 0. So,
Z/nZ is not in general a field.
Question 1.5. Do you think there exists a finite field of order 4? Do
you think there exists a finite field of order 5? Do you think there
exists a finite field of order 6? For which n ∈ Z does there exist a
finite field with n elements?
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 3

2. D EFINITION AND CONSTRUCTIONS OF FIELDS

Before understanding finite fields, we first need to understand
what a field is in general. To this end, we first define fields. After
defining fields, if we have one field K, we give a way to construct
many fields from K by adjoining elements.
2.1. The definition of a field. A field is a special type of ring. So, we
first define a ring:
Definition 2.1. A commutative ring with unit is a set R together
with two operations (+, ·) satisfying the following properties:
(1) Associativity: a + (b + c) = ( a + b) + c, a · (b · c) = ( a · b) · c
(2) Commutativity: a + b = b + a, a · b = b · a
(3) Additive identity: there exists 0 ∈ R so that a + 0 = a
(4) Multiplicative identity: there exists 1 6= 0 ∈ R so that 1 · a = a
(5) Additive inverses: For every a ∈ R, there is a additive in-
verse, denoted − a satisfying a + (− a) = 0
(6) Distributivity of multiplication over addition: a · (b + c) =
( a · b) + ( a · c) .
Remark 2.2. Any mention of “ring” in what follows implicitly means
“commutative ring with unit.” There will be no noncommutative
rings or rings without units.
Definition 2.3. A field is a ring K such that every nonzero element
has a multiplicative inverse. That is, for each a ∈ K with a 6= 0, there
is some a−1 ∈ K so that a · a−1 = 1.
Definition 2.4. A finite field is simply a field whose underlying set
is finite.
Example 2.5. Given any prime number p, the set Z/pZ forms a field
under addition and multiplication. This field is denoted F p . Nearly
all the axioms are immediate, except possibly for the existence of
multiplicative inverses.
Exercise 2.6. Verify that every nonzero element has a multiplicative
inverse in two ways:
(1) Use the Euclidean algorithm to show that for any a < p there
exists some b with ab ≡ 1 mod p and conclude that b is an
inverse for a. Hint: Use that gcd( a, p) = 1.
(2) Show that a p−1 = 1, so a p−2 is an inverse for a. This is also
known as “Fermat’s Little theorem,” not to be confused with
“Fermat’s Last theorem,” which is much more difficult. Hint:
4 AARON LANDESMAN

Show that the powers of any element form a subgroup of

(Z/pZ)× := Z/pZ − {0} under multiplication. Use La-
grange’s theorem (i.e., the order of a subgroup divides the
order of the ambient group) to deduce that this subgroup gen-
erated by a has order dividing #(Z/pZ)× = p − 1. Conclude
that am = 1 for some m dividing p − 1 and hence a p−1 = 1.
2.2. Constructing field extensions by adjoining elements. We now
explain how to construct extensions of fields by adjoining elements.
Here is a prototypical example:
√ 
Example 2.7. Consider the field Q 2 . How should we interpret
this? The elements of this field are of the form
√  n √ o
Q 2 = a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Q .
Multiplication works by
 √  √  √
a + b 2 c + d 2 = ( ac + 2bd) + ( ad + bc) 2.
√
Here is another perspective on this field: What is 2? It is simply a
root of the polynomial x2 − 2. Therefore, we could instead consider
the field
Q[ x ] / ( x 2 − 2),
where this means the ring where we adjoin a root of the polynomial
x2 − 2. Concretely, Q[ x ] means polynomials with coefficients in Q,
and the notation Q[ x ]/( x2 − 2) means that in any polynomial f ( x ),
we can replace x2 by 2. So for example, if we had the polynomial x3 +
2x2 + 3 this would be considered equivalent to ( x2 ) · x + 2 · ( x2 ) +
3 = 2x + 4 + 3 = 2x + 7. In this way, we can replace any polynomial
with a polynomial of degree 1 of the form a + bx. Identifying x with
√ √ 
2 gives the isomorphism of this ring with the above field Q 2 .

Exercise 2.8. Describe the elements of the fields K as in Example 2.7

for K one of the following fields
√ 
(1) K = Q 3 ,
(2) K = Q 71/5 ,

(3) K = Q (ζ 3 ), for ζ 3 a primitive cube root of unity.

In each of the above cases, write K = Q[ x ]/ f ( x ) for an appropriate
polynomial f . In each of the above cases, what is the dimension of K
over Q, when K is viewed as a Q vector space?
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 5

Definition 2.9. Let K be a field. Define the polynomial ring

( )
n
K [ x ] := ∑ ai x i : ai ∈ K .
i =1

For f ∈ K [ x ], define
K [ x ]/( f ) := K [ x ]/ ∼
where ∼ is the equivalence relation defined by g ∼ h if f | g − h.
Exercise 2.10. Show that K [ x ]/( x ) ' K, where the map is given by
sending a polynomial to its constant coefficient.
Lemma 2.11. Let K be a field and let f ∈ K [ x ] be a monic irreducible
polynomial. Then K [ x ]/( f ) is a field.
Proof. Note that K [ x ]/( f ) is a ring as it inherits multiplication and
addition and all the resulting properties of a ring from K [ x ]. (Check
this!) Therefore, it suffices to check that if f is monic and irreducible,
then every element has an inverse. In other words, given any g ∈
K [ x ]/( f ), we need to show there is some h with gh = 1. We can
consider g ∈ K [ x ] as a polynomial of degree less than f . Since f
is irreducible, and deg g < deg f , it follows that the two polynomi-
als share no common factors. Then, by the Euclidean algorithm for
polynomials (if you have only seen the euclidean algorithm over the
integers, check that the natural analog to the Euclidean algorithm for
the integers works equally well in polynomial rings over arbitrary
fields, where the remainder is then a polynomial of degree less than
the polynomial you are dividing by) we obtain some h, k ∈ K [ x ] with
gh + f k = 1 as elements of K [ x ]. It follows that gh ∼ 1 in K [ x ]/( f )
because gh − 1 = f k in K [ x ]. 
Exercise 2.12. Let K be a field and f ∈ K [ x ] a monic irreducible poly-
nomial. Suppose L = K [ x ]/( f ). Show that dimK L = deg f , where
deg f denotes the degree of the polynomial f and dimK L denotes
the dimension of L as a K vector space.
Example 2.13. Consider the field F2 [ x ]/( x2 + x + 1). We claim this
is a finite field of order 4. Indeed, this holds because the polynomial
x2 + x + 1 is irreducible. To check this, we only need to check it has
no linear factors. It has a linear factor if and only if x2 + x + 1 has a
root in F2 . But, when we evaluate it at 0 we get 1 mod 2 and when
we evaluate it at 1, we get 1 mod 2. So it has no roots, and the claim
follows from Lemma 2.11.
6 AARON LANDESMAN

p +1
Exercise 2.14. For any p > 2, show that there are exactly 2 ele-
ments x ∈ F p with x = y2 for some y ∈ F p . We call such x squares.
Conclude that there is some x ∈ F p which is not a square whenever
p > 2. Hint: Show that if x = y2 then we also have x = (−y)2 and
further that there y and −y are the only two elements of F p squaring
to x.
Example 2.15. Let p > 2 be a prime and let ε ∈ F p be an element
which is not a square (which exists by Exercise 2.14). Then,
F p [ x ]/( x2 − ε)
is a finite field of order p2 . It is order p2 because it is a two dimen-
sional vector space over F p spanned by the basis 1 and x. It is a field
because x2 − ε is irreducible in F p [ x ]. Indeed, to see this, note that
if it were not irreducible, it would factor as a product of two linear
factors, which means it would have a root. But, if it had a root, there
would be some y ∈ F p so that y2 = ε. However, we chose ε not to be
a square, and so no root exists.
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 7

3. A QUICK INTRO TO FIELD THEORY

In order to classify finite fields, we’ll need some inputs from field
theory. In particular, we’ll need to understand maps of fields and the
characteristic of a field, which we discuss in this section.

3.1. Maps of fields.

Definition 3.1. Given two fields K and L, a map φ : K → L is a map
of sets sending 1 7→ 1, 0 7→ 0 such that φ( a +K b) = φ( a) + L φ(b) and
φ ( a · K b ) = φ ( a ) · L φ ( b ).
Remark 3.2. Sometimes, a map of fields is referred to as a homomor-
phism or extension. Whenever we have a map of fields, it is required
to be compatible with the addition and multiplication operations, as
defined above. If we do not wish to require such compatibility, we
will call the map “a map of sets”
Remark 3.3. We shall typically drop the subscript +K , ·K on addition
and multiplication when it is clear from context.
Exercise 3.4. Verify from the definition of map that
φ ( a −1 ) = φ ( a ) −1
and
φ(− a) = −φ( a).
We next prove that maps of fields are injective. If you have not
worked much with the notion of injectivity before, you may want to
try the following exercise first.
Exercise 3.5. Show that a map of rings is injective (using the defini-
tion that f : R → S is injective if f ( a) = f (b) implies a = b) if and
only if the only element mapping to 0 is 0. Hint: Consider f ( a − b).
Lemma 3.6. Any map of fields is injective.
Proof. By Exercise 3.5 it suffices to show that any c 6= 0 does not
satisfy φ(c) = 0. Suppose there is some such c. But note that 1 =
φ(1) = φ(cc−1 ) = φ(c)φ(c−1 ) = 0φ(c−1 ) = 0, a contradiction.
Therefore, every nonzero element does not map to 0 and the map
is injective. 
Remark 3.7. Because of Lemma 3.6, a map of fields is also typically
called an extension of fields or a field extension.
8 AARON LANDESMAN

Remark 3.8. The property that maps of fields are injective is very
special to fields. Indeed, it is not true for groups. For example, the
map Z → {1} is not injective!
Remark 3.9. Using Lemma 3.6, whenever we have a map of fields
φ : K → L, we can consider L as a vector space over K. The map
K × L → L corresponding to scalar multiplication is given by
K×L→ L
( a, b) 7→ φ( a) · b
3.2. Characteristic of a field.
Definition 3.10. Let K be a field. If there is some n so that
(3.1) n := 1| + 1 +{z· · · + 1}
n
is equal to 0 in K, the the minimal such n is defined to be the char-
acteristic of K, denoted char(K ). If no such n ∈ Z≥0 exists, then we
say K has characteristic 0.
Example 3.11. The rational numbers Q has characteristic 0, but the
field F p has characteristic p.
Exercise 3.12 (Important exercise). Let p be a prime number and sup-
pose K is a field of characteristic p. Show that for any x, y ∈ K, we
have
( x + y) p = x p + y p .
Hint: Expand the left hand side using binomial coefficients, and
show that p divides nearly all of the binomial coefficients.
3.3. Showing the characteristic of any finite field is a prime.
Lemma 3.13. The characteristic of any field is either 0 or prime.
Proof. Note that the characteristic cannot be 1 because 1 6= 0. So, we
have to show that the characteristic is never composite.
Let n be a composite number with n = f g for f , g > 1 two factors
of n.
Exercise 3.14. Suppose a, b ∈ K with ab = 0. Then show either a = 0
or b = 0.
By the above exercise, if n = f g = 0, then either f = 0 or g = 0.
Say f = 0. But then, we obtain that f < n, and so K does not have
characteristic n. 
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 9

Definition 3.15. For K a field, we say a subset K 0 ⊂ K is a subfield

if it is a field and the inclusion K 0 ⊂ K is a map of fields (meaning
1 7→ 1, 0 7→ 0 and the multiplication and addition are compatible).
Exercise 3.16. Verify similarly that any field of characteristic 0 con-
tains Q as a subfield. Hint: Define a map of fields
φ: Q → K
a
7→ ab−1 .
b
Use that b ∈ K is nonzero by the assumption that K has characteristic
0 to show this is well defined.
Lemma 3.17. The characteristic of any finite field is prime (and, in partic-
ular, never 0).
Proof. By Lemma 3.13, we only need to show the characteristic of
a finite field is nonzero. So, it suffices to show every characteristic
0 field is infinite. But, by Exercise 3.16, every characteristic 0 field
contains Q as a subfield, and is therefore infinite. 
Lemma 3.18. Any field K of characteristic p > 0 (for p a prime) contains
F p as a subfield.
Proof. Inside K, consider the subset {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1}. These form p
distinct elements because char K = p. By definition, of n = 1| + 1 +{z· · · + 1},
n
the elements 0, 1, . . . , p − 1 satisfy the same addition and multiplica-
tion rules as F p ' (Z/pZ). Therefore, when we restrict the multi-
plication and addition from K to {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1}, we realize F p as
this subfield. 
Lemma 3.19. Any finite field K has order pn for p a prime and n ∈ Z.
Proof. By Lemma 3.18, K contains F p as a subfield, so we have an
inclusion F p → K. Observe that this makes K into a vector space
over F p . Because K is finite, it must even be a finite dimensional
vector space over F p . Say it has dimension n. Then we see that as a
vector space, K ' Fnp , so |K | = |F p |n = pn , as desired. 
So, we have established that every finite field has order a prime
power. Our next goal is to show that there is a unique finite field
of order pn . However, for this, we will need to introduce algebraic
closures, which we do now.
10 AARON LANDESMAN

4. A LGEBRAIC CLOSURES
To hit the ground running on finite fields, we’ll need to know
about “algebraic closures.”
Definition 4.1. An extension of fields φ : K → L is finite if φ makes L
into a finite dimensional vector space over K. An extension of fields
φ : K → L is algebraic if for every a ∈ L, there is a finite extension
K → L a with L a ⊂ L a subfield containing a.
In order to get the theory of finite fields off the ground, we will
need the existence of an algebraic closure. It is not too difficult to
show this exists, but to jump to the interesting stuff, we will defer it
for later:
Definition 4.2. A field K is algebraically closed if any finite field
extension K → L is an isomorphism.
Exercise 4.3. Show that the real numbers are not algebraically closed.
Show that the rational numbers are not algebraically closed.
Lemma 4.4. Let K be a field. The following are equivalent.
(1) K is algebraically closed.
(2) Every monic irreducible polynomial over K has a root.
(3) Every monic irreducible polynomial over K factors as a product of
linear polyomials.
Proof. For (1) =⇒ (2), we suppose K is algebraically closed and
show every monic irreducible polynomial over K has a root. Let f be
any monic irreducible polynomial over K. Then, K [ x ]/( f ) is a field
extension of K. Because K is algebraically closed, the natural map
K → K [ x ]/( f ) is an isomorphism. Therefore, dimK K [ x ]/( f ) = 1
and so f has degree 1 by Exercise 2.12 (which says deg f = dimK K [ x ]/( f )),
and hence has a root.
Next, if (2) holds, one can prove (3) by induction on the degree of
the polynomial.
Finally, for (3) =⇒ (1), suppose K is not algebraically closed.
We want to show there is some irreducible polynomial over K which
does not factor completely. Let L be a finite extension of K with the
inclusion K → L not an isomorphism. Since K → L is an injection it
is not a surjection, so we may take some y ∈ L \ K. We claim there is
some monic irreducible polynomial f ∈ K [ x ] with f (y) = 0. Indeed,
this is the content of the following exercise.
Exercise 4.5. Let K → L be an algebraic extension. Show that any
element x ∈ L satisfies some monic irreducible polynomial f ( x ) =
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 11

x n + k n−1 x n−1 + · · · + k0 , for k i ∈ K. Hint: By definition of an alge-

braic extension, show that the powers of x satisfy some linear depen-
dence relation, and obtain the monic irreducible polynomial from
this relation.
Note that since y ∈
/ K, the polynomial f with f (y) = 0 has degree
more than 1. Since f is irreducible and has degree more than 1, f
does not have a root in K, as we wanted to show. 
Exercise 4.6. Show that the complex numbers are algebraically closed
(you may assume that every polynomial over the complex numbers
has a root).
Definition 4.7. A field extension K → K is an algebraic closure if
(1) K → K is algebraic and
(2) K is algebraically closed.
Exercise 4.8. Let K → L be an algebraic extension and let L denote
an algebraic closure of L. Show that L is also an algebraic closure of
K.
Theorem 4.9 (Existence of algebraic closures). Let K be a field.
(1) K has an algebraic closure.
(2) Any two algebraic closures of K are isomorphic as field extensions
0
(meaning that for two algebraic closures K, K , with K as a subfield
0
via the maps φ : K → K, φ0 : K → K , there is an isomorphism
0
f : K → K so that f ◦ φ = φ0 ).
12 AARON LANDESMAN

5. C HARACTERIZATION OF FINITE FIELDS

Using the existence of an algebraic closure, we are now ready to
show there is a unique finite field of order pn , for every prime p and
every n ≥ 1.
First, we need a preparatory definition and lemma.
Definition 5.1. If K is a field and f := ∑in=1 ai xi ∈ K [ x ] is a polyno-
mial, we define the derivative of f , denoted f 0 , to be ∑in=1 iai xi−1 .
Lemma 5.2. Let K be an algebraically closed field and let f ∈ K [ x ] be a
polynomial. Then, if gcd( f , f 0 ) = 1, f has no repeated roots. That is, there
is no a ∈ K with ( x − a)2 | f .
Proof. Suppose f has a repated root. Call that root r ∈ K. Then since
( x − r )2 | f , it follows from the product rule that x − r | f 0 . Therefore,
x − r | gcd( f , f 0 ), and so gcd( f , f 0 ) 6= 1, as desired. 
We can now state and prove our main result.
Theorem 5.3. Let p be a prime and n ≥ 1.
(1) There exists a finite field of order pn , notated F pn . Further, F pn is
n
realized as the set of elements of F p satisfying x p = x.
(2) Any two finite fields of order pn are isomorphic.
Proof. First let us show there exists a finite field of order pn . Let F p
denote an algebraic closure of F p . Define
n o
pn
F p := x ∈ F p : x = x .
n

We claim F pn is a field. To check this, the essential points to verify

are that F pn is closed under multiplication, addition, and inversion.
n n
(1) Addition: We need to show that if x p = x, y p = y then
n
( x + y) p = x + y. Indeed, this follows from Exercise 3.12.
n n
(2) Multiplication: We need to show that if x p = x, y p = y then
n
( xy) p = xy. Indeed, this is clear by commutativity of F p .
n
(3) Inversion: Given x 6= 0 with x p = x, we want to show x −1
n
(which exists as an element of F p ) satisfies ( x −1 ) p = x −1 . But
indeed,
n n
( x −1 ) p = ( x p ) −1 = x −1 ,
as desired.
Exercise 5.4. Verify the remaining properties such as distributivity
and commutativity to show that F pn is indeed a field. Hint: You may
be able to inherit many of these properties from F p .
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 13

To complete the proof of existence, we have to check that |F pn | = pn .

Indeed, by construction, the elements of F pn are the set of roots to the
n
polynomial f (t) = t p − t. So, it suffices to show this has pn distinct
roots in F pn . Note that f (t) has at most pn roots because it has degree
pn . Since F pn is algebraically closed, f (t) factors as a product of pn
distinct linear factors, by Lemma 4.4. Further, the roots of f (t) are all
n
distinct by Lemma 5.2 because f 0 (t) = pn · t p −1 − 1 = −1.
So, we have shown existence of finite field over order pn . It re-
mains to show uniqueness up to isomorphism.
Let K be some finite field of size pn . We want to construct an iso-
morphism K ' F pn . Because K is finite, hence algebraic over F p ,
it follows from Exercise 4.8 that an algebraic closure of K is also an
algebraic closure of F p , and we denote this algebraic closure by F p .
Choose an extension φ : K → F p . We will show im φ ⊂ F pn ⊂ F p .
This will complete the proof as it will imply that φ defines a map
between two fields of size pn . It is then injective by Lemma 3.6 and
hence it will be surjective because it is an injective map between two
sets of the same finite size.
So, we will now show im φ ⊂ F pn . For this, it suffices to show
n
that any x ∈ K satisfies φ( x ) p = φ( x ). For this, it suffices to show
n
x p = x. This clearly holds for x = 0, so after dividing by x, it
n −1
suffices to show x p = 1. But now, note that K × := K − {0} is a
multiplicative group of size |K × | = |K | − 1 = pn − 1. Lagrange’s
theorem tells us that the order of any element of a group divides the
order of the group. This implies that x m = 1 for some m | pn − 1,
n
which implies that x p −1 = 1. 
14 AARON LANDESMAN

6. P ROPERTIES OF FINITE FIELDS

We next develop several interesting properties of finite fields.
6.1. The multiplicative group of a finite field. As we saw near the
end of the proof of Theorem 5.3, because multiplicative inverses ex-
ist, for any field K, the nonzero elements K × form a group under
multiplication. The identity element is 1. It turns out that finite fields
have a particularly nice multiplicative structure.
Proposition 6.1. There is an isomorphism F×
pn ' (Z/ ( p − 1)Z). That
n

is, F×
pn is cyclic.

Proof. To show F× n
pn is cyclic of order p − 1, since we know it has
order pn − 1 as a group, it suffices to show there is some element of
order pn − 1.
Exercise 6.2 (Tricky exercise). Verify using that all finite abelian groups
are products of cyclic groups (the fundamental theorem for finite
abelian groups) that if there is no element of order pn − 1 then there
is some m < pn − 1 with x m = 1 for all x ∈ F× pn . Hint: Show that if
ni
G ' ∏i Z/pi Z, (where the isomorphism holds by the fundamental
theorem of finite abelian groups) has some pi = p j for i 6= j then then
n
every element of G has order strictly less than | G | = ∏i pi i . For this
n nj
it may help to consider the subgroup Z/pi i × Z/p j . Then, show
using the Chinese Remainder theorem that if pi 6= p j for any i 6= j
then G is cyclic.
However, we cannot have x m = 1 for all x ∈ F× n
pn with m < p − 1
because x m − 1 only has m < pn − 1 roots in F p . Hence, there is
some element of F× n
pn of order exactly p − 1, and so it is isomorphic
to Z/( pn − 1)Z× . 
Exercise 6.3. Using Proposition 6.1 we can now prove results about
roots of unity modulo primes.
(1) Let p be an odd prime. Using Proposition 6.1, show that −1
is a square mod p if and only if p ≡ 1 mod 4.
(2) Let p be an odd prime. Show that there is some x 6≡ 1 mod p
so that x3 ≡ 1 mod p if and only if p ≡ 1 mod 3.
(3) Let p be an odd prime. Determine a necessary and sufficient
condition on p modulo n such that there will be n distinct
roots of unity modulo p, i.e., there are n distinct residues
x1 , . . . , xn mod p with xin ≡ 1 mod p.
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 15

(4) Given n and p, determine the number of nth roots of unity

mod p. That is, determine the number of residues x so that
x n ≡ 1 mod p.
Exercise 6.4. Prove Wilson’s theorem: show that ( p − 1)! ≡ −1 mod
p.
6.2. Frobenius. In what follows, we will let q denote a power of p,
say q = pn .
Definition 6.5. The map
Frob p : Fq → Fq
x 7→ x p
is the Frobenius map.
Exercise 6.6. Verify that Frob p is a map Fq → Fq over F p . That is,
show that the natural inclusion i : F p → Fq respects Frob p in the
sense that Frob p ◦i = i. Hint: Show that for any x ∈ F p , x p = x. See
Exercise 2.6(2) for further help.
Our next goal is to show that the automorphisms of Fq over F p
(i.e., maps Fq → Fq as vectors spaces over F p ) are precisely id, Frob p , . . . , Frobnp−1 ,
where q = pn . First, we show that these are all distinct:
Lemma 6.7. Let q = pn . The maps id, Frob p , . . . , Frobnp−1 are distinct as
maps Fq → Fq .
Proof. We wish to show Frobap 6= Frobbp for 0 ≤ a < b ≤ n − 1.
After composing with Frob− a b− a
p , it suffices to show that Frob p is not
the identity for any 0 < b − a ≤ n − 1. That is, we have to show
Frob p , . . . , Frobnp−1 are all distinct from id.
To show that Frobcp is not the identity, we have to show there is
c c
some x ∈ Fq with x p 6= x. However, since x p − x is a polynomial of
degree pc , there are at most pc such elements. Since |Fq | = pn > pc ,
c
there is some element x ∈ Fq with x p 6= x. 
Hence, we have produced that there are at least p distinct auto-
morphisms of Fq given by powers of Frobenius. We next want to
show that these are all the automorphisms of Fq . For this, we will
now give an explicit construction of Fq as a field, by adjoining an
element to F p , via the method in subsection 2.2.
Lemma 6.8. We can express F pn in the form F p [ x ]/( f ) for f ∈ F p [ x ] of
degree n.
16 AARON LANDESMAN

Proof. Pick y ∈ F pn to be a generator of F× pn (which is possible by

Proposition 6.1). Note that y generates F pn over F p because all nonzero
elements of F pn are powers of y. Further, by Exercise 4.5, (recall this
says that any element in an algebraic extension satisfies some monic
irreducible polynomial) y satisfies some irreducible monic polyno-
mial f over F p . We obtain that F p [ x ]/( f ) is a field by Lemma 2.11.
We obtain a map
φ : F p [ x ] / ( f ) → Fq
x 7→ y.

Exercise 6.9. Verify this is a well defined map.

This map is necessarily injective by Lemma 3.6 but it is also sur-
jective because y generates Fq . Therefore it is an isomorphism. It
follows that f must have degree n since F p [ x ] is a dimension deg f
vector space over F p , but it is also isomorphic to F pn , which is a di-
mension n vector space over F p . 
Corollary 6.10. The automorphisms of Fq over F p are precisely id, Frob p , . . . , Frobnp−1 .
Proof. We have seen in Lemma 6.7 that these are all distinct, so it
suffices to show there are at most n automorphisms of Fq over F p .
However, by Lemma 6.8, we have Fq = F p [ x ]/( f ). Note that any
map F p [ x ]/( f ) → F p [ x ]/( f ) must send x to some root of f , and
further the map is determined by where it sends x. Since deg f = n,
there are at most deg f = n roots of f and hence at most n such maps,
as we wanted to show. 
6.3. Containments of finite fields. Let us now determine when F pm ⊂
F pn for m, n > 0. First, we establish this containment when m | n.
Lemma 6.11. If m | n then F pm ⊂ F pn .
Proof. Recall from Theorem 5.3 that F pm was precisely the set of ele-
m 2m m
ments in F p with x p = x. We also have x p = x p = x. If m | n, say
n dm ( d −1) m
m = dn then iterating this d times we obtain x p = x p = xp =
m
· · · = x p = x, so x ∈ F pn . 
In fact, the above case is the only case that n | m, as we will now
see.
Proposition 6.12. For p a prime and n, m > 0, we have F pm ⊂ F pn if and
only if m | n.
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 17

Proof. If m | n, then the inclusion holds by Lemma 6.11. Conversely,

if F pm ⊂ F pn then F pn is a vector space over F pm . Say F pn has dimen-
sion d over F pm . It follows that |F pn | = |F pm |d , so pn = ( pm )d = pmd
and so m | n. 
18 AARON LANDESMAN

A PPENDIX A. E XISTENCE OF ALGEBRAIC CLOSURES

We now guide the reader through a proof of the existence of alge-
braic closures in series of exercises.
We first prove the existence of an algebraic closure Theorem 4.9(1),
and then show it is unique up to (non-unique) isomorphism. The
key to proving the existence of an algebraic closure will be Zorn’s
lemma, which we now recall:
Lemma A.1. Suppose I is a partially ordered set. Suppose any totally
ordered subset I 0 ⊂ I has a maximum element, i.e., there is some i ∈ I with
i ≥ j for all j ∈ I 0 . Then I contains a maximal element, i.e., there is some
i ∈ I so that for any j ∈ I, j 6> i.
Remark A.2. Zorn’s lemma is not a lemma in the conventional sense
because it is equivalent to the axiom of choice. Therefore, we will
not prove it, but rather take it as an axiom.
We next aim to prove existence of algebraic closures. Logically,
if you’d like, you can skip directly to Exercise A.5. However, it may
help your understanding of that exercise if you do the prior exercises
first.
Exercise A.3. We now prove some basic properties about cardinali-
ties of field extensions.
(1) Show that if L is an algebraic extension of a finite field K, then
| L| ≤ |Z|. Here |S| denotes the set-theoretic cardinality of a
set S.
(2) Show that if L is an algebraic extension of an infinite field K,
then | L| = |K |. Hint: Show that K has the same cardinality
as K [ x ] and defined a map of sets L → K [ x ] by sending an
element to its minimal polynomial. Show that there are only
finitely many elements with a given minimal polynomial and
deduce |K | = | L|.
(3) Conclude that for any infinite field K, if T is a set with | T | >
|K | then for any algebaic extension L of K, we have | T | > | L|.
(4) Conclude that for any field K if T is an infinite set with | T | >
|K |, then | T | ≥ | L| for any algebraic extension L of K. (By the
above, the only interesting case is the case that K is finite.)
Exercise A.4. Assume K is an infinite field. Using Exercise A.3, solve
a slightly simplified version of Exercise A.5 with the modification
that S is any set so that |S| > |K | (so that there is no intermediate set
T in the picture). Therefore, the addition of T is only needed to deal
with finite fields.
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 19

Exercise A.5 (Difficult exercise). Use Zorn’s lemma to show an al-

gebraic closure of a field K exists as follows: Let T be an infinite set
with | T | > |K | and let S be a set with |S| > | T |.
(1) Consider the partially ordered set
R := {( L, φ) : L is an algebraic extension of K and φ : L ,→ S is a subset }
Check that one can define a partial ordering on R by declaring
( L1 , φ1 ) ≤ ( L2 , φ2 ) if i : L1 → L2 is an algebraic extension, and
φ2 ◦ i = φ1 .
(2) Use Zorn’s lemma, Lemma A.1, to show that R has a maximal
element, call it ( M, φ).
(3) Show that M is algebraically closed by showing that if i :
M → N is any algebraic extension then there is a map ψ :
N → S with ψ ◦ i ( x ) = φ( x ). Hint: Use that | N | ≤ | M| ≤
| T | < S and |S − M| = |S| > | N − M|.
Exercise A.6. Suppose we have an algebraic extension K ⊂ L and
K ⊂ K with K algebraically closed. Show that there is a map of
extensions L → K in the following steps:
(1) Consider the partially ordered set I of pairs ( M, φ) with K ⊂
M ⊂ L and φ : M → K a map of fields. Check that the relation
( M1 , φ1 ) ≤ ( M2 , φ2 )
if M1 ⊂ M2 and φ2 | M1 = φ1 defines a partial ordering on such
pairs ( M, φ).
(2) Show that any totally ordered subset I 0 ⊂ I corresponding to
a collection {( Mi , φi )}i∈ I 0 has a maximum element given by
taking (∪i Mi , ∪i φi ), with ∪i φi interpreted suitably.
(3) Using Zorn’s lemma obtain a maximal element ( M, φ) of I.
(4) Verify that the maximum element ( M, φ) has M = L and con-
clude there is a map L → K Hint: Suppose L 6= M. Then
there is some x ∈ L − M. Show that x satisfies some minimal
polynomial over L. Deduce there is a map M( x ) → K restrict-
ing to the given map φ : M → K, and hence ( M, φ) was not
maximal.
Exercise A.7. Prove Theorem 4.9(2) using Exercise A.6 as follows:
(1) Show that for any two algebraic closures K1 , K2 of the same
field K there is an injective map between φ : K1 → K2 .
(2) Show that the injective map φ is an algebraic extension.
(3) Conclude that the map produced K1 → K2 is an isomorphism
from the definition of algebraic closure.
20 AARON LANDESMAN

A PPENDIX B. B ASICS OF RINGS

In this appendix, we review some basic definitions relating to rings.
Recall our definition of a (commutative) ring (with unit), Defini-
tion 2.1. We repeat this now for your convenience.
Definition B.1. A commutative ring with unit is a set R together
with two operations (+, ·) satisfying the following properties:
(1) Associativity: a + (b + c) = ( a + b) + c, a · (b · c) = ( a · b) · c
(2) Commutativity: a + b = b + a, a · b = b · a
(3) Additive identity: there exists 0 ∈ R so that a + 0 = a
(4) Multiplicative identity: there exists 1 6= 0 ∈ R so that 1 · a = a
(5) Additive inverses: For every a ∈ R, there is a additive in-
verse, denoted − a satisfying a + (− a) = 0
(6) Distributivity of multiplication over addition: a · (b + c) =
( a · b) + ( a · c) .
For us, all rings will be commutative rings with unit, and so we
will simply refer to them as rings from now on. We now recall some
elementary properties of rings. Many of these follow directly from
the analogous properties for groups.
Exercise B.2. Verify, directly from the definition that every ring has
a unique 0 and 1. Show that for any a ∈ R, a has a unique additive
inverse, and so the name − a is justified.
Definition B.3. A map of rings f : R → S is a map of sets such that
f (1R ) = 1S , f (0R ) = 0S , f ( a + R b) = f ( a) +S f (b) and f ( a · R b) =
f ( a) ·S f (b). where the subscripts denote the identity, multiplication,
and addition in the corresponding ring.
Definition B.4. A ring map f : R → S is injective if f ( a) = f (b) =⇒
a = b. It is surjective if for every s ∈ S there is some r ∈ R with
f (r ) = s. It is bijective (also known as an isomorphism) if it is both
injective and surjective. If f : R → S is bijective, we write R ' S.
Exercise B.5. Show that a ring map f : R → S is injective if and only
if f −1 (0S ) = 0R .
Exercise B.6. Show that a ring map f : R → S is bijective if and only
if there is a ring map f −1 : S → R so that f −1 ◦ f = idR , f ◦ f −1 = idS .
Hint: Show that a map is bijective if and only if there is a unique
element of R mapping to any given element of S. Use this to define
an inverse map.
 NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS 21

B.1. Quotients. The following will not be needed in this course. In-
deed, we will construct particular quotient rings in this course, but
these quotients will all be of the form K [ x ]/( f ) for K a field, a situ-
ation which is much more concrete than the general case developed
below. We encourage you to skip the following, but we include it for
completeness.
Definition B.7. An ideal I of R is a subset I ⊂ R so that
(1) 0R ∈ I.
(2) For any r ∈ I we also have −s ∈ I.
(3) If a, b ∈ I then a + b ∈ I.
(4) If r ∈ R and a ∈ I then a · R b ∈ I.
Definition B.8. Let I ⊂ R be a subring. Construct the quotient R/I
as the set of all elements a ∈ R modulo the equivalence relation a ∼ b
if there is some c ∈ I with a = b + c. The equivalence class of a is
called the coset of a and the coset is notated a + I.
Exercise B.9. Verify that the relation ∼ as defined in Definition B.8 is
indeed an equivalence relation.
Exercise B.10. Show that if I ⊂ R is an ideal then R/I is again a
ring. (Under our definition, this includes verifying that the quotient
is commutative and has a unit).
R EFERENCES