TE2 – Tunneling Construction

Session 10 – Ground Improvement for Tunneling

Dr Veeresh
Principal Manager(Geotechnical & Tunnels)/Assistant Chief Specialist (ISCT)
Land Transport Authority

13 July 2021

Course materials not to be re-produced or circulated without permission from SIT

References
• ASCE (2010) Compaction grouting Consensus Guide. Reston, VA. ASCE/GI 53-10
• Croce, P., Flora, A., Modoni, G. (2017) “Jet Grouting Technology, Design and Control” Editorial CRC Press. Pp 234-250.
• CDIT (2002): Deep Mixing Method – Principle, Design and Construction, edited by Coastal Development Institute of
Technology (CDIT), Japan. Balkema Publishers, 123 pp
• Essler, R.D (2012) Probability Analysis to determine jet grout cut-off design. International Symposium on Short courses,
Compensation grouting and Jet Grouting, 30 May 2012, Brussels.
• BS EN 14679 : 2005. Execution of Special Geotechnical Works- Deep Mixing
• BS EN 12715: 2000. Execution of Special Geotechnical Works- Grouting
• BS EN 12716:2018. Execution of Special Geotechnical Works- Jet grouting
• Ganeshan,V., Ow Chun Nam, Marotta, M, Aya Yoshimistu & Yi Ying Jee (2008) Grouting and its Application in Tunneling,
ICDE Singapore.
• Harris, D.I., Mair, R.J., Burland, J.B & Standing, J.R (2000) Compensation grouting to control tilt of Big Ben Clock Tower,
Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground, Balkema, Rotterdam
• Kimpritis, T., Standing, J.R., & Thurner, R. (2018) Estimating column diameters in jet-grouting processes.
Proceedings of Institution Civil Engineers – Ground Improvement, 171 (3), 148-158.
• Moseley, M.P. & Kirsch, K., (2004) Ground Improvement (2nd Edition): London: Spon Press, Taylor & Francis group, U.K.
• Mitchell, J.K (1981). Soil Improvement the state of Art, International proceedings of the 10th International conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. ICSMFE, Vol.4, pp 509-565

3
References
• Nicholson, P (2015) Soil Improvement and Ground modification methods. Elsevier Publications
• Topolnicki, M (2004) In Situ soil Mixing, Chapter 9, Ground Improvement (2nd Edition) edited by
Moseley, M.P. & Kirsch, K : London: Spon Press in an imprint of Taylor & Francis group, U.K.
• Terashi, M (1997) Deep mixing method – Brief state of the art. 14th International Conference on soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

4
Contents

• Introduction
• Penetration Grouting
• Displacement Grouting
• Mechanical Mixing
• Ground Freezing
Introduction

Ground Improvement in tunneling is aimed to allow excavation to progress safely,

Many tunneling projects generally need to employ some form of ground
Improvement during course of tunneling

TBM Launching Cutter Head Interventions Mixed ground

6
Introduction

Ground Improvement for tunneling operations is generally recognized as being

associated with one or more of the following
• Ground treatment/stabilisation by Grouting
• Ground treatment/stabilisation by ground freezing
• Lowering the ground water level by controlled drainage
• Controlling water inflow to the tunnel by compressed air

7
Ground Improvement methods

• Applicability of different methods for various soil types

Nicholson 2015 8
Grouting

• Grouting is process consists of filling pores or cavities in soil or rock with liquid
form of material to decrease the permeability and increase the strength.
• Grout Materials span wide range of properties, from very low viscosity fluids to
thick mixtures of solids and water.

Grout Materials are grouped as

Particulate grouts (cement grouts): Where solid particles are suspended in
fluid used for strengthening, control permeability or sealing
Chemical grouts: Where materials are fully dissolved in a fluid and used for
sealing to control permeability
Compaction grouts: Which is typically thick, low slump concrete mix used to
fill holes or open cracks

9
Groutability Ratio
Grout volume to be injected depends on the ground porosity, geometry of treated
zone, grout hole spacing and depth to be treated

The groutability of soil with particulate grouting can be evaluated based on N value
(Mitchell 1981)

N= D15s/D85g >24 for good results N< 11 not feasible to grout

D15s = grain size 15% finer for soil and D85g = graine size 85% finer of grout particles

Similarly groutability ratio for fissured rocks = width of fissure/ D95g > 5

Nicholson 2015 10
Grout Properties
Grout stability
Stability of grout to remain in a uniform mixture or solution without separation.
Mixture’s ability to not to separate “Bleed”. Bleed refers to the settlement of
particles from suspension fluid after material is injected. An unstable grout leads to
incomplete sealing of voids or fractures.

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the ability of a fluid to flow or deform. Viscosity has great
impact on ability of grout to penetrate through a soil medium.

11
Grout Properties

On site, the grouting shall be subjected to at least one of the routine control tests

EN 12715:2000

12
Ground Stabilization by Grouting

• Enhance excavation & Tunneling stability

• To reduce the permeability and water seepage
• Increase the ground strength
• Improve the construction process –Excavation and lining
• Help to limit surface settlements
• Help limit lowering of surface water levels
• To minimize consolidation settlements

When to treat the ground

• Pre-excavation
• Post excavation
• During excavation

13
Design Requirements for Grouting

• Design requirements for ground improvement are generally specified for

Strength. Stiffness and Permeability of soils, Permeability requirement for
rock
1. Strength (kPa)
Cu (Shear Strength) = 200KPa – 900 kPa

2. Stiffness (MPa)
E = 100MPa – 300 MPa

3. Permeability (m/sec)
Soil; k=1x10-7 - 1x10-8 m/sec and For Rock < 1x10-7 m/s
Grouting Techniques

Penetration Grouting Displacement Grouting Mechanical Mixing

Injection of chemical or cement Injection of grouts into Mixing cement/lime with soil
fluid to penetrate soil matrix and ground to displace the soil To improve strength & reduce
reduce ground permeability & permeability
improves strength
• Jet grouting (JGP)
• Permeation Grouting • Compaction grouting
• DSM/DCM & WSM
• Hydro fracture • Compensation grouting

15
Suitability of Grout Material

Penetration Mechanical Displacement

grouting Grouting
Gravel
Sand
Silt and Clay
Fill material
Fissured Rock CIRIA 573
16
Grouting Techniques

Penetration Grouting Displacement Grouting Mechanical Mixing

Injection of chemical or cement Injection of grouts into Mixing cement/lime with soil
fluid to penetrate soil matrix and ground to displace the soil To improve strength & reduce
reduce ground permeability & permeability
improves strength
• Jet grouting (JGP)
• Permeation Grouting • Compaction grouting
• DSM/DCM & WSM
• Hydro fracture • Compensation grouting

17
 Penetration Grouting

Soil or Rock improvement involving the injection of a penetrable grout(cement

or chemical fluid) into intergranular pore space at low pressures (filling of the
space between the grains in a soil)

Tube-A-Manchette (TAM)
- Grout pipes are usually metal or PVC pipes, perforated at 30-50cm intervals
within inner grout pipe with 2 packer seals.
- Tubes inserted into pre-bored holes to the intended grout zones.
- Grout is pumped to a packer that has been slid into the tube. Seals on the
packer force the grout thru the holes in the tube, past the flexible rubber
sleeve and into the grout zone
- Grout can be injected vertically or inclined

18
 PACKER INFLATION UPPER ZONE

320 ~ 330mm

GROUT INJECTION ZONE

RUBBER SLEEVES

INJECTION HOLE

PACKER INFLATION LOWER ZONE

21
Grout types used for typical penetration
grout are
Approx sizes of various particles
Cement based grouts
• OPC
• Microfine cement
• Ultrafine cement

Solution based or Chemical grouts

• Sodium Silicate
• Acrylamides
• Polyurethanes

CIRIA 514

22
Injection parameters
• The grout injection parameters (grout pressure, flow rate and injection time) are designed in
conjunction with layout of injection points. Permeability of ground can be evaluated by in-situ
testing before grouting.
• General guide for injection pressure at point of access into ground is to start with 0.1-0.2 bar per
m depth, this can be increased on decreased depending upon the grout intake, ground movement
observed in field trials etc.,
• Grouting pressure should not be more than overburden pressure so that it does not fracture the
soil mass
• Usually hole spacing is close from 1m-1.5m

Trials & Monitoring

• Trial grouting in actual ground is preferred for selection of grout mix and injection pressure
• In permeation grout, choice of grout type, pressure are based on experience because of inherent
variations of ground. Observational approach is preferred by monitoring the pressure, grout flow,
visual inspection of site to see signs of uplift, grout break out

23
Examples of Permeation Grout

24
 FILL
DTL2 Undercrossing of NSL Tunnels F1 : FLUVIAL SAND
F2 : FLUVIAL CLAY
E : PEAT/ORGANIC CLAY
M : MARINE CLAY
G (I) G (IV)
G (II) G (V)
G (III) G (VI)

FILL
FILL FILL
E FILL

E M
E
M E

M M M
F1
F1
M F1 F1
E 7.05m 6.92m M
F2
E E M
F1
F1
F1
F2
F1

G (VI) G (VI) G (VI)

G (VI)
DTL2 Undercrossing of NSL Tunnels

NSL Newton
Station

Permeation
Grouting Zone

NSL Tunnel
DTL2 Undercrossing of NSL Tunnels

Grouting details

Permeation Grouting – 4.5m c/c

Microfine Cement

Target depth : 1.5m thick at 0.5m above the DTL

tunnel

•Permeation Grouting:
1st stage grouting points. Total volume: 248m3.
2nd stage grouting points. Total volume: 165m3.
3rd stage grouting . Complete volume: 98m3.
Permeation Grouting – Limit by11bar or 8000L
DTL2 Undercrossing of NSL Tunnels

FILL
E NSL Bored
M
Tunnel
E
F1
M
E
F1

F2 DTL2 Bored Tunnel

G (VI)
Permeation
Grouted Block
G (V)
DTL2 Undercrossing of NSL Tunnels
NSL monitoring using ATMS

NC18

NC13

SC18

dy
SC13
DTL2 Undercrossing of NSL Tunnels
NSL monitoring using ATMS
 Case Study of TAM grouting at PPJ

• A 2 storey building had experienced settlement of 45mm

before adjacent station excavation is commenced due to
tunneling related water draw down caused by other
adjacent project,
• Before adjacent station excavation, TAM grouting is carried
out to stabilize the soil
• Vertical grout points at 1m spacing and inclined grout points
(150 towards building) in between are carried out to a
depths of 15m (soft clay depth)
• Cementitious grout and low pressure is used to fill up soil
voids
• Resulted in 2mm heave of building during grouting works
and no further settlements observed during excavation

31
Case Study of TAM grouting in TEL

• Grout Mix
1. OPC with Bentonite (10% bentonite)
2. Water Cement Ratio 2:1
32
Case Study of TAM grouting in TEL

33
Case Study of TAM grouting in TEL

34
Case Study of TAM grouting in TEL

35
 TAM grouting for TBM Launching
• TBM is launched from Botanic Garden with dome opening
• Kallang is extended to tunnel axis TAM grouting is used before cutting of diaphragm wall.

36
 TAM grouting for TBM Launching
• TAM grouting carried out at 1.5m c/c in different stages.
• Probe holes were drilled to check water ingress before breaking the diaphragm wall

1st stage grouting points. Total volume: 478m3.

2nd stage grouting points. Total volume: 81m3.
3rd stage grouting . Complete volume: 73m3.

37
• TAM grout can be used to improve the strength and reduce the permeability of soil.
• Heave of building/ground observed in most of TAM grouting cases.
• TAM grouting is site specific and instruments must be monitored carefully. In case of high
water loss/inflow, TAM Grouting with sodium silicate can be considered

38
 Penetration Grouting

Hydrofracture

• Hydrofracture involves deliberate fracturing of ground (or opening of pre-existing fracture)

through high pressure injections- of water or grout. The fluid pressure causes tensile failure
within the ground
• Often combined with permeation grouting to increase the zone of improvement
• Main challenge is uncertainty and lack of control over position/orientation/extent of
hydrofracturing.

39
Grouting Techniques

Penetration Grouting Displacement Grouting Mechanical Mixing

Interjection of chemical or cement Injection of grouts into Mixing cement/lime with soil
fluid to penetrate soil matrix and ground to displace the soil To improve strength & reduce
reduce ground permeability & permeability
improves strength
• Jet grouting (JGP)
• Permeation Grouting • Compaction grouting
• DSM/DCM & WSM
• Hydro fracture • Compensation grouting

40
 Displacement Grouting

• Compaction grouting Compaction grouting as a process in which a low slump high

viscosity and stiff grout is injected into the ground to form an approximately spherical
or cylindrical bulb

41
 Compaction Grouting approaches

Top down approach Bottom up approach

1. Install casing into over size bore hole to top of fist
1. Install casing,
stage,
2. retract casing to top of deepest stage
2. drill through casing to bottom of intended stage
3. Grout 1st stage.
3. Grout 1st stage allow to set
4. Raise casing top of next stage…
4. Drill through 1st stage and extend the hole to bottom
5. Repeat the steps
of 2nd stage
5. Grout and allow to set.
6. Repeat the steps
ASCE 2010
42
Example of Compaction Grout

43
Compaction grouting at TEL
• During top down excavation, Water ingress observed at bottom of excavation
• Suspected water leak from diaphragm wall joint

44
Compaction grouting at TEL

FEL (28m)

45

45
Compaction grouting at TEL

Compaction grout
LSS UCS3-5 MPa.
Open ended drilling tube
Injection pressure max 10 bar
Casing lifted at 1.5m intervals

46
Compaction grouting at TEL

FEL (28m)
Grouting (28-51m)

Water stop (40m)

Top of OA (50m)
Compaction Grouting (25)
Toe of D-Wall (56m)
47

47
 Displacement Grouting
• Compensation grouting: responsive and timely use of grouting (high injection
pressures) to counteract any ground movement on a structure that is induced by
tunneling or excavations

48
49
50
Example of Compensation Grouting

51
Compensation grouting at Big Ben London

Harris et al 2000

52
Compensation grouting at Big Ben London

• Twin 7.4m diameter tunnels at 21-30m below ground

level excavated from 4.85m pilot tunnels
• Maximum permissible tilt of Big Ben 1:2000 it is
about 25.5mm over 55m gauge length.
• 50m long TAM tubes drilled below Big Ben
• From Feb 96-97: 24 grouting episodes to keep tilt to
be within permissible limits.

Harris et al 2000

53
Compensation grouting trial at Singapore

• 4 numbers of trial test carried out, 3 of trials for

heave monitoring on surface.
• 1 trial is to study consolidation settlements after
grouting. Grout depth is 5m-7m below the ground.
• Large heave observed as a result of grouting and
generated excess pore pressures
Compensation grouting is not suitable for soft compressible clays- high pressures would
cause even more post-grouting settlements than original settlements Shirlaw et al 2000

54
Grouting Techniques

Penetration Grouting Displacement Grouting Mechanical Mixing

Interjection of chemical or cement Injection of grouts into Mixing cement/lime with soil
fluid to penetrate soil matrix and ground to displace the soil To improve strength & reduce
reduce ground permeability & permeability
improves strength
• Jet grouting (JGP)
• Permeation Grouting • Compaction grouting
• DSM/DCM & WSM
• Hydro fracture • Compensation grouting

55
 Mechanical Mixing

Mechanical mixing of Soil: Binders are injected into soil by hallow rotating mixing shafts tipped with
cutting tools. Mixing shafts are equipped with discontinuous auger flights, mixing blades or paddles
to increase the efficiency of mixing process. Different mixing methods are classified depending on
hardening agents, mixing mechanism and where mixing occurs.

Mixing Methods

Wet
Hardening Agent Dry Mixing Wet mixing Wet mixing Wet mixing
mixing

Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical

Mixing principle Jet Mixing
Mixing Mixing Mixing +Jet Mixing

location of Along the

At the end of Drilling Shaft At the end of the drilling shaft
mixing action shaft

SMW, DSM Turbojet, Ras

DJM, TREVIMIX, CDM,SSM Jet grout
(usa), jet/SWING
SMM etc SMM MULTIMIX M Topolnicki 2004
JET GROUTING

57
Jet Grouting

Jet grouting is effective across widest range of soil types including silts and clays. Because it is erosion
based system soil erodibility plays a major role in predicting geometry quality and production.

As plasticity and stiffness increases, erodibility decreases to a point where jet grouting will not be
effective in most stiff clays
Principle of Jet grouting

Original soil structure is broken and soil particles

Cutting
or soil fragments dispersedly separated

Mix in Place
The particles or fragments are either mixed with
or
the jetted grout or partially or fully replace by it
Replacement

The particles or fragments are cemented to each

Cementing other by the self hardening and chemical
properties of grout
Jet Grouting types

Single Tube (Grout) Double Tube (Air+Grout) Trtiple Tube

• Smaller dia columns • Dia columns 1.0m - (Air+Water+Grout)
(0.4m-1.0m) 2m) • Dia columns upto
• Less disturbance • Commonly used 2.5m)
(Soft / Loose soils) • More effective than • Commonly used
single jet in cohesive
soils
60
Jet Grouting types

61
Burke 2004
Jet grouting – Critical Parameters

• Drilling Tolerance is very important for Jet grouting as overlapping of columns is a crucial
for effective grout block. Tolerance of up to 1 in 100 is common, special considerations
are required for more critical locations.
• Other factors must be considered are
• Column diameter
• Column Position
• Column properties
• It is important to record installation of columns and grouting parameters
during the installation.
Operating parameter Units
Lifting speed/Withdrawal rate min/m
Grout Pressure MPa
Air Pressure MPa
Air flow rate m3//min
Grout flow rate l/min
Water flow rate l/min
Rotation speed rev/mim
62
Jet grouting – Typical Parameters

63
Effect of various Parameters

• Loose to Med dense sand require less energy than clay

• Particle size smaller, column dia smaller. but very dense sand require more energy.

Jett Energy = Jet pressure x Jet flow rate/raising Speed

Effect of various Parameters

65
Essler 2012
 Effect of various Parameters
• Higher pressure, larger column
• Slower withdrawal, larger column.
 Effect of various Parameters

• Higher cement content, higher strength. • Higher water cement ratio lower strength.
JET GROUTING QUALITY CONTROL

68
Geometry and Quality
Main factors that influence JGP diameter and
Quality are
• Stratigraphy (Soil type, Strength, erodibility,
stiffness layering etc)
• Jet grouting Parameter
• Unknown obstructions and soil incursions

69
Jet grout Geometry
Direct Methods
o Excavation
o Coring
o Column calipers
o Painted steel bars
Indirect Methods
o Hydrophone/acoustic monitoring
o GPR
o Electrical resistivity
o Seismic Wave propagation
o Machine parameter monitoring

70
Excavation method: Jet grout columns can be excavated to verify column
geometry.
- Can be carried out only on test columns
- Must be excavated only after curing
- Costly and inefficient approach

Croce et al 2017
Bill finger Berger 2008

71
Coring of Test Columns
o Inclined coring can verify the geometry and integrity of grout column.
o Must be cored after curing
o Only suitable on test columns

72
Column Calipers
- Developed by Keller
- Inserted into fresh columns
- Hydraulic arms extend towards the boundary, resistance
offered by surrounding material to expansion of two arms can
be noticeable
- Suitable for production columns

Racansky 2008

73
Painted Steel bar
- Installed vertically in the ground around column centre at expected diameter
- After jetting process, they are retrieved and diameter is estimated based on erosion
of painting

Painted bars Kimpritis 2014 74

Hydrophone/Acoustic monitoring o Hydrophones are attached to the steel bars at depth OR
accelerometer on steel bar at surface.
o Steel bars are installed at distances at jet grout column is
assumed to extend
o Electrical signal is sent to the device whenever nozzle
energy is at the elevation of hydrophone
o Evaluation of signal allows calculation of diameter

No peak of electrical
signals, diameter not
achieved

Peak electrical signals

diameter is achieved

75
 GPR GPR bore hole

JGP

Cross hole seismic method

BH1

JGP

BH2

Transmit signal from BH1 and receive in BH2

76
 Electric Resistivity
o Developed by Mooney at Colorado School of mines
o Probe is inserted into fresh column after installation
o Follows ohm’s law to measure resistivity, the boundary
between soil and grout column is determined

77
Jet Grouting – Quality of Samples for testing
• The following tests on grout mix should be performed to ensure consistency of material
and mix quality.

• Density
• Bleeding
• Marsh viscosity
• Unconfined Compression tests (UCS)

BS EN 12716:2018 78
Jet Grouting – Quality of Samples for testing
• The determination of the characteristic material strength as part of
supervision, testing and monitoring shall be made by testing samples of
Class A and Class B only.
• Class A: Homogenous with no cracks, Soil
inclusions or individual grains shall not exceed 1/6
of diameter

• Class B: Small irregularities with small cracks < 0.2mm. Soil inclusions
or individual grains shall not exceed 1/6 of diameter

• Class C: Obvious irregularities (cracks > 0.2mm. Soil

inclusions or individual grains exceed 1/6 of diameter

• Class D: Unsuitable for testing (continuous cracks) Soil inclusions or

individual grains exceed 1/6 of diameter

BS EN 12716:2018 79
Trial – Jet Grouting

• Trial testing
• Min 1 trial test for each soil type to be treated
• Construct minimum 6 overlapping columns at depth and in similar ground
conditions
• Effectiveness of trial demonstrated by coring from 4 boreholes
(minimal)down entire depth of GI Block
• One coring from centre of pile
• One coring from 2/3 pile radius from centre
• Two more coring from overlapping zones
• Minimum 3 samples taken from each cores to be tested for strength and
stiffness
• TCR must be > 85% target value, otherwise further trials to be carried out
• 3 SPT Tests at overlapping zones to be carried out at each borehole for
correlation to SPT Values
Quality Control – Jet Grouting

• Every 1000m3 of GI, at least 8 boreholes shall be taken at the overlapping

areas of jet grouted piles. In each borehole, the SPTs tests shall be done
at the top, middle and bottom of the treated zone.
• There shall be 4 numbers of cores through the full depth of the piles for
each 1,000 cubic metres (rounded up to the nearest whole number of
cored holes) of treated soil.
• Cores cannot be less than 50mm diameters
• TCR no less than 85%, otherwise 2 additional cores
• Each core, minimally 3 samples shall be tested for strength and
stiffness tests
• Failure to achieve design strength: Additional 2 tests on same core
are required
• Cored holes shall be backfilled with cement bentonite grout

LTA M&W
 Example of JGP for
Cross Passage Construction

82
Case Study 1

83
Cross Passage Excavation

84
85
86
87
Stage 1 excavation shows Water ingress observed Stage 2 for top
JGP did not form in the stiff heading excavation (9L/min)
clay effectively

Water ingress increased to 300

L/min

88
TAM grouting is used for rectification

89
90
• Jet grouting was not uniformly formed possibly in layered soil with stiff layers
• Jet grouting trial parameters are mostly based on Marine Clay
• Adjacent BH shows predominantly Estuarine (E) and F1 layers at tunnel axis level.
• E and F1 layers could have extended to cross passage heading level
• Gaps may have formed due to installation tolerances.

91
Case Study 2

92
Inclined JGP at TBM Launch shaft

93
Inclined JGP at TBM Launch shaft

94
Inclined JGP at TBM Launch shaft

95
Inclined JGP at TBM Launch shaft

• Total No of JGP columns 79 (diameter 1.8,1.4,1.2m)

• Grouting pressure adopted 350 bar for 1.8m dia, 180 bar for 1.4m dia and
150 bar for 1.2m dia columns
• Overburden at cutoff level is about 7m
• Soil is Kallang formation.
• Heave is noticed during installation of 1.8m diameter grout column
• Inclined grouting coupled with low overburden might have caused the heave

96
Case Study 3

97
CP Geological Profile

5
 CP Ground Improvement

• JGP double tube Fluvial soil assigned more grout,

more pressure and slower
withdrawal rate.
Jet Grout Trial Test Results

• JGP Trial Outcome – TCR

CP Ground Improvement
Jet Grout Test Results

UCS 800KPa

102
Cross Passage with Sump

Water
ingress
Plan View of Sump

Water
ingress
Cross Passage with Sump

Water
ingress
106
Cross Passage with Sump

• Trial tests
• Supervision during grouting
• Post grouting tests successful
• Why water ingress?

107
Cross Passage with Sump

• High possibility of encountering

E,F2 layers.
• JGP parameters from Grout trials are
based on Marine Clay strata.
• Grout formation in E/F2 material
may not be successful.

108
Jet grouting Column diameter

Load Transfer Control permeability/Sealing

A: Homogenous soil
B: Non homogenous with hard layers
C: Non homogenous soil with defined layers
109
• The dimension of the strengthened column is a critical assumption in designing the treatment and
variations ground hardness and hence variations in the column diameter can result in inconsistency of
treatment.

• This is particularly important in common applications such as providing a zone of treated soil at a
launching or receiving shaft or in treating the ground prior to intervention to the face of a tunnel. The
treatment is intended to provide a stable and waterproof seal and the ground may well include some
stiff or hard layers. Careful attention must be paid to techniques and quality control in these cases.

110
Deep Soil Mixing

111
 Mechanical Mixing

Mechanical mixing of Soil: Binders are injected into soil by hallow rotating mixing shafts tipped with
cutting tools. Mixing shafts are equipped with discontinuous auger flights, mixing blades or paddles
to increase the efficiency of mixing process. Different mixing methods are classified depending on
hardening agents, mixing mechanism and where mixing occurs.

Mixing Methods

Wet
Hardening Agent Dry Mixing Wet mixing Wet mixing Wet mixing
mixing

Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical

Mixing principle Jet Mixing
Mixing Mixing Mixing +Jet Mixing

location of Along the

At the end of Drilling Shaft At the end of the drilling shaft
mixing action shaft

SMW, DSM Turbojet, Ras

DJM, TREVIMIX, CDM,SSM Jet grout
(usa), jet/SWING
SMM etc SMM MULTIMIX M Topolnicki 2004
Deep Soil Mixing
There are two different mixing methods of deep soil mixing are
commonly available.

The wet method is more appropriate in soft clays, silts and fine-
grained sands with lower water content and in stratified ground
conditions including interbedded soft and stiff or dense soil layers.
Cement slurry is used as binder

The dry method is more suitable for soft soils with very high moisture
content (>50%), and hence appropriate for mixing with dry binders. Dry
binders include cement, lime and fly ash

113
Dry Mixing

Mixing Tool (Japanese)

Execution of dry mixing method

Mixing Tool (Nordic)

114
Dry Mixing Vs Wet Mixing

• Cohesive Soils with moisture content >60% are best suited for dry process
• Wet mixing process provides better homogeneity of stabilized soil because of
longer mixing time, pre-hydration of cement and easier distribution of slurry
across the column area.
• Higher strength is more reliably obtained with wet process compared to dry
method
• Ability to penetrate hard soil layers is much higher for wet mixing due to
lubrication effect of the Injected slurry and higher torque capacity of mixing
shafts
• In stratified soils, wet mixing can provide more uniform strength along the
column height due to partial soil exchange or movement in vertical profile
• Dry mixing creates very little or no spoil
• Dry mixing is less expensive than wet mixing
115
Principle of Deep Mixing

• Single, Double, Triple, Quadruple Shafts

• Up to 2m diameter columns per shaft are available.

116
Mechanical Mixing
Double Shafts Triple Shafts Six Shafts

Spreadable Wing (SWING)

Large Dia.

118
119
120
Comparison of DSM and JGP Parameters

MCE Project

DSM/JGP C482 C483 C485 C487 C488

DSM Size Twin auger shafts 1.3mx2.3m
Grout Pressure 4 to 5 bars

Cement Content (kg/m3) 200 180 200 180 200

Mean UCS 1.9MPa 2.1MPa 2.9MPa 2.0MPa 2.7MPa

JGP Size 1.3m-2m 1.2m-2m 0.8m-1.2m 1m-1.3m 1m-2.7m

Grout Pressure 200-400 bars

Cement Content (kg/m3) 568 480 420 350 550

Mean UCS 4MPa 2.6MPa 3.5MPa 2.6MPa 2.9MPa

121
DSM patterns
DSM can be done to a replacement ratio of 100%, lower ratio can be used with different
patterns of columns to achieve design intent

122
Factors affecting strength of treated soil

Terashi, 1997 123

Typical range of parameters treated by Deep Mixing

124
Installation process of DSM

During installation process, mixing tool is lowered to the required depth

while mixing. At the bottom of treatment depth, mixing tool remain on the
bottom rotating 0.5-2min for complete mixing.

When the depth is too deep it may damage the tool or

jam the tool, with partial reversal will mimeses the
damages

125
Installation process of DSM

To treat the transition zone between soft and bearing

soils effectively, mixing tool to be raised 0.5m-1m and
lowered again

Withdrawal may be continuous or can be stepped or full re-

stroking, full re-stroking is more effective to treat stratified soils
of soft/stiff layers

126
 Advantages of Deep Mixing

• Column spacing and patterns are highly variable, can be tailored to specific needs.
• Required Engineering properties of treated soil can be obtained reliably by setting a
proper dosage according to the conditions of soil to be treated.
• Homogenous consistent diameter columns can be installed.
• The mixing operation is low noise and low vibration, and does not generate dust and
hence minimum environmental Impact
• Minimal lateral or vertical stress that could potentially damage adjacent structures.
• The computerized operation system controls, monitors, and records the drilling rate,
mixing depth, auger rotational speed, and grout injection rate. This operation system
minimizes human errors and provides reliable soil-mixed product as the design intended.
• Can be used on land on Marine environments
• The mixing machine used is mobile and can be easily relocated to the next soil mixing
location at site
• High productivity 80 to 250m3/10hr shift and economical for large scale projects

127
 Limitations of Deep Mixing

• Not applicable in soils that are very dense, very stiff or that may have boulders
• Limited or no ability to install inclined columns
• Columns cannot be installed in close proximity to existing structures (except
hybrid mixing methods)
• Heavy (100 to 150 tons) and High (30 to 36m) base machine is required ,
problematic for weak soils
• Limited ability to treat isolated areas at depth.
• Working platform must firm and flat
• Not suitable to small volume of improvement
• Very difficult to remove drill stem if it is struck in the ground

128
DSM QUALITY CONTROL

129
130
Trial – DSM
• The trial shall consist of a minimum of four columns formed at the depth and in similar ground
conditions as the proposed DSM. The trial shall be used to confirm the following:

(a) applicability of the operational parameters;

(b) type and quantity of binder to achieve the performance requirements;
(c) diameter of the DSM columns formed;
(d) compressive strength and stiffness of the DSM columns; and

• Min 2 boreholes used to obtain cores through full depth of DSM Block
• Target within midway from the centre to the outer surface of columns
• Test for strength and stiffness, minimum 1 sample at top, middle and bottom of each core
• Control measures to be taken to avoid disturbance to ground above treated zone, boreholes to measures
strength and stiffness to demonstrate effectiveness of control measures
• Settlement / heave monitoring spacing no more than 5m interval, extending 1.5 times depth of treatment

LTA M&W
Quality Control – DSM

• 4 numbers of bore hole per 1000 m3 of treated soil

• Midway between centre to outer surface of column
• TCR shall not be less than 85%
• Size of core shall be at least 50mm diameter
• A minimum of 1 sample each shall be taken from top, middle and bottom of each
core for strength and stiffness testing.
• Unconfined compression tests and triaxial tests with strain measurement to
obtain strength and compression stiffness of column
• Soil between ground surface and DSM zone, to be tested for strength and
stiffness
• All boreholes shall be grouted with cement bentonite

LTA M&W
Quality Control – DSM

LTA Japan Design FHWA-RD- FHWA-HRT-13- BS EN 14679-

Manual 1997-1667 046 2005
4 no of BH for <500 columns Land works For production A minimum 3
each 1000m3 = 3 core holes 1 core hole for elements on core borings
of ground >500 columns, every 3000 m3 typical DMM are
improvement 1 column for of treated soil projects 1 full recommended
every 250 depth in construction
columns continuous
coring for 3%
of elements
DSM Trial Example - MCE

134
DSM Trial Example - MCE
Examples of DSM

136
Case Study 1

137
DSM at T302

Top of
DSM

Top of OA
Min 1m embedment Toe of
into OA DSM
DSM at T302

Approximately 9000 DSM points,

650 000m3 of DSM for entire section
140
DSM at T302 - Grout termination Criteria
• Design requirement is min 1m embedment into Old Alluvium (OA)

1. OA level is determined by tender bore holes and additional SI.

2. Based on DSM trial, Ampere reading of DSM machine is established for

different soil layers. 1m into Ampere >220 layer on site is considered to
terminate the DSM ( Higher the torque of the machine higher the Ampere)
• QPS used these details to confirm the
final GI toe level on site.

• Core samples collected after the

grouting are further confirmed the toe
into OA
Continuous Coring Samples
Ground Level
• Continuous coring was conducted from top
GI Top Level

Top 1/3 1st Coring Sample in Top 1/3 GI Layer

of grout block to termination level
of GI

• Samples from top, middle and bottom

Middle 1/3 2nd Coring Sample in Middle 1/3 GI Layer
of GI sections were collected for lab testing of
strength and stiffness.
Bottom 1/3 4th Coring Sample in any GI Layer
of GI Core sample
Top of OA 3rd Coring Sample in Bottom 1/3 GI Layer
Embedment 1m GI Toe Level / Minimum 1m deep into OA Layer
DSM TOE
DSM TOE
DSM Core: UCS test results
Shear strength test on ground improvement
10000
Shear strength, cu (kPa)

9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
800 0
106
121
136
151
166
181
196
211
226
241
256
271
286
301
316
331
346
361
376
391
406
421
436
451
466
481
496
511
526
541
556
571
586
601
616
631
646
1
16
31
46
61
76
91

No. of samples, n = 650

Maximum, cu,max = 9665 kPa
Minimum, cu,min = 153 kPa
Range = 9512 kPa
Median, cu, median = 2550 kPa
Mean, cu,mean = 1603 kPa
Std. deviation = 773 kPa
5%tile = 1142 kPa

Target characteristic value 800 kPa

DSM Core: Total Core Recovery

TCR 85%

All the core samples tested have met the requirement of minimum total
core recovery (TCR) of 85%
Case Study 2

147
DSM at 301

Total volume of ground improvement by

DSM = 800,000 m3
Total no of DSM Columns = 17,887 nos

148
DSM at 301

149
DSM at 301

OPERATION DSM
UNIT
PARAMETERS

Diameter mm 1300
Spacing (c/c) mm 1100
Grout Flow L / min 280~320
Rate
Rotation Rate rpm / min 10~25
Grout Pressure bar < 7 bar
Water / ratio 1:1
Cement ratio

Grout Density t/m3 1.45~1.55

150
DSM test results

Required parameters, Cu = 600 kPa

151
DSM test results

Required stiffness E = 230 MPa

152
Some of the Challenges
• Main challenge during the installation is variability of ground condition for DSM termination
• DSM Toe levels are highly variable due to ground condition
• Requirement is 1m-2m in to OA, DSM machine has constraints to treat SPT >20

• Orientation of DSM is not specified by the designer and installation may have some influence

153
Obstructions for DSM

Auger Blade with Soil/ Foreign Object

• DSM Auger Blades propelled by DC motors, generally lower torque than engine
propelled equipment.
• Mechanical Blade susceptible to get tangled with foreign object/ debris.
• Once the blades are tangled , auger will not be able to retrieve from ground.
• High-mast with high C.G of DSM rig decreases the pulling retrieval strength of the
auger.
Deep Soil Mixing + Jet Grouting

156
Wet Speed Mixing
Wet Speed Mixing is enhancement of Deep Soil Mixing and Jet grouting.
It uses the Combination of high pressure jetting and mechanical mixing to mix the soil.

Less hydraulic energy than jet grout and high rotational speed of blades, this method creates
stabilized column with assured diameter due to mixing tool.

157
Comparison of WSM vs Jet Grout

Wet Speed Mixing Jet Grouting

• Combination of Jetting and Mechanical mixing • Jet grouting (air and/ water)
• Column size depends on auger size and can • Column size is depends on
achieve uniform columns erodibility
• Grout pressures up to 200 bar • Grout pressures up to 400 bar
• Inclined grouting is not possible • Grouting can be inclined
• Difficult to install with constraints like utilities • Feasible to install near to utilities
• Lower cement content • Higher cement content
• Machine size is bigger • Smaller machine
• Higher production rates • Slower production rate of columns

158
Typical WSM Parameters

159
Examples of WSM

160
Example of WSM: C935

161
Example of WSM: C935
SHOPHOUSE SOIL IMPROVEMENT –OVERALL LAYOUT

• Smaller diameter WSM columns close to shop houses

with relief wells

WSM full depth

grout at Dwall joints
Example of WSM: C935

163
Example of WSM: C935

S83

DATE DESCRIPTION SH WSM Status REMARKS

03 MAY 12 Commencement of WSM installation S19 with relief wells 1/111

16 MAY 12 Installation of WSM pile S83 & S28 25/111 Piezo GWV0034 spiked
25 MAY 12 WSM installation in progress 38/111

26 MAY 12 WSM installation had stopped 38/111 QP(S) issued Stop Work Order for WSM works

05 JUN 12 Commencement of Dwall at Launch Shaft (trial panel P70) 38/111

Example of WSM: C935

Drilling rig broke down and it necessitated the swivel head had
to be changed.
It was also observed that the relief well near the WSM pile was
also not functioning effectively.
The repair and replacement of the swivel head took longer time
and as a result, the installation of the WSM column located
directly in front of Unit 59 took more than 6 hrs compared to 1-
2 hours
A sudden spike of pore water pressure within the lower marine
clay layer was observed during the occurrence.
It appeared that the pressure in the grout column had built up
sufficiently and caused the soil to be pushed outwards.

165
Example of WSM: C935

Tip at 24mBG

Piezometric Pressure –
Deflection vs Date

Tip at 9mBG
Example of WSM: C935
Example of WSM: C935

Pressure relief holes are very important in WSM works.

Relief pipe may block due to various reasons, sufficient care is needed at
critical areas.
Sequence of installation is important along with provision of relief wells.

168
Enhanced GMP / Jet Mechanical Mixing
• Similar to GMP / DSM / DCM with addition of jet nozzle to cater for larger
diameter columns
• Cross between Jet grouting method and mechanical mixing methods
 TYPE of Deep Soil /Cement Mixing
DSM+JET

RAS-JET Method : Single shaft DSM + Jet Grouting 2.5 to 3.5 meter

RMP-J Method: Twin shafts -DSM + Jet Grouting 1.6meter ×2 170

Nicholl Highway RAS JET

1300 Soil Cement Columns using RAS-JET method

Treated ground volume 50,000m3

171
172
• Dual and counter rotation mixing blades
• A inner mechanical mixing column 1.6m
diametr
• Jet nozzles from mixing blades adds a further
0.6m jet grouting
• Creating a 2.8m diameter column

173
174
Installation sequence

Drilling and Mechanical Mixing Withdrawal, Jet grouting and Mixing

175
Grouting processe

Blade Diameter 1.6m

Cement dosage 400 kg/m3

176
Quality of Columns

177
Test results for Strength and Stiffness

178
Retaining wall performance

179
Other Mixing Methods

180
Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM)

• Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM) is based on the use of diaphragm

wall type cutting tools that are advanced into ground by Kelly
bar while introducing and blending slurry to produce
rectangular treated panels

181
Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM)

Discontinuous grid of individual columns

Row of overlapping columns

- Wall Support for excavation
- Cut Off wall

Grid of overlapping panels

- TBM Launching/retrieval
- Ground improvement for excavation

182
Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM)

• Cutter Soil Mixing Advantages

• Flexible geometry and deep panels
• High quality mixing
• Can advance through hard layers
• Can be installed under low headroom
conditions

• Cutter Soil Mixing Limitations

• Lower productivity
• Large equipment
• Higher maintenance costs

183
Mass Soil Mixing
Mass Soil Mixing or Shallow Soil mixing is type of soil mixing
suitable for shallower depth, typically 3m to 6m mixing
depth.

184
Ground Freezing (GF)
186
History of Ground Freezing
1862 - Used for the first time for mining shaft construction in UK.

1962 - Used for the first time for underground water pipe laying in Japan.

Around 600 projects of Ground Freezing since 1962.

Ground Freezing has been typically used for

Groundwater Control and Ground Stabilization for a wide variety

of applications involving all of soil types.

Rarely used in tropical countries like Singapore

187
• Ground freezing is a process of making water-bearing strata
temporarily impermeable and to increase their compressive and shear
strength by transforming water into ice.
• Freezing is normally used to provide structural underpinning;
temporary supports for an excavation or to prevent ground water flow
into an excavated area.
• Successful freezing of permeable water-bearing ground affects
simultaneously a seal against water and substantial strengthening of
ground.
• No extraneous materials need to be injected and apart from the
contingency of frost heave, the ground normally reverts to its normal
state.
• It is applicable to a wide range of soils but it takes considerable time
to establish a substantial ice wall and the freeze must be maintained
by continued refrigeration as long as required.
• Ground freezing may be used in any soil or rock formation
regardless of structure, grain size or permeability.
• Freezing may be used for any size, shape or depth of
excavation and the same cooling plant can be used from
job to job.
• As the impervious frozen earth barrier is constructed prior
to excavation, it generally eliminates the need for
compressed air, dewatering, or the concern for ground
collapse during dewatering or excavation.
 Principles of Freezing

• The effectiveness of freezing depends on the presence of water to create ice,

cementing the particles and increasing the strength of the ground to the equivalent of
soft or medium rock.
• The strength achieved depends on freeze temperature, moisture content and the
nature of the soil.
• Freezing can be particularly effective in stabilizing silts, which are too fine for injection
of any ordinary grouts.
• On freezing, water expands in volume by about 9% which does not itself impose any
serious stresses and strains on the soil unless the water is confined within a restricted
volume. With water content up to about 30% the direct soil expansion may be about
3%.
 Applications of Ground Freezing:
• Temporary underpinning of adjacent structure and support during permanent
underpinning
• Shaft sinking through water-bearing ground
• Shaft construction totally within non-cohesive saturated ground
• Tunnelling through a full face of granular soil
• Tunnelling through mixed ground
• soil stabilisation
Freezing Equipment & Methods

Commonly used methods for ground freezing is by use of refrigerated coolant (a)
brine or (b) liquid nitrogen are circulated through pipes to convert porewater to ice
Comparison of Brine & Liquid Nitrogen

Items Brine Method Liquid Nitrogen Method

Optimum Frozen Volume More than 150m3 Less than 150m3
Duration for Growing of
Long Short
Frozen Soil
Underground Water Flow
2m / day 10m / day
(Critical Velocity)
Maintenance Period Long Short
Cooling Temperature
(Average Temp. at
-200 C ~ -400 C -1000 C ~ -1500 C
Inlet/Outlet of Freezing
Pipe)
Freezing Plant Large Small

The cost per unit of heat extracted is much higher for LN2 compared to Brine, for short term
projects and in emergencies LN2 is competitive

193
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing (GF)
MARINA SOUTH
PIER STATION T226 THOMSON EAST COAST LINE
MRB STATION & TUNNELS

Shaft 2
Shaft 1

CCL MARINA
BAY STATION

NSL MARINA
BAY STATION
BAYFRONT
STATION

194
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing (GF)

195
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing (GF)

196
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing (GF)
Soil Profile

▽92.00mRL ▽92.00mRL

Pedestrian Linkway
JGP

Upper SCL Tunnel (Changi BD)

▽70.00mRL
▽68.00mRL
▽65.00mRL
▽63.00mRL

▽56.74mRL ▽56.74mRL

Ground Freezing

197
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing (GF)

Existing
Circle Line
(CCL)

Existing
North-South
Line (NSL)

Linkway
Horizontal JGP
Vertical JGP
Upper SCL Tunnel
Freezing Pipe
Lower SCL Tunnel

Kallang Formation
(Marine Clay)
FROZEN WALL
OA(E)
OA(B)

Underground Water Cut-off OA(A)

198
 Frozen wall
2.5

growing after
merging each other

(one side) (m)

2

Thickness（ｍ）
1.5

Thickness
Individual Columns begin Continuous 1

Columns to merge Frozen Wall

0.5

Column growing
0
0 30 60 90 120 150

days
Freezing（days）

199
Factors affecting the Freezing

Factors Forming of Frozen soil

Soil type Slow for silty soils compared to Sandy
Water content Higher the water content slower the freezing
Underground temperature Higher the temperature slower the freezing
Brine Temperature Lower the brine temperature faster the freezing
Spacing of freeze pipes Wider the spacing slower the ice wall formation

200
 Details of Freezing Pipe Brine In
Brine IN
Brine Out

Freezing Brine Out

Pipe

Insulation

Limitation Pipe (SGP50A) Limitation Pipe

Insulation

Packer
Outer Pipe (SGP100A) Outer Pipe

Sleeve Pipe

Inner Pipe (SGP25A) Inner Pipe

Leading Cone 201

 Schematic of typical refrigeration system

Coolant Gas Circulation

Brine Circulation

Coolant Water
Circulation

202
Brine Piping Diagram

Freezing Plant
(Ground Surface)

Main Header Pipe

Main Pipe

Distribution Header Pipe

Linkway

203
Freezing Plant

Brine Tank

Cooling Tower x 3

Cooling Water Pump x 3

Refrigeration Unit x 3
Brine Pump x 3

204
Brine Pipe Installation
Distribution Header Pipe to each Freezing Pipe

Vertical Pipe to Header Pipe

Header Pipe with Insulation

205
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing

• To form curtain wall for water cut-off so

SCL tunnel construction can be carried out
in the dry condition under NSL and CCL
• 104 Nos of 25m long Freeze pipes install
@ 1.2m interval
• 18m ice wall zone
• -30 deg brine (CaCl2) used
• Ice wall takes 66 days to grow to full 1.8m
thickness in diameter, 18m length of
frozen walls
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing

• Ground Freeze temperature is monitored

using 100 Nos of thermocouple line
(Resistance Temperature Detector)
• Min 20 Nos. of Pipes with 5 location
points
• Adjustable so can get temperature
between these points, daily checks be
conducted
 T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing

• The subsoil temperature at site is 300C

• Ground temperature have to be reduced
by 450C to an average of -150C

208
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing

• Temperature detectors
transmit temperature data
automatically to loggers to plot
temperature gradient graphs
• Detectors installed at Dwall,
Brine, Freezing systems

Developed plan view based on Temperature monitoring data

T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing
Temperature Monitoring
0℃
℃
20days

850
-30
-25

Freezing Pipes

51days

1800
Freezing Pipes 0℃

210
T226 Marina Bay – Ground Freezing

• Working environment will be

approximately 10 deg Celsius
• Freeze Temperature of Brine will be at -
30 deg Celsius (0.9m)

• Frozen grounds able to maintain water

tightness for 24 hrs in case of power
failure 0°

• 3 Nos of refrigeration units whereby 2 -15°

units to maintain freeze zone while 1

unit is under maintenance -30°

• Wall insulation : Glass wool materials

(t=50mm) to be applied to existing linkway
Ground temperature distribution
Excavation of Bench/Invert Existing Pile Exposed

212
 Impacts of Ground Freezing
• Frost heave – thaw settlement
o Ground freezing converts pore water into ice,
pore water has potential to increase in volume by
9% due to freezing.
o For impermeable soils pore water is unable to
escape during freezing resulting expansion.
o When thawing takes place soil revert to original
level, for clays there would be further
settlements

• Possible mitigation for consideration against heave

o Create compressive barrier
o Form “curtain” of hot water to prevent freezing
front to expand
o Following thawing, may need compaction
grouting
Instrumentation results

Section of interest

NSL Monitoring
Actual AL WSL
movement
~ 4mm +/-10 +/-15

Section of interest
Instrumentation results

Section of interest

CCL Monitoring
Actual AL WSL
movement
~ 3mm +/-10 +/-15

Section of interest
Instrumentation results

NSL Monitoring

216
 Thank You

[email protected]

217