Chapter: Semiconductor

Energy Bands in Solids:

The concept of Energy Band was first developed by Felix Bloch.
It helps to understand the several properties of Solid. The
approach of energy bands in place of energy levels in solid is
called Band Theory of Solid. The energy level possessed by an
electron in a solid is called energy Band. A Band constitutes sort
of energy continuum. The width of the Band depends upon the
strength of interactions.
In solids, there are so many atoms (millions of electrons). So
each electron can increase & decrease energy little bit & gets
many energy levels & forms Bands.

~1~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
The Energy Bands in solids are as:
1) VALENCE BAND:
➢ The Energy Band formed by Valence electrons of an atom is
called Valence Band (V.B.).
➢ It may be partially or completely filled but never be empty,
depends upon nature of solids
➢ It is the highest occupied band
➢ The electrons in V.B. are not capable of gaining energy from
external electric field.
➢ The current cannot flow due to the valence electrons
➢ The inert gases have completely filled Valence Band while
those of other materials are partially filled.

2) CONDUCTION BAND:
➢ The electrons which have left the valence Band are called
Conduction electrons.
➢ The energy Band formed by conduction electrons is called
Conduction Band (C.B.)
➢ It may be empty or partially filled
➢ It is the higher energy level Band
~2~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
➢ In this band, electrons can gain energy from external electric
field.
➢ Generally, Insulators have empty conduction band.

3) FORBIDDEN BAND:
➢ The gap (separation) between Valence Band & Conduction
Band is called as Forbidden Band or forbidden energy gap (Eg).
➢ No electrons can stay in this band
➢ The Forbidden Energy gap is given by Eg =(C.B.)min - (V.B.)max
Eg = Ec -Ev where Ec & Ev are energies corresponding to bottom
of C.B. & top of V.B. resp.
➢ As the temperature increases, Eg decreases very slightly.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID ON THE BASIS OF BAND THEORY OF

SOLID:
[Difference between Metals (Conductor), Insulators &
Semiconductor Based on Band Theory]:
On the basis of the width of the energy Bands in solids, the
solids are classified into Conductor, Insulators &
semiconductors:

~3~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 1) Conductor:
➢ The material having no forbidden energy gap is called
conductor.
➢ All metals are conductors.
➢ Have plenty of free electrons in C.B. even at room
temperature to conduct electric current easily.
➢ Due to overlapping, no forbidden energy gap (=0eV).
➢ The electrical Conductivity is very high.
➢ The Temperature Coefficient of resistance is positive. So its
resistivity increases with rise in temperature.
➢ It has very small resistivity (varies from 10-8 Ωm to 10-2 Ωm)
➢ Both Valence Band & Conduction band are partially filled
with electrons
➢ It has Valence electrons from 1 to 3.
➢ For examples: Na, Mg, Al, Cu, Na etc
➢ Current Carriers: Electrons
➢ Charge carrier density: 1024 /m3.

2) INSULATOR:
➢ A material having large forbidden energy gap (more than
4.9eV) is called insulator.
➢ The electrons cannot easily jump from Valence Band to
Conduction Band although high external electric field is
applied.
➢ Don't have free electron to conduct electricity.
➢ Forbidden energy gap is more than 4.9eV.
➢ The electrical Conductivity is very small.
~4~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 ➢ The Temperature Coefficient of resistance is nearly zero or
negative. So its resistivity decreases with rise in temperature.
➢ It has very small resistivity (varies from 1010 Ωm to 1024Ωm)
➢ The Valence band is completely filled & Conduction band is
empty at low temperature
➢ It has Valence electrons from 5 to 8.
➢ For examples: Diamond, rubber, glass, air, Ceramics,
Bakelite, Paper etc
➢ Current Carriers: Both Electrons & Ions
➢ Charge carrier density: very few

3) SEMICONDUCTOR:
➢ A material having small forbidden energy gap (about 1eV) is
called Semiconductor.
➢ It is neither conductor nor insulator so called Semiconductor.
➢ Forbidden energy gap is about 1eV.
➢ The electrical Conductivity is more than Insulator but less
than Conductor
➢ The Temperature Coefficient of resistance is negative. So its
resistivity decreases with rise in temperature.
➢ It's resistivity is less than Insulator but more than Conductor
➢ It's resistivity is of order 10-1 Ωm.
➢ At room temperature both Valence band & Conduction band
is partially filled with electrons & conduct (act as conductor)
but at Zero Kelvin(0 K) conduction band is empty & does not
conduct(act as insulator).
➢ It has 4 Valence electrons.
~5~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 ➢ For examples: Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), etc
➢ Current Carriers: Both Electrons & Holes
➢ Charge carrier density: 1012/m3.
➢ Forbidden energy gap for Ge=0.72eV & Si = 1.12eV

NOTE: Silicon is most widely used semiconductor than

Germanium because
a) It does not have excessive reverse current
b) It is cheap & easily available anywhere
c) It can operates at very high temperature & It has lesser
leakage current

Concept of' Free electron' & 'Hole':

a) HOLE:
➢ When the electron moves from Valence Band to Conduction
Band then the free space is created in the valence Band, that
free space (vacancy) is called Hole.
➢ It is a vacant electron position in the valence band when the
electron jumps from valence band to conduction band.
➢ Its charged is supposed to be Positive.
➢ In a pure form of semiconductors material, the number of
holes in valance band is equal to the number of free electrons
in conduction band.
b) Free electron:
➢ If external field is provided then the electron move from
valence Band to Conduction band & is responsible for the
conduction of electricity, is known as free electron.
~6~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 ➢ Its charged is supposed to be negative.

FERMI LEVEL & FERMI ENERGY:

The highest energy level occupied by an electron in the energy
Band at Zero Kelvin is called Fermi level & corresponding energy
in this level is called Fermi energy. So at Zero Kelvin, all the
states below Fermi level are occupied by electrons & all the
state above the Fermi level are empty.

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR:
On the basis of electrical conductivity & impurity
concentrations, semiconductors are classified into two groups:
a) Intrinsic(Pure) semiconductor:
➢ A pure semiconductor is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
➢ It has four electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom &
the atoms are held together by Covalent Bond.
➢ E.g. Pure silicon & Germanium crystals
➢ The number of Holes in Valence Band & the number of free
electrons in Conduction Band are equal.
➢ It has low electrical conductivity & it depends upon
temperature only
➢ The drift velocity of electron is greater than that of Hole
~7~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 ➢ Fermi level lies in the middle of the Forbidden energy gap

b) Extrinsic semiconductor(Impure semiconductor):

➢ The pure semiconductor doped with trivalent or
Pentavalent impurities is called Extrinsic semiconductor.
➢ The number of electrons & holes are not in equal in this
semiconductor.
➢ It has high electrical conductivity & depends upon
temperature & quality of doping impurity.
➢ Fermi level shifts towards Valance or Conduction Band

TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

1) N-type semiconductor or N-type extrinsic semiconductor:
➢ A pure semiconductor doped with Pentavalent impurity
such as antimony(Sb-51), Bismuth, Arsenic(As-33),
Nitrogen(N-7),Phosphorus(P-15), etc in which current is
carried by free electrons. This is called N-type extrinsic
semiconductor
➢ The electrons are majority charge carriers & the Holes are
minor charge carriers.
➢ The electrons density is much greater than the Hole density
➢ Fermi level in the forbidden gap shifts very close to
conduction band.
➢ The Pentavalent impurity donates (provides) free electron
for the conduction to the semiconductor crystal so it is
called Donor

~8~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 2) P-type semiconductor or P-type extrinsic semiconductor:
➢ A pure semiconductor doped with trivalent impurity such
as Aluminum (Al-13), Gallium (Ga-31), Indium (In-49),
Boron (B-5) etc in which current is carried by Holes. This is
called P-type extrinsic semiconductor
➢ The vacant space is created in a neighboring Si-atom
which is called Hole
➢ The Holes are majority Charge carriers & the electrons are
minority charge carriers
➢ Hole density is much greater than the electron density
➢ Fermi level in the forbidden gap shifts very close to
valence band.
➢ The trivalent impurity donates (provides) holes for the
conduction in the semiconductor & these holes accept
electrons so it is called acceptor.

~9~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
NOTE: 1) Doping: The process of adding impurities to
semiconductor
NOTE: 2) The conduction of P-type Semiconductor is smaller
than that of N-type Semiconductor because drift velocity of
electron is larger than that of Hole.

P-N Junction:
When a P-type semiconductor is joined to N-type
semiconductor, junction is formed which is called P-N Junction.
The P-N junction leads to the Invention of Diodes, Transistors &
Integrated Circuit (I.C.)

DEPLETION LAYER & POTENTIAL BARRIER: 2 marks (2071,

2072)
In P-N Junction, the Holes are the majority charge carriers in P-
region & that of electrons in N-region. The Holes diffuse from P
to N region & electrons from N to P region. The Holes &
~ 10 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
electrons recombine & terminate their existence at the
Junction. The recombination of mobile Holes & free electrons
produce the narrow region (layer) at the junction is called
Depletion layer.

The depletion layer is the charge-empty region. But it contains

fixed positive & negative ions called Dipoles .The thickness of
depletion layer is of the order of few microns (10-6m).
The potential developed across the P-N Junction due to the
migration of electrons into the P-region & Holes into the N-
region is called Barrier Potential (VB).
VB= 0.3V for germanium & 0.7V for Silicon.
The Barrier potential depends upon Doping density, electronic
charge, temperature etc. When temperature increases, Barrier
potential decreases & vice-versa.

~ 11 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE or JUNCTION DIODE or P-N
JUNCTION DIODE:
• It is a device in which P-type semiconductor has a junction
with an N-type semiconductor.
• It has two terminals namely anode(P-type region) & Cathode
(N-type region)
• It acts like a one way conductor
• The word diode is a contraction of di=two & ode=electrode
• It is a simplest electronic device with N-type material
supplying the free electrons & P-type material collecting them.
• It may be noted that it is the same direction in which the
movement of holes take place.

BIASING OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE: ( 2073)

• The process of applying the potential difference across P-N
Junction Diode for the proper working of it is called Biasing
of the diode.
• It is the operating process of diode due to the application of
electric field on it.

TYPES OF BIASING OF DIODE:

1) Forward Biasing:
~ 12 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
➢ The process of connecting P-side of junction with positive
terminal & n-side with negative terminal of a battery is called
Forward Biasing.
➢ In this biasing, the negative terminal of a battery repels the
free electrons in the N-region towards the Junction & the
positive terminal on P-region pushes the holes towards the
junction. The free electrons & holes combine & current flows
through the diode.
Basic features of forward biasing:
• The width of the depletion layer decreases
• The barrier potential is reduced
• The diode acts as closed circuit
• The diode offers very low resistance (called Forward
resistance)
• The high current flows through the diode due to majority
charge carriers.

~ 13 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 2) REVERSE BIASING:
• The process of connecting P-side of junction with negative
terminal & N-side with the positive terminal of a battery is
called Reverse Biasing.
• In this biasing, the electrons from N-region are attracted
towards the positive terminal & holes in the P-region are
attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery. The
departing electrons leaves more positive ions near junction
& departing holes leaves more negative ions & width of
depletion layer increased. So only small current flow due to
minority charge carriers.
Basic features of reverse biasing:
• The width of the depletion layer increases.
• The barrier potential is increased.
• The diode acts as open circuit
• The value of reverse current is negligibly small called
Leakage current.
• The diode offers very high resistance (called Reverse
resistance) to allow current.
• The less current flows through the diode due to minority
charge carriers

~ 14 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTION DIODE:
The graphical relationship between current & voltage across the
junction diode is called Characteristics of the junction diode. It is
also known as I-V characteristics of the Junction Diode.

a) Forward characteristics:(2071,2071,2073)
• It is the graphical relation between Forward current &
forward voltage.
• When the applied voltage is small in Forward Biasing, a
small current flows through the diode. As the voltage is
increased, the current through the diode is also increased.
• The forward voltage at which the current through the diode
starts to increase rapidly or sharply is called Knee voltage or
Offset Voltage or Cut-in voltage(Vk)
• VK =0.7V for Silicon & 0.3V for Germanium.

Note: Knee voltage= barrier potential of the diode.

~ 15 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 b) Reverse characteristics:
• It is the graphical relation between reverse current &
reverse voltage.
• When the diode is in reversed biased, the majority charge
carriers are blocked & only a small current flows through the
diode due to minority charge carriers.
• As the high reverse voltage is applied, the diode current
begins to increase sharply.
• The reverse Voltage at which the diode current starts to
increase sharply is called Breakdown Voltage (VB)
• Breakdown voltage depends on the density of Doping
impurities & thickness of depletion region.

APPLICATION OF DIODE:
• It is used as a switch in logic circuits in computer.
~ 16 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 • It is used as ac signal diode in communication circuits
• It is used as a rectifier or power diodes in dc power
supplies.
• It is used as Zener diode in voltage regulation.

RECTIFIER & RECTIFICATION:

➢ An electronic device which converts ac (alternating current)
into dc (direct current) is called rectifier.
➢ The process of conversion of ac into dc is called
rectification.
➢ The unidirectional current conducting property of diode is
used in rectification.
➢ The P-N junction diode or semiconductor diode is used as
rectifier.
➢ It acts as switch. It conducts in forward Bias & doesn't
conduct in Reverse Bias.

Types of Rectifier:
It is of two types
1) Half-wave Rectifier (HWR)
2) Full Wave Rectifier(FWR): It is also of Two types
a) Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
b) Bridge Rectifier(Full Wave Bridge Rectifier)

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

~ 17 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
[Describe with a neat diagram the working mechanism of half-
wave rectifier for a junction diode. 4marks (2061 & 2073)]
➢ A device which rectifies only one half cycle of ac into dc is
called Half-Wave Rectifier. A junction diode can be used as
a half-wave rectifier.
Half-wave rectifier consists of a Transformer, a diode (D) &
a load resistance (RL) (shown in fig1). The primary coil of a
transformer is connected to ac mains supply & secondary
coil is connected to the Load resistance through the diode.

During Positive half cycle of input Voltage Vin, the diode D is

forward biased (ON) & it conducts. The current flows in the
circuit & output voltage Vout is dropped across RL.
~ 18 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
During Negative Half cycle of input Voltage Vin, the diode D is
Reverse biased (OFF) & no voltage is dropped across RL. The
current blocks & doesn't conduct.
Hence current only flows through positive half cycle & Half-
wave of input ac voltage is rectified into pulsating dc voltage
(fig2). Thus a single P-N Junction diode acts as a Half-Wave
Rectifier.

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER:
➢ A device which converts full cycle of ac into dc is called Full-
wave rectifier.
➢ Centre tapped FWR consists of a Transformer, two diodes
D1 & D2 & a load resistor RL.
➢ Bridge FWR consists of a Transformer, four diodes D1, D2 D3
& D4 & a load resistor RL.

TYPES OF FULLWAVE RECTIFIER

1) Centre tapped full wave Rectifier
2) Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

CENTRE TAPPED FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER (CENTRE TAPPED FWR):

[How can you construct a full-wave rectifier using two
semiconductor diodes? Explain their working.]
Or
[Describe the working of full-wave rectifier using the two
semiconductor diodes] 2066, 2072, 2072 (4 marks)
~ 19 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
A device which converts full cycle of ac into dc is called Full-
wave rectifier. A centre tapped FWR consists of a transformer,
two diodes (D1 & D2) & a Load resistor (RL). The two diodes D1 &
D2 are connected to the centre Tapped secondary coil of a
transformer through RL. The diodes are connected in such a way
that they conduct during alternative half cycles of input or
supply voltage.

During positive half cycle of input voltage Vin , the diode D1 is

forward biased & diode D2 is reversed biased. Hence Diode D1

~ 20 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
conducts & D2 doesn't conduct (OFF). Current flows through the
way of AEDC.
During Negative half cycle of input voltage Vin, the diode D2 is
ON & D1 is OFF. Current flows through the way of BFDC.
In both half cycle, unidirectional current flows through RL. Thus
one Half-wave is rectified by D1 & next half-wave is rectified by
D2. Thus combination of diodes D1 & D2 works as Full-Wave
Rectifier. Hence, the ac input voltage is converted into pulsating
dc voltage.

FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER or BRIDGE RECTIFIER:

Describe the working of full-wave rectifier using the four
semiconductor diodes] (4 marks)
A Full-Wave Rectifier in the form of Bridge is called Bridge
Rectifier. It converts full cycle of ac into dc. It consists of four
diodes D1, D2, D3 & D4 & a load resistor RL. The diodes are
connected in such a way that two diodes conduct during
Positive half-cycle & other two diodes conduct during Negative
Half Cycle.

~ 21 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
During positive half cycle, the terminal A is positive & B is
negative. The diodes D1 & D3 becomes forward biased whereas
the diodes D2 & D4 are Reversed Biased. Hence current flows
along ACDEHGFIB producing drop across RL.
During negative half cycle, the terminal A is negative & B is
positive. The diodes D2 & D4 becomes forward biased whereas
the diodes D1 & D3 are Reversed Biased. Hence current flows
along BIFEHGDCA producing drop across RL.

In both Half cycles, Unidirectional current flows through RL. The

first half cycle is rectified by diodes D1 , D3 & next half cycle by
diodes D2 , D4 . In this way, the bridge rectifier acts as a Full-
Wave Rectifier.

NOTE:
Bridge rectifier is used in different electronic devices due to No
power loss, No energy loss & No use of mutual Induction.

FILTER CIRCUIT: (2054)

~ 22 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
The circuit which is connected between rectifier & load to
convert pulsating dc into steady dc is called filter circuit. It
consists of Passive elements like Capacitor, Inductor or their
combination.

There are many types of filter circuits but here we will explain
about π-filter (CLC filter).
It consists of two Capacitors filters C1 & C2 connected across
Rectifier's output & across load resistance RL respectively &
Inductor L in series.

~ 23 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
C1: It offers low resistance for ac & high resistance for dc
component. So it bypass appreciable amount of ac to the
ground whereas dc component flow towards the Inductor.

L: It offers high resistance for ac & very low resistance for dc

components of rectifier's output. So it blocks ac & allows dc to
pass through it.

C2: Its behavior is similar to capacitor C1. It bypasses the ac

components of rectifier's output which could not be blocked by
Inductor L. As a result, only the steady dc is available at the
output.

REVERSE BREAKDOWN:
The Reverse voltage at which the current increases sharply is
called Reverse Breakdown Voltage or Junction Breakdown
Voltage. The Junction Breakdown is avoided in normal
condition. The following two events cause the Junction
Breakdown:

~ 24 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 1) ZENER BREAKDOWN (ZENER EFFECT):
➢ Both sides of P-N Junction are heavily doped.
➢ A strong electric field is produced.
➢ Large number of Holes & Electrons is produced.
➢ Zener Effect is a type of electrical breakdown in a reverse
biased P-N junction diode in which the electric field enables
tunneling of electrons from valence Band to Conduction
Band of a semiconductor, leading to a large number of free
minority carriers, which suddenly increases the reverse
current.
2) AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN( AVALANCHE EFFECT):
➢ Both sides of P-N Junction are lightly doped.
➢ A weak electric field is produced.
➢ Small numbers of electron-hole pairs are generated.
➢ Avalanche effect is the sudden rapid increase in the current
in a semiconductor material when a sufficient amount of
electrical force is applied to the material.
➢ This effect can be used to control voltages more precisely in
various electronic devices.
~ 25 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
ZENER DIODE: (invented by American Scientist C. Zener)
➢ The diode which is designed to operate only in reverse
breakdown region is called Zener Diode
➢ It is also called Breakdown diode so always used in
Reversed biased condition.
➢ It is a silicon diode which is used as Voltage regulator.

➢ By adjusting doping level, it is possible to produce a

Zener diode having the breakdown voltage ranging from
2V to 1000V.
➢ It can operate in both forward & reverse region. In forward
region, it conducts about 0.7V just like an ordinary silicon
diode
➢ It is not immediately burnt because the external circuit
connected to the diode limits the diode current to less than
burnt out value
The symbol & I-V characteristics of Zener diode:

ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR (STABLIZER)

OR
~ 26 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
USE OF ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR: (2065,2069,
2070, 2074) 4marks
The device which is used to regulate the voltage is called
voltage regulator. In voltage regulator, the circuit maintains
constant output voltage although there is variation in input
voltage or current or load resistance. It is also called Voltage
Regulator Diode.

The Zener diode works only if Vin >VZ

(Vz=Zener Voltage & Vin = input voltage).
Case (1): When Vin <VZ , no current passes through the diode
(i.e. IZ =0) and all the input voltage drop across load resistance
RL. Here Vout= Vin at IZ =0
Case (2): When Vin =VZ , the breakdown point is reached &
voltage across the diode is constant.
Case (3): When Vin >VZ , the output remains constant but there
is increase in voltage across RS . Hence the voltage is regulated.
Here Vin = Vz + VS = Vz +IS RS
IS RS = Vin - Vz
V −V
The current through Series Resistance Rs is IS = in Z
RS
V0
The current through load Resistance RL is IL =
RL
Thus total current IS = IZ + IL ⇒ IZ = IZ + IL
~ 27 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
A graph Vout versus Vin is shown in fig below. It is clear that the
output voltage remains constant when the diode is in Zener
Region.

Logic gate:
➢ The electronic circuit which makes logic decision is called
Logic Gate.
➢ It is a switching circuit which can be realized by using
semiconductor devices
➢ It has two or more inputs but only one output
➢ Every input variable in a logic gate is either 0 (low) or 1(high).
But the output depends on the input signals & type of gate.
➢ There are two types of logic gates
1) Basic (or simple) logic gates
a) OR-Gate b) AND-Gate c) NOT-gate
2) Compound logic gates
a) NAND- gate b) NOR-gate c) X-OR gate d) X-NOR gate e)
Bubbled OR-gate

NOTE:
~ 28 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
1) An electronic circuit that handles only a digital signal is called
a digital circuit.
2) The numbering system that uses only the two digits 1 & 0 is
called Binary System Number
3) A truth table is the input-output relationship of the binary
variables in a Tabular form for each gate.
4) Truth Table is a table in which the operation of logic gates is
represented.
5) Digital Signal is a signal which has only two possible values 0
& 1.
6) Analogue Signal is a continuous time varying signal.

1) OR-gate: (2070,2073 2 marks)

➢ Boolean expression for OR-gate: y=A+B
➢ The gate having two or more inputs & one output logic in
which the output is 1(high) when either input A or B or Both
are 1(high) is called OR-gate.
Working of OR-gate: [0 → OFF(low) & 1 → ON(high)]
a) When A=0 & B=0 then diodes D1 & D2 are in reversed
biased & doesn't conduct current through RL & so output is
0.
b) When A=1 & B=0 then D1 is forward biased & so it conduct
But D2 is reversed biased & does not conduct. Hence
output is 1(high)
c) When A=0 & B=1 then D1 is reversed biased & so it does not
conduct But D2 is forward biased & it conducts. Hence
output is 1(high)

~ 29 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 d) When A=1 & B=1 then diodes D1 & D2 are in forward biased
& conduct current through RL & so output is 1(high).
The logic operation of OR-gate can be summarized in Tabular
form is known as Truth table.

2) AND-gate:
The logic gate whose output is high(i.e. 1) when all the inputs
are high(i.e. 1) is called AND-gate. Boolean expression for
AND-gate: Y=A.B
Working of AND-gate:
a) When A=0 & B=0 then both diodes get forward biased &
conduct current. But both diodes are shorted. So the point Y
is also earthed. Hence output is low(i.e. 0)
b) When A=0 & B=1 then the diode D1 conduct & short circuit to
the ground so output voltage is low(i.e.0 )
c) When A=1 & B=0 then the diode D2 conduct & short
circuit to the ground so output voltage is low(i.e.0 )
d) When inputs A=1 & B=1 then neither D1 nor D2 conduct. So no
current flow through RL & output is high (i.e. 1).

~ 30 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 3) NOT-gate:
➢ The gate whose output is high (i.e. 1) when the input is low
(i.e. 0) & vice-versa is called NOT-gate.
➢ It is also known as Inverter because the output is always
the complement of input.
➢ It has only one input & one output.
➢ Boolean expression of NOT-gate: Y=A
Working of NOT-gate:
a) When high signal is applied i.e. A=1 then output is low (i.e.
0)
b) When low signal is applied i.e. A=0 then output is high(i.e.
1)
NOT-gate can be realized by using a NPN transistor. The base of
a transistor is connected to input A through a resistor RB while
the emitter is earthed. The collector is earthed through a
resistor Rc & a 5V battery.

~ 31 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
4) NAND-gate:
➢ The combination of NOT-gate & AND-gate is called NAND-
gate.
➢ The gate in which when one or both inputs is high then
output is high otherwise low,is called as NAND-gate.
➢ It is obtained by connecting a NOT-gate in the output of an
AND-gate
➢ Boolean expression for NAND-gate: Y=A. B
Working of NAND-gate:
a) When both inputs A & B are low(i.e. 0) then output is
high(1)
b) When A is high & B is low then output is high
c) When A is low & B is high then output is high.
d) when both inputs A & B are high then output is low.

~ 32 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 NAND-gate as UNIVERSAL GATE(2063, 2072, 2072, 2 MARKS)
➢ The repeated use of NAND-gate can produce all the three
basic gates i.e. OR, AND & NOT-gates whose various
combinations provide us large number of complicated
digital circuit. Hence, in digital circuits, NAND-gate is called
Universal gate or digital building block.

~ 33 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 NOR-gate: (2072)
➢ The combination of OR-gate & NOT-gate is called NOR -
gate.
➢ When all inputs are low then only output is high in this
gate.
➢ This gate is design in such a way that the output of OR-gate
is connected to the input of NOT-gate.
➢ Boolean expression : Y=A + B

NOR-gate as UNIVERSAL gate:

~ 34 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 ➢ The repeated use of NOR-gate can produce all basic gates
like OR, AND & NOT-gates. Therefore this gate is also called
as universal gate. This gate acts as Building Block in digital
circuits.

NANOTECHNOLOGY: (2071, 2 MARKS)

➢ Nanotechnology is a branch of science which deals with the
size of the particles in the range of 1 to 100 nanometers.
[1 nano= 10-9]

➢ Nanotechnology is generally used for

a) Constructing nanoscale devices
b) Functionalizing of nanoscale

~ 35 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 c) Synthesizing nanomaterials with controlled size
distribution & surface structure

➢ Nanotechnology is advance technology & is widely used in

various fields. Some of them are
a) It is used for preserving death body
b) It is used to increase efficiency of fuel production & its
quality, solar cell, nano battery, nano capacitors etc &
reducing of energy consumption.
c) It is used to make electronic devices like P-N diodes,
Transistors , I.C. etc
d) Used in medicine as diagnosis, & treatment of different
disease.
e) Used in food preservation

TRANSISTOR:
➢ A three terminal semiconductor device which
transfers a signal from low resistance to high
resistance is called a transistor.
➢ The transistor is a semiconductor device which
amplifies the current or voltage.
The words trans mean transfer
property and istor means resistance property
offered to the junctions.
➢ In other words, it is a switching device which
regulates and amplifies the electrical signal
likes voltage or current.

~ 36 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 ➢ The transistor consists two PN diode connected
back to back. It has three terminals namely
emitter, base and collector.

Emitter (E):
➢ The left hand section of transistor is called emitter (E).
➢ It is more heavily doped region to produce more charge
carriers.
➢ It is thicker than base but thinner the collector
➢ The main function is to emit or supply charge carriers to
base
➢ An arrow represents the emitter terminal in transistor

Base (B):
➢ The middle region of transistor is called Base (B).
➢ It is lightly doped region to minimize the recombination of
electrons & holes so that large numbers of majority charge
carriers reach the collector.
➢ It is made thin
➢ The main function is to pass large number of charge
carriers emitted by emitter to collector

~ 37 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
Collector (C):
➢ The right hand section of transistor is called Collector(C).
➢ It is moderately doped region to dissipate the heat
produced in the collector.
➢ It is the largest region of transistor.
➢ The main function is to collect majority charge carriers
through the Base.

TYPES OF TRANSISTOR:
1) NPN Transistor:
It is composed of two N-type semiconductor separates by a
very thin P-type section.
➢ majority charge carrier=electrons
➢ The arrow always represent the emitter terminal
➢ The arrow points outward i.e. NPN= Not Point In
➢ The current in both inside the transistor & in external
circuit is due to electrons

2) PNP Transistor: majority charge carrier=Holes

➢ The arrow always represent the emitter terminal
➢ The arrow points inwards i.e. PNP= pointing In
➢ The current inside the transistor is due to holes but in
external circuit by electrons
~ 38 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
TRANSISTOR BIASING:
The working of a transistor by applying voltages of correct
polarity across its two junctions is called Biasing of Transistor.
For normal operation of transistor
1) Emitter-Base junction is always Forward-Biased &
2) Collector-Base Junction is always Reverse-Biased.
This type of Biasing is called Proper Biasing.

In figure VEE & VCC are emitter & collector supply respectively.
The forward biased circuit represents input circuit & reverse
biased circuit represents output circuit. The current through
emitter is IE = IB + IC

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION:
The connection of a transistor to the external circuit for its
operation is called transistor configuration. On the basis of

~ 39 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 connection system of emitter, Base & collector, there are three
modes of transistor
1) Common Base (CB) configuration:
In this mode, the emitter current (IE) is input current & collector
current (IC )is output current.
output current IC
Current gain of transistor (αdc) = =
input current IE
Current gain of a transistor is defined as the ratio of output
current to the input current. Its value varies from 0.95 to 0.99.
The higher is the value of α , the better is the transistor. Similarly
αac for a transistor is defined as the ratio of change in output
current to the change in input current.
change in output current ∆IC
i.e. (αac ) = =
change in input current ∆IE

2) Common Emitter(CE) configuration:

In this mode, the Base current (IB) is input current & collector
current (IC )is output current.
output current IC
Current gain of transistor (βdc) = =
input current IB
Current gain of a transistor is defined as the ratio of output
current to the input current. Its value varies from 200 to 500.
~ 40 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
The higher is the value of β , the better is the transistor. Similarly
βac for a transistor is defined as the ratio of change in output
current to the change in input current. i.e.
change in output current ∆IC
(βac ) = =
change in input current ∆IB

3) Common Collector(CC) configuration:

In this mode, the Base current (IB) is input current & emitter
current (IE ) is output current.
output current IE β
Current gain of transistor (γ) = = =
input current IB α

~ 41 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
RELATION BETWEEN PARAMETERS OF TRANSISTOR (α and 𝛃):
For any transistor, the current through the emitter is IE = IB + IC
Dividing both sides by IC, we get
IE IB IC I I I
= + [since γ = E & β = C & α = C ]
IC IC IC IB IB IE
1 1
Or, = + 1
α β
1 β+1
Or, =
α β
1
Or, α = ……….(1)
1+β
α
Similarly: β = …….(2)
1_−α
And γ = 1 + β …..(3)
These are the relations between current amplification factors of
transistor.

COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS:

The graphical representation between current & voltage in a
common emitter transistor is called common emitter
characteristics. The circuit diagram for drawing common emitter
~ 42 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 Characteristic of NPN transistor is shown in fig1.

The micrometer (μA) measures the base current(IB) , the

millimeter(mA) measures the collector current(IC) , the
Voltmeter V1 measures VBE & Voltmeter V2 measures VCE. The
rheostats Rh1 & Rh2 are used to vary VBE & VCE respectively.
The common emitter characteristics of NPN transistor are as
follows:
1) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
The relationship between input current (IB) & Input voltage
VBE at constant output voltage VCE is called Input
Characteristics.
To draw these characteristics:
a) The value of VCE is set at Zero Volt.
b) The value of VBE is varied with the help of Rh1 &
corresponding value of IB is noted.
c) Now set VCE at 1V,2V,5V,10V …etc & repeat the process(b)
for each value of VCE
d) The graph should be plotted between input current & input
voltage(figa)

~ 43 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
The reciprocal of slope of the graph give the INPUT RESISTANCE
( rin).
∆V
i.e. Input resistance(rin) = BE at constant VCE
∆IB

2) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
The relationship between output current(IC) & output voltage
VCE at constant input current (IB) is called Output
Characteristics.
To draw this characteristics
a) Value of IB is set at zero
b) The value of VCE is varied with the help of Rh2 &
corresponding value of IC is noted.
c) Now set IB at 1 μA , 5 μA,10 μA …etc & repeat the
process(b) for each value of IB.
d) The graph should be plotted between output current &
output voltage(figb)

~ 44 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
The reciprocal of slope of the graph give the OUTPUT
RESISTANCE ( rout).
∆V
i.e. Output resistance (rout) = CE at constant IB
∆IC

3) CURRENT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

The relationship between output current(IC) & input current
(IB) at constant output voltage VCE is called current Transfer
Characteristics.
By keeping VCE constant, IB is varied with the help of rheostat &
corresponding IC are noted. The slope of the graph gives current
gain of a transistor.

~ 45 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
Limitations of semiconductor devices:
➢ The semiconductor components are highly sensitive
towards the temperature changes
➢ Semiconductors are also sensitive towards other
parameters of surrounding like applied voltage , current ,
Humidity ,intensity of light etc
➢ These are not suitable for operating very high frequency

Important topics of this chapter: Semiconductor for 4 marks:

1) Common emitter characteristics of transistor
2) Zener diode as voltage regulator(stabilizer)
3) Halve wave rectifier with filter circuit
4) Full wave rectifier(centre tapped FWR) with filter circuit
5) Formation of depletion layer & barrier Potential &
characteristic of Junction diode
6) Classification of solid on the basis of Band theory &
difference between types of semiconductor.
~ 46 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423
 THE END

~ 47 ~
Brij Kumar Singh M.Sc Physics , Central Department of Physics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary Technical & Vocational School Dharapani Dhanusha Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/Campus Waling-8, Syangja Nepal
Former secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy Lalbandi, Sarlahi Nepal
Contact: [email protected] or 9844114465 & 9804816423