SCI02-Prelims

THE BIG BANG THEORY & NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

 Chemistry – “study of stuff – study of matter, its make-up, its properties, and the changes it undergoes
 Cosmology – the study of how the universe began, how it continues to exist, and how it will end
 The Big Bang Theory – cosmological theory (based on scientific evidence) which states that the universe once began to expand and continues to expand. George
Lemaître and Edwin Hubble were some of the first proponents of the theory

I. The Big Bang Theory (t=0s)

– The totality of the universe may have begun – no where, when, or what
as infinitely small and infinitely hot singularity – The four fundamental forces of the universe were all combined into one force, Supergravity
– space, time, matter, and energy as one – Universe began to expand outward rapidly

The Big Bang Theory: Aftermath (first is Singularity)

II. Inflation
– With the rapid expansion, gravity separated
from the rest of the fundamental forces then
followed shortly by the Strong Force.
– universe grew billions of times larger than the
singularity
– Over the course of inflation, the Weak Force
and Electromagnetic Force separate from each
other as well.

III. Annihilation
– At about 1 trillionth of a second after the Big
Bang, matter and energy start to separate from
one another. This includes dark matter and
dark energy.
– Pairs of matter and antimatter (quarks and
antiquarks) were formed from energy, but
immediately cancelled each other back into
energy.

IV. Plasma Soup

– At about 1billionth of a second after the Big
Bang, the universe was a dense sea of quarks
and other particles.
– The quarks would undergo Baryogenesis,
forming protons and neutrons.
– Photons were being scattered everywhere.
II. The Big Bang (t=0.01s)
 Nucleosynthesis – Protons and neutrons begin to undergo Nucleosynthesis, forming particles that would then form into light elements, Hydrogen and Helium

The Big Bang Theory: Aftermath

I. For the first 380 000 years, the universe was II. The universe eventually cooled enough and III. At about 100 million years after the Big
opaque gravity slowed everything. Bang, gravity would have slowed matter down
– Light couldn’t escape the soup of other – Protons, neutrons, and other charged particles could –enough that it begins to coalesce which would
particles because everything is still too hot and capture electrons, turning them neutral and less in turn create the first stars of the universe
moving too fast. energetic – Present universe is 13.8 billion years
– This allows photons to move faster than the rest of
the matter which then makes the universe transparent
to light and other electromagnetic energy

III. Proof of Big Bang

I. Hubble’s Law II. CMB Radiation III. Abundance of Light Elements
Galaxies have been observed to be moving – discovered in 1965 by Arno Penzias and The sheer volume of light elements, Hydrogen
from the Earth at speeds that are proportional Robert Wilson and Helium in the observable universe
to their distance. – 2.725 degree Kelvin background radiation in Supports the model since these are the first
– phenomenon discovered in 1929 by Edwin the microwave range that pervades ALL of the elements to form in the high-energy
Hubble known universe. environment during and shortly after the Big
Supports the expansion of the universe and – if the universe was extremely hot and Bang.
suggests that it was once compacted. extremely small at one point in time, then there
should be evidence of this extreme
temperature all across the universe.

Light Element nucleosynthesis

– If the universe were filled with energetic photons then the two reactions would occur at the same rate, Deuterons being formed as quickly as they dissociated. But
the universe cooled enough so that the reaction could proceed forward.

𝑛 = 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛; 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛; 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛; 𝛾 = 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑦 (𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)

𝑛+𝑝→𝑑+𝛾 𝑑+𝛾→𝑛+𝑝
Forward reaction: forming of deuterons reverse reaction: dissociation of Deuterons
Deuteron binding energy = 2.2MeV energy requirement = 2.2MeV

Less than 1 second after the Big Bang, the reactions shown at right maintain the neutron:proton ratio in thermal equilibrium.
About 1 second after the Big Bang, the temperature is slightly less than the neutron-proton mass difference, these weak
reactions become slower than the expansion rate of the Universe, and the neutron:proton ratio freezes outat about 1:6.

After 1 second, the only reaction that appreciably changes the number of neutrons is neutron decay, shown at right. The half-
life of the neutron is 615 seconds. Without further reactions to preserve neutrons within stable nuclei, the Universe would be
pure hydrogen.
The reaction that preserves the neutrons is deuteron formation. The deuteron is the nucleus of deuterium, which is the heavy
form of hydrogen (H2). This reaction is exothermic with an energy difference of 2.2 MeV, but since photons are a billion times
more numerous than protons, the reaction does not proceed until the temperature of the Universe falls to 1 billion K or kT = 0.1
MeV, about 100 seconds after the Big Bang. At this time, the neutron:proton ratio is about 1:7.

Once deuteron formation has occurred, further reactions proceed to make helium nuclei. Both light helium (He 3) and normal
helium (He4) are made, along with the radioactive form of hydrogen (H3). These reactions can be photoreactions as shown here.
Because the helium nucleus is 28 MeV more bound than the deuterons, and the temperature has already fallen so far that kT =
0.1 MeV, these reactions only go one way.

The reactions at right also produce helium and usually go faster since they do not involve the relatively slow process of photon
emission.

The net effect is shown at right. Eventually the temperature gets so low that the electrostatic repulsion of the deuterons causes
the reaction to stop. The deuteron:proton ratio when the reactions stop is quite small, and essentially inversely proportional to
the total density in protons and neutrons. Almost all the neutrons in the Universe end up in normal helium nuclei. For a
neutron:proton ratio of 1:7 at the time of deuteron formation, 25% of the mass ends up in helium.

STELLAR EVOLUTION & HEAVY ELEMENT FORMATION

Proton-Proton Fusion
Stellar Evolution
– process in which a star changes over time

I. Stellar Nebula
– formed by the coalescing gases; nebula’s gravity causes it to compress in on itself; compression causes parts of
the nebula to break off, creating heat; one of the broken up parts becomes a central ball of superhot gas, a
Protostar
– The Protostar uses the remains of the nebula to grow into its next phase, the Main Sequence.

II. Main Sequence

– massive protostar which reaches a core temperature of 100M K, starts PROTON -PROTON FUSION;
1. Protons fuse
2. one proton is transmuted to a neutron, forming deuterium
3. Deuterium fuses with another proton
4. Two of the resulting helium nuclei fuse
5. An alpha particle forms with the energetic release of two protons to complete the process
– Nuclear fusion combines two lighter nuclei into one heavier nuclei and releases tremendous energy;
Triple Alpha Process
– The star then continues to use up the H in it, turning H into He and releasing energy until no H remains at the core;
–The next stage of evolution depends on the mass of the star: 1) Red Giant – average sized star & 2) Supergiant – massive star

Red Giant
– fuelled by the fusion of H into He
– Once the core temperature of the star reaches 100 million Kelvin, Triple Alpha Process begins fusing He into C
– Once the He in the core is depleted, H and He around the core are ignited.
– caused by the C-12 Fusion cycle

Red Giant: Depletion

The core itself is composed of superheated C and O coming from the Carbon-12 Fusion cycle:
1. C-12 captures a proton, becoming N-13 4. N-14 captures a proton, becoming O-15
2. N-13 releases a positron (e + ) and a 5. O-15 releases a positron (e + ) and a neutrino (v), and becomes N-15
neutrino (v), and becomes C-13 6. N-15 capture a proton and releases an energetic He particle returning to being C-12.
3. C-13 captures a proton, becoming N-14

Red Giant Its core breaks the C12 fusion cycle to produce elements past C, N, and O
– Near the end of its lifetime a red giant will H > He, He > C, C > Ne, Ne >
expel a large quantity of gas and dust known as O, O > Si, Si > Fe
a Planetary Nebula
𝐶 12 + 𝐶 12 → 𝑁𝑒 20 + 𝐻𝑒 4
– This nebula contains He, C, N, O, Ne, and
small amounts of heavier elements. 𝑁𝑒 20 + 𝛾 → 𝑂 16 + 𝐻𝑒 4
– Explains some of the presence of elements in 𝑂 16 + 𝑂 16 → 𝑆𝑖 28 + 𝐻𝑒 4
the universe.
Supergiant

III. Supernova
– Once a sufficient amount of Fe is present in the core, the whole star collapses in a
catastrophic explosion
– Supernova release all the elements previously formed in the star, free neutrons, and a
tremendous amount of energy.
– There is so much energy that fusion of elements heavier than Fe56 is possible
– While all these elements are formed, they are also flung away into the rest of the universe by the force of the supernova explosion

Neutron-Capture Process
𝐹𝑒 56 + 𝑛 → 𝐹𝑒 57 + γ
𝐹𝑒 57 + 𝑛 → 𝐹𝑒 58 + γ
𝐹𝑒 58 + 𝑛 → 𝐹𝑒 59 + γ
– But Fe59 is radioactive and unstable so it undergoes beta decay: 𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒 − + 𝛾
and becomes Co59
– Co59 can also capture a neutron to become Co 60 but this is also radioactive and
unstable so it undergoes beta decay and becomes Ni 60  

History of the Atom

I. The ancient greeks (5th Century B.C.)

1. Empedocles of Acragas (ca 492-432 BC) – Aether is an incorruptible substance that
– He proposed that four fundamental elements 2. Aristotle (ca 384-322 BC) make up the heavenly bodies.
made up all things: Earth, water, air, fire – Added a fifth element: Aether.
 3. Many other philosophers would add their – Air – Blunt, Subtle, Mobile – Leucippus proposed the first ever atomic
own definitions and meanings to these – Water – Blunt, Dense, Mobile theory and Democritus further expanded it.
elements that would be discussed and debated – Earth – Blunt, Dense, Immobile
upon. 4. Leucippus (First Half of the 1st Century BC)
– Fire – Sharp, Subtle, Mobile & Democritus (ca 460-370 BC)

II. Atomic Theory (by Leucippus and Democritus)

1. All matter is composed of Atoms that are too small to be seen and cannot
be split further into smaller portions. 3. Atoms themselves are completely solid.
– There is a lower limit to the division of matter past which humans cannot – Since atoms are indivisible, there can be no void that exists inside of them.
go. – Modern science proved that atoms are composed of subatomic particles
– “atom” = “atomos” or “cannot be cut” which are ALSO composed of even smaller particles

2. There exists void, or the empty space between atoms, in which these 4. Atoms are Homogenous, having no internal structure
atoms can create motion. – Since atoms are absolutely solid, they must be completely homogenous
– If atoms make up all things then all matter would not be able to move – Modern science proved that the subatomic particles that make up an atom
unless there were space for the atoms to move from point to point form a nucleus which is a form of internal structure
– In modern times, scientists would use the word “vacuum” instead of “void”
to describe empty space between atoms (or subatomic particles) 5. Atoms are different in size, shape, and weight.
– According to Democritus, atoms were infinite in both number and in the
varieties of their shapes (rough, hookshaped, concave, convex, etc.).
III. Continutation: The ancient greeks (5th Century B.C.)
1. Aristotle (ca 384-322 BC)
– a highly prominent philosopher at the time, would refute Leucippus and Democritus’ atomic theory.
– Aristotle’s theory that matter was continuous and infinitely divisible would prevail for more than two thousand years. Because Aristotle was more popular than
Leucippus and Democritus.
2. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794)
– Pioneered chemistry as quantitative science
 Law of Conservation of Mass: “Matter is neither created nor destroyed during chemical reaction.” (ex.: 100 g of mercuric oxide = 92.61 g of Hg + 7.39 g of O)
– Discovered and named Hydrogen and Oxygen
3. Joseph Louis Proust (1754 – 1826) 4. Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) 5. John Dalton (1766-1844)
 Law of Definite Proportions / Law of Constant  Electrolysis of Water: Established that Oxygen  Law of Multiple Proportions: “Elements
Proportion: “Compound always contains the and Hydrogen could be created from water combine in more than one set of proportions.”
same elements in certain definite proportions.” (ex.: C combines with O in a mass ratio of 1.00 :
(ex.: Copper Carbonate is composed (by mass) 2.66 to form Carbon Dioxide or 1.00 : 1.33 to
of 57.48% Cu, 5.48% C, 0.91% H, and 36.18% O) form Carbon Monoxide

IV. Dalton’s atomic theory

1. Chemical elements were composed of 3. The atoms of different elements had different weights.
atoms. 4. Atoms combined only in small whole-number ratios, such as 1:1, 1:2, 2:1, 2:3, to form compounds.
2. The atoms of an element were identical in Note: Element – composed of only one kind of atom; Compound – composed of 2 or more kinds of atom
weight.

V. Continutation: The ancient greeks (5th Century B.C.)

6. Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940)
Subatomic Structure
– He discovered that cathode rays are composed of negatively charged particles with mass that is thousand times
smaller than the hydrogen atom
– He claimed that atoms are made up of those negatively charged particles, and formalized the used of the term
“electron” (meaning negatively charged subatomic partic

Plum-Pudding Model of the Atom: Proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1904

– The atom was a positively charged sphere studded with negatively charged electrons.
– This model was challenged by Rutherford. →

7. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)

Gold-Foil Experiment
– Ernest Rutherford’s experiments with alpha particles lead him to propose that there exists a nucleus at the
center of an atom

Nuclear Model of the Atom

– Discovered and proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1911. The atom was a small, heavy nucleus around which
electrons would orbit.
 8. Neils Bohr (1885-1962)
Planetary Model of the Atom
– Discovered and proposed by Neils Bohr in 1913.
– Niels Bohr, a student of both Thomson and Rutherford, further refined their models of atomic structure,
proposing his own.
– Bohr’s theories would become the basis for Quantum Mechanics, which would further explain the nature and
behaviour of atoms.
– The atom is composed of a nucleus orbited by electrons that moved only in restricted, successive orbital shells.
– Suggested that the outer, higherenergy orbits determined the chemical properties of the different elements.

9. Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961)

Electron Cloud Model
– Also known as Quantum Mechanical Model
– Electrons can act as both particles and waves as described by quantum mechanical equations.

Illustration from top to bottom:

* Billiard Ball Model – Dalton
* Plum puddin model – Thomson
* Nuclear Model – Rutherford
* Planetary model – Bohr
* Electron Cloud Model - Schrodinger

Proton Neutron
– Thanks to Thomson’s discovery of the electron, scientists surmised that – Rutherford also proposed the existence of a neutrally-charged subatomic
there must be a particle that carries a positive electrical charge to particle, the neutron
counterbalance the electron’s negative charge – James Chadwick, a student of Rutherford, makes the actual discovery of the
– In 1919, during his experiments in splitting atomic nuclei, Rutherford neutron in 1932.
would discover the proton which comprises the nucleus of a hydrogen atom
– A proton has positive electrical charge and all nuclei have one or more
protons inside of them.

The Subatomic Particle Neutron 1.675 x 10-27 0

Particle Mass, kg Charge The Nucles
Electron 9.109 x 10-31 -1 proton neutron
Proton 1.673 x 10-27 +1 atomic number mass number
electron

Element Notation
6
C
12 He 4
2
– C: Element Symbol
– He: element symbol
– 6: Atomic Number
– 4: mass number
– 12: Mass Number
– 2: Atomic number
• Element Symbol – The symbol for the element on the Periodic table • Atomic Number – The number of Protons in the nucleus
• Mass Number – The total number of Protons and Neutrons in the nucleus • It is understood that the larger of the two numbers is the Mass Number
 ALCHEMY AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO CHEMISTRY
Alchemy
– Pseudoscience combining: Chemistry, Metalworking, Physics, Medicine, Astrology, Mysticism, spiritualism, Art

I. The goals of alchemy II. Alchemy as pseudoscience

1. To create the Elixir of Life: Combined both scientific pursuits with spiritual pursuits and made no distinction
– A concoction that would bring about Health, Wealth, and Immortality between them
2. To create the Philosopher’s Stone: – Some alchemists wanted to learn how to purify metals into gold in order to learn
– A legendary material that could turn base metals like iron and mercury how to purify the human soul
into gold. Lacked a common language for concepts and processes.
– Could be heated and combined with “base” metals to turn them into gold, – Many alchemists ended up borrowing terms from biblical and pagan
mythologies, astrology, and other spiritual arenas.
what alchemists believe to the “purest” metal.
– Made their formulas look more like magic spells and incantations rather than
3. To discover the relationship of humans to the cosmos and use that
chemical equations.
understanding to improve the human spirit. While there were commonly used techniques, alchemists had no standardized,
established scientific practice

– Search for New Elements and their Applications in Medicine and Industry

III. Contributions of Alchemy V. Post-alchemy chemistry

1. Alchemy -> Chemistry: 1. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
– Chemistry as the “Central Science” – French Chemist
– Connects Physics, Geology, and Biology – Believed that the four-element model was wrong
– Compiled a list of metallic and non-metallic elements
2. Alchemy had a hand in establishing several practices in what would later be 2. Dmitri Mendeleev
known as chemical industries: – Russian Chemist
– Basic Metallurgy
– Built up Lavoisier’s observations
– Metalworking
– Demonstrated that the elements can be arranged in a periodic manner
– Production of Inks, Dyes, Paints, and Cosmetics
– Leather-Tanning – Created the Periodic Table
– Preparation of Extracts and Liquors 3. Henry Moseley
3. Zinc Production by Distillation – 4th century Indian Alchemist – English Physicist
4. Isolation of Phosphorous – 17th century German Alchemist –Proved that the elements can be sorted on the periodic table according to
5. Artificial creation of Porcelain – another 17th century German Alchemist their atomic number
– Broke China’s monopoly on the material
VI. CONTINUING THE SEARCH FOR THE PHILOSOPHER’S
6. Among others that helped the societies in which the alchemists were based
STONE
IV. From alchemy to chemistry – University of California–San Francisco biochemists identified a memoryboosting
– 18th Century: Chemistry separated from the field of Alchemy chemical in mice, which might one day be used in humans to improve memory.
– Focused on questions relating to the composition of matter – Cheaper clean-energy technologies could be made possible thanks to a new
– Experimentation based on the Scientific Method discovery by a professor of chemistry at Penn State University.
– Publication of Research Results – The Duke Cancer Institute found that an osteoporosis drug stopped the growth
of breast cancer cells, even in treatment-resistant tumors

Alchemical Symbols
 Three Principles The Four Elements Planets and Metals

Fire

Venus- copper; jupiter – tin; sun – gold; mars – iron; moon – silver;
mercury – quicksilver; saturn – lead

Polarity and IMF


 Polarity – refers to a separation of charge; used to describe a bond or an entire molecule  Molecular Polarities – result from the sum of bond
 Bond Polarities – originate from bonds between atoms of different electronegativity polarities
– result when a highly electronegative atom bonds to a less electronegative atom
2. polar covalent (unequal sharing)
I. Types of Bonds
 Ionic – transfer of e- from one atom to another II. Electronegativity
 Covalent –sharing of e- between atoms – ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond
1. nonpolar covalent (equal sharing) – ability of an atom to attract an electron towards itself
– left to right and bottom to top – increasing electronegativity

III. Polarity Determination of a Bond

Electronegativity
Type of Bond
Difference
0 - 0.3 Nonpolar covalent
0.4 - 1.9 Polar covalent
2.0 or greater Ionic
ANSWER!! 6) NH3 - polar
1) CH4 - polar 7) H2O - polar
2) HCl - polar 8) KCl - ionic
3) NaF - ionic 9) CsF - ionic
4) MgCl2 - polar 10) Cl2 -
5) SO2 - polar
– Fluorine has a strongernonpolar
attraction for the electrons.
They are still shared, but spend more time around the
fluorine giving partial opposite charges to opposite ends
of the bond (a dipole). IV. Polar
– Dipole – two opposite charges separated in space Covalent
Bond and Dipole
 – nonpolar (no dipole) – polar (dipole)
– electrons are evenly – electrons are polarized
distributed toward fluorine

V. Polarity Determination of a Molecule

– Polarity depends on the shape of the molecule
– If one end of a molecule is slightly positive and another end is slightly negative the molecule is polar.
Polar Non Polar ANSWER
1) Water – polar
2) Carbon tetrachloride –
Examples: nonpolar
3) Carbon monoxide – polar
H20 CO2 4) Carbon dioxide – nonpolar
– no polar bonds exist;
5) Ammonia (NH3) – polar
– diatomic molecules made up of atoms of – electrons are shared equally;
– central atom has no lone pairs and all bonded atoms are the 6) Sulfur dioxide – polar
different elements (HCl, HBr, CO);
Definitions: same; and 7)BH3 – nonpolar
– molecules with O, N, or OH at one end -
– Arrangement is symmetrical. 8)PCl3 – polar
asymmetrical (H2O, NH3 , CH3OH) – linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal,
octahedral, square planar

VI. Intermolecular Forces

– determine whether a compound is a solid, liquid or gas at a given temperature (MPs & BPs)
Types of
Hydrogen Bonding Dipole-dipole interaction Dispersion forces
IMF
– caused by the motion of electron
– between the hydrogen atom of one molecule and
– positive end interacting with the negative end – can exist between nonpolar molecules as well as
an electronegative atom of an adjacent molecule
Description of another molecule polar
– dipole interaction with F, O, & N
– similar to but weaker than ionic bonds – weakest IMF but increases with the number of
– strongest IMF
electrons

Illustration

VII. IMF and Melting/Boiling Point

IMF in Liquids & Solids

I. Melting Point vs Boiling Point
– indicators the strength of intermolecular forces present in a substance
 Normal Melting Point (TM) – temperature at  Normal Melting Point (TB) – temperature at  Boiling Point – above: vaporization; below:
which a solid and a liquid coexist at equilibrium which a liquid and a gas coexist at equilibrium condensation
under a pressure of 1 atm under a pressure of 1 atm

III. Melting Point & Boiling Point

II. Phases of Elements at Room Temperature Dispersion Forces – recall: strength depends on the number of electrons
– more electrons = larger molecule; stronger dispersion forces; higher BPs and MPs
 Pentane (C5H12) Decane (C10H22)
BP = 36˚C BP=174˚ C

III. Melting Point & Boiling Point

 Dispersion Forces – recall: strength depends on  Dipole-dipole Interactions – recall: strength increases as the polarity increases
the number of electrons  Hydrogen Bonding – recall: strongest dipole-dipole interaction; H with F, O, & N
– more electrons = larger molecule; stronger !! with d-d interactions and H-bonding, the BP and MP of a given compound increases !!
dispersion forces; higher BPs and MPs

IMF and Liquid Properties

– In solids, molecules, atoms, and ions cannot move freely, but they can vibrate and occasionally rotate.

1. Boiling point and melting point

2. Surface Tension 5. Vapor pressure
– measure of the toughness of the surface of a liquid – small amount of gas found above all liquids;
– surface molecules of a liquid have a net inward force of attraction, forming
– pressure at which dynamic equilibrium is achieved in a closed container
a “skin”;
– stronger intermolecular forces > higher surface tension – stronger IMF > lower pvap

3. Capillary Action
– upward/downward movement of a liquid inside a capillary against the force
of gravity Gas

4. Viscosity
– resistance to flow
– dependent on intermolecular forces Liquid
- length of carbon chain - temperature (e.g. engine oils)
– stronger IMF > higher viscosity
p=0 P<Pvap Equilibrium:
P=Pvap
IMF and
Molecular solids Network Solids Metallic Solids Ionic Solids
solid types
– aggregates of molecules – held together by covalent – bonding of electrons is delocalized – contain cations and anions
bound together by bonds which are harder to break – strength of the bonding is variable strongly attracted to each other
intermolecular forces than IMF – wide range of melting points through interionic forces;
– molecules of the – bonding patterns determine – When a metal changes shape, its
- most ionic solids contain metal
molecular solids retain their the properties of the solid atoms shift position but the energy
Description individual properties – usually durable compounds (e. of these electrons is unaffected. cations and polyatomic ions
– gases under normal g. rubies, sapphires) – Superconductors: ionic solids
conditions, but form solids – high melting points composed of oxides of rare earth
at low temperatures metals: YBa2Cu3O7-x
– low boiling and melting - carry immense electrical current
points without losses due to resistance

Illustration
 Properties of common materials
I. Biomaterials
– Any substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for medical purposes.
– Used in the following:
1. Joint Replacements 7. Skin Repair Devices 13. Vascular Grafts
2. Bone Plates and Bone Cement 8. Cochlear Replacements 14. Stents
3. Artificial Ligaments and Tendons 9. Contact Lenses 15. Nerve Conduits
4. Dental Implants 10. Breast Implants 16. Surgical Sutures, Clips, and Staples
5. Blood Vessel Prostheses 11. Drug Delivery Mechanisms 17. Pins and Screws for fracture stabilization
6. Heart Valves 12. Sustainable Materials 18. Surgical Mesh

II. Medical Devices – A racquet sport played by either two opposing players or two opposing
– Consist of simple devices, test equipment, and implants pairs who take positions on opposite side of a rectangular court that is
– Commonly made of plastic because of light weight, low cost, high divided by a net.
performance – Equipment includes:
– Ex: Surgical Instruments, Catheters, Coronary Stents, Pacemakers, 1. Court (Acrylic)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Machines, X-Ray Machines, Prosthetic 2. Racquets (Aluminum, Boron, Graphite, Nylon)
Limbs, Artificial Hips/Knees, Surgical Gloves, and Bandages 3. Strings (Kevlar, Nylon, Polyester, Vectran)
4. Grips
III. Medical Implants& Prostheses 5. Shuttlecock
 Devices or tissues that placed inside or on the surface of the body 6. Shoes
 May be used to: Replace missing body parts, Deliver Medication, Monitor
body parts, Provide support to organs and tissues VIII. Golf
 Commonly made from: Skin, bone, or other body tissues & Metals, Plastics, – Playing ball with a club from teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or
or Ceramics successive strokes in accordance with the rules
 Selection of materials used is usually based on biocompatibility – Equipment includes:
– The properties of materials being biologically compatible by not eliciting 1. Golf Ball (Polyisoprene)
local or systemic responses from living systems or tissues. 2. Clubs (Steel, titanium, carbon fiber, zinc,, die cast aluminium)
 For metals or metal alloys: 3. Ball Markers
– Susceptibility to corrosion and effect of corrosion on body tissue 4. Tees
– Ex. Stainless steel is least corrosion resistant and is therefore only used for 5. Golf Bag
temporary implants. On the other hand, Titanium and CoCr alloys do not 6. Golf Cart
corrode in the body 7. Towels
8. Club Head Covers
IV. Sports Equipment
9. Ball Mark Repair Tool
– The design of sports equipment relies on: materials science, engineering,
10. Gloves
physics, physiology, and biomechanics and must consider various possible
11. Shoes
characteristics like: 1. Strength, 2. Density, 3. Ductility, 4. Fatigue Resistance,
5. Toughness, 6. Modulus (damping), 7. Cost
– Materials used in the design of these include: Metals, Ceramics, Polymers

V. Polycarbonate
– A strong, shatter-resistant plastic, can also be found in protective sports
equipment.
– Polycarbonate is often used in riding and biking helmets, helping protect
riders. IX. Football
– Polycarbonate is also used in sunglasses and protective visors, which – Team ball game played by both men and women
provide optical clarity as well as shatterresistance. – Equipment includes:
– Polycarbonate lenses can also be found in swim goggles. Cloths
1. Ball (leather, polyurethane, latex, butyl)
VI. Archery 2. Gloves (synthetic leather, rubber, neoprene, cloth)
– The art or practice of propelling arrows using a bow 3. Goal Post (wood, metals)
Electronic Devices
– Equipment include: Bows Arrows Fletchings Bowstring Protective
– Metals are conductors and non-metals are not conductive to electricity
Equipment Release Aids Stabilizers
– Elements between the metals and nonmetals in the periodic table have
properties also between conductive and non-conductive
– These elements can be made into Semiconductors which are widely used in
the creation of modern day electronics.
– Silicon, Germanium, Graphite (carbon), Gallium, Phosphorus, Zinc,
Cadmium
– Ex. Diodes (LEDs)

X. Construction Materials
VII. Badminton
– In an ideal environment, common construction materials are very durable
and can last indefinitely
– Degradation can occur outside of ideal environments 1. Site investigation (find out the nature and extent of damage)
– Design or construction deficiencies 2. Laboratory testing (nature and root cause of the damage)
– Lack of proper maintenance 3. Evaluation of design (protect the materials from further damage)
– Types of Degradation: Chemical Reactions, Consumption by living
organisms, Erosion, Mechanical Wear
XII. Properties of Building Materials
XI. Corrosion Engineering – Suitable for construction works.
– Commonly used construction materials:  Steel  Concrete  Wood – Properties including (but not limited to): Physical Mechaincal Chemical
– Well-known mechanisms of deterioration Electrical Magnetic Thermal
– If the material degrades by some other process:

XIII. Physical Properties of Building Materials – Fireproof materials provide more safety in the case of a fire igniting
1. Bulk Density
– Ratio of the mass of the material to the volume of the same material in its 8. Frost Resistance
natural state and that includes voids and pores – Ability to resist freezing or thawing.
– Influences strength, heat and electrical conductivity, etc. – Dependent on density and bulk density of the material
Building Material Bulk Density (kg/m3) – Denser materials have higher frost resistance
Brick 1600 – 1800 – Moist materials have low frost resistance → Lose strength and become
Sand 1450 – 1650 brittle when frozen
Steel 7850
Heavy concrete 1800 – 2500
Light concrete 500 – 1800
Granite 2500 – 2700 9. Weathering Resistance
– Ability of a material to withstand against all atmospheric actions without
2. Porosity losing strength or shape
– Volume of material occupied by pores or – A factor in determining the durability of a material
– Ratio of volume of pores to volume of material – May be improved by the addition of a paint layer
– Influences strength, thermal conductivity, bulk density, durability, etc
10.Spalling Resistance
3. Durability – Ability of a material to undergo a certain number of cycles of sharp
temperature variations without failing.
– Property of a material to withstand against the combined action of
– Dependent on the coefficient of linear expansion
atmospheric pressure and other factors
– A more durable material has a longer lifespan
– Maintenance cost of the material is dependent on durability 11. Water Aborption
– Capacity of a material to absorb and retain water
4. Density – Dependent on size, shape, and number of the pores in the material
– Ratio of the mass of the material to the volume of the same material in a
homogenous state (no pores or voids) 12. Water Permeability
– Influences almost all other physical properties – Ability of a material to permit water through it
Material Density (kg/m3) – Dense materials (like glass and metal) are impervious meaning water
Steel 7800 – 7900 cannot pass through it
Brick 2500 – 2800
Granite 2600 – 2900 13. Hygroscopity
5. Density Index – Ability of a material to absorb water vapor from the air
– Depends on relative humidity, porosity, air temperature, etc.
– Ratio of the bulk density of a material to the density of the same material
– Volume of completely solid matter in the material
14. Coefficient of Softening
– No fully dense material exists so density index is always less than 1 for any
– Ratio of compressive strength of saturated material to compressive
building material
strength in the dry state
– Affects strength of water absorbent materials → Soil

15. Refractoriness
– Property of material that helps it maintain its shape during prolonged
exposure to very high temperatures (1580°𝐶 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒r)

XIV. Mechanical Properties of Building Materials

1. Strength – capacity of material to resist failure by loads acting on it
6. Specific Gravity 2. Plasticity – ability of a material to retain its shape after a load is applied
and then removed
– Ratio of mass of the material to the mass of water at 4°𝐶 for equal volumes
3. Brittleness – a measure of a material’s failure without the presence of
Material Specific gravity deformation when a load is applied
Steel 7.82 4. Fatigue – a measure of a material’s ability to withstand repeated loads
Cast Iron 7.20 before failing
Aluminum 2.72 5. Impact Strength – ability to withstand sudden loads without rupturing.
– indicator of durability or toughness of the material
7. Fire Resistance 6. Abrasion Resistance
– Ability to withstand against fire without changing its shape or other – ability to withstand loss of material due to the rubbing of particles
properties – Indicator of durability and lifespan of the material
– Tested by the combined actions of water and fire 7. Creep
– A measure of the deformation of material when a constant load is applied 3. Toughness – resistance to breaking by cracking, opposite to “brittle”
for very long period of time 4. Stiffness – amount of force needed to change the shape of a material,
opposite to flexible
XV. Chemical Properties of Building Materials 5. Elasticity – ability to return its original shape when a force is removed (ex;
1. Chemical Resistance
rubber band)
– Ability to resist effects by chemicals such as acids, salts, and alkalis.
– Structures built in the presence of these (acids, salts, alkalis) should be 6. Plasticity – ability to retain the new shape when a force is removed (ex:
made of materials with high chemical resistance plasticene)
2. Corrosion Resistance 7. Absorbency – ability of a material to soak up a liquid
– Ability to resist the chemical reaction for the formation of rust (oxidation of 8. Waterproof – resistance to liquids, repels water
metal) when subjected to atmosphere.
– Can be increase using various treatments and paints
XIX. Ceramics
– Known as brittle solids particularly suited for withstanding high
XVI. Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Building Materials
1. Electrical Properties temperature and temperature changes
– Ability to conduct or resist electricity passing through a material – Properties
– Ex. Wood has high electric resistance. Stainless steel is a good conductor of 1. Durability & Strength
electricity 2. Brittleness
2. Magnetic Properties 3. High electrical and thermal resistance
– Permeability 4. Ability to withstand damaging effects of acids, oxygen, and other chemical
– Hysteresis because of its inertness (chemical unreactivity)
– Ex. Iron is magnetic. Aluminum is nonmagnetic
XVII. Thermal Properties of Building Materials XX. Household Gadgets
1. Thermal Capacity – ratio of heat added/removed from a material to the – Mainly composed of different kinds of plastics (synthetic polymers)
resulting temperature change 1. Polyethylene
2. Thermal Conductivity – ability of a material to let heat pass through it  Plastic bottles
3. Thermal Resistivity – ability of a material to resist heat conduction.  Plastic dinnerware
– reciprocal/Opposite of thermal conductivity  Garden hose
4. Specific Heat
2. Dacron and Nylon
– Quantity of heat required to heat 1N of material by 1°C
 Curtains
 Upholstery
3. Teflon
 Nonstick pans
 Cooking utensils
4. Polyacrylonitrile
 Carpeting
XVIII. The Properties of Materials and their everyday uses
 Clothing
1. Hardness – resistance to scratching and pressure. Hardwood does not
mark as easily as softwood
2. Strength – amount of force needed to break a material usually by pushing
or pulling down