Engineering Graphics

with
AutoCAD

Dhananjay M. Kulkarni
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Group
Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS) Pilani (Goa Campus)

A.P. Rastogi
Former Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS) Pilani

Ashoke K. Sarkar
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
and
Dean, Instruction Division and Faculty Division-I
Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS) Pilani

New Delhi-110001
2009
Rs. 325.00

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS WITH AUTOCAD

Dhananjay M. Kulkarni, A.P. Rastogi, and Ashoke K. Sarkar

© 2009 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in
writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-3783-1

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV, HSIDC,
Kundli-131028, Sonepat, Haryana.
 To
Our parents
for their motivation
Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii

1. Engineering Graphics: An Overview 1–3

Introduction 1
1.1 The Graphic Language 2
1.2 Need of Engineering Graphics 3
1.3 Objectives of Course 3

Part I AutoCAD
2. Computer Aided Drafting 7–35
Introduction 7
2.1 Computer Aided Drafting System 8
2.1.1 Advantages of Computer Aided Drafting 8
2.1.2 Applications of Computer Aided Drafting 8
2.2 AutoCAD: Drafting Software 9
2.2.1 Advantages of AutoCAD R10 9
2.2.2 Key Points and Important Guidelines During Command Operation 9
2.2.3 Getting Started with AutoCAD R10 10
2.3 Initial Setup Commands 11
2.4 Utility Commands 13
2.5 Drawing Aids 14
2.6 Entity Draw Commands 14
2.7 Display Commands 19
2.8 Edit Commands 19
Exercise (Practice of AutoCAD Commands) 25

Part II Projection Techniques

3. Theory of Projection 39–53
Introduction 39
3.1 Elements of Projection 40
3.2 Systems of Projection 40
3.3 Multiview Projection 41
3.4 Single View (Pictorial) Projection 42
3.4.1 Theory of Axonometric Projection 43
3.4.2 Theory of Oblique Projection 45
3.4.3 Theory of Perspective (Convergent) Projection 46
v
vi ® Contents

3.5 Principal Planes of Projection 47

3.6 Methods of Projection 48
3.6.1 III-Quadrant Method of Projection 48
3.6.2 I-Quadrant Method of Projection 50
3.6.3 45° Reference Line Method 51
3.6.4 Symbolic Representation 51
3.7 Indian Standard Institution (ISI) Code of Practice 52
Exercise (You should know) 52
4. Aspects of Technical Drawing 54–69
Introduction 54
4.1 Size of Drawing Sheet 55
4.1.1 ISO ‘A’ Series 55
4.1.2 Oversize Sheet 57
4.1.3 ISO ‘B’ Series 57
4.1.4 Non-metric Paper Sizes 57
4.2 Drawing Formats 58
4.3 Setting Limits for Various Sheet Sizes 59
4.4 Drawing Scale 60
4.5 Various Types of Lines and Their Usage 60
4.6 Lettering 62
4.7 Dimensioning 62
4.8 Basic Types of Dimensioning 63
4.8.1 Linear Dimensioning 63
4.8.2 Angular Dimensioning 66
4.8.3 Radial Dimensioning 66
4.9 Title Block 67
4.9.1 Minimum Common Information Recorded on an Engineering Drawing 68
Exercise 68
5. Orthographic Projections 70–101
Introduction 70
5.1 Orthographic Projections 71
5.2 Types of Surfaces 71
5.2.1 Characteristics of Principal Surface 72
5.2.2 Characteristics of Inclined Surface 72
5.2.3 Characteristics of Skew Surface 72
5.2.4 Characteristics of Curved Surface 73
5.3 Concept of Invisible (Hidden) Line 73
5.4 Representation of Curved Surface 75
5.5 Understanding of Object 75
5.5.1 Object as an Assembly 75
5.5.2 Object as a Single Piece 76
5.6 Precedence of Lines 77
5.7 Selection of Views 77
5.8 Types of Drawing 78
5.8.1 One-view Drawing 78
5.8.2 Two-view Drawing 78
5.8.3 Three-view Drawing 78
5.9 Principles of Multiview Drawing 79
5.10 Steps to Draw Orthographic Views 79
5.10.1 Box Method 79
5.10.2 Centre Line Method 79
Exercise 81
 Contents ® vii

6. Isometric Drawing 102–131

Introduction 102
6.1 Divisions of Pictorial Projection 103
6.2 Divisions of Axonometric Projection 103
6.3 Theory of Isometric Projection 103
6.4 Isometric View and Isometric Drawing 104
6.5 Advantages of Isometric Projection 105
6.6 Disadvantages of Pictorial Drawing 105
6.7 Non-isometric Lines 105
6.8 How to Draw an Isometric Drawing? 106
6.8.1 Setting of AutoCAD Screen 106
6.8.2 Methods to Generate an Isometric Drawing 107
6.8.3 Drawing of Rounded Surface in Isometric Drawing 111
Exercise 120

7. Interpretation of Given Views 132–146

Introduction 132
7.1 Visualisation of an Object with Partial Information 133
7.1.1 Correlation of Surfaces 133
7.1.2 3-D Object Imagination with Assembly or Disassembly Approach 134
7.2 Missing Lines 134
7.3 Missing View 134
7.4 Direction of the Observer for the Precedence of Entities 135
7.5 General Guidelines 136
7.6 Validity of an Object 136
Exercise A (Missing Lines) 140
Exercise B (Missing Views) 145

8. Auxiliary Projections 147–164

Introduction 147
8.1 Need of Auxiliary Views 148
8.2 Types of Auxiliary Projection Planes 149
8.3 Techniques to Obtain Auxiliary Views 151
8.3.1 Traditional Drafting Technique 152
8.3.2 AutoCAD Drafting Technique 152
8.3.3 Traditional Drafting Technique 154
8.3.4 AutoCAD Drafting Technique 154
8.3.5 AutoCAD Drafting Technique 156
8.3.6 AutoCAD Drafting Technique 157
Exercise A (Single Auxiliary View) 161
Exercise B (Double Auxiliary View) 162

Part III Descriptive Geometry

9. Projection of Straight Lines 167–192
Introduction 167
9.1 Object in Four Quadrant 168
9.2 2-D Description of Quadrants 169
9.3 Projections of Point 169
9.4 Projection of Lines 172
9.5 Inclined Lines 174
9.6 Projection of a Skew Line 175
9.7 Line Parallel to PP 184
viii ® Contents

9.8 Traces of Line 185

Exercise A (Projection of Straight Lines) 189
Exercise B (Traces of Straight Lines) 191

10. Projection of Planer Surfaces 193–206

Introduction 193
10.1 Planes Under Study 194
10.2 Classification of Planer Surface 194
10.3 Projection of Planer Surface 195
10.3.1 Principal Planes 195
10.3.2 Inclined Planes 196
10.3.3 Oblique Planes 196
10.4 Traces of Planer Surface 203
Exercise 204

11. Various Measurements 207–222

Introduction 207
11.1 Various Measurements 208
11.2 End View of a Line 208
11.3 Distance between a Point and a Line 210
11.4 Shortest Distance between Two Parallel Lines 211
11.5 Intersecting and Non-intersecting Lines 212
11.6 Precedence of Lines 214
11.7 Inclination between Two Lines 215
11.8 Line View of a Plane 217
11.9 Distance between a Point and a Plane 218
11.10 Angle between Two Skew Planes 219
11.11 Angle between a Line and a Plane 221
Exercise 222

12. Projections of Solids 223–246

Introduction 223
12.1 Division of Engineering Solids 224
12.2 Polyhedra 224
12.2.1 Regular Polyhedra 224
12.2.2 Irregular Polyhedra 224
12.3 Solids of Revolution 225
12.4 Projections of Solids 226
12.5 Axis Inclined to One Reference Plane and Parallel to the Other 233
12.6 Transfer of Point(s) from One View to Another 239
Exercise A (Projection of Solids in Simple Position) 243
Exercise B (Projection of Solids with Axis Inclined to One Reference Plane and
Parallel to the other) 245
Exercise C (Transfer of Points) 246

13. Sections of Solids 247–261

Introduction 247
13.1 Section and Section Planes 248
13.2 Types of Section Planes 249
13.3 True Shape of a Section 254
Exercise A (Section of Solids) 257
Exercise B (True Shape of Section) 258
 Contents ® ix

14. Development of Surfaces of Solids 262–283

Introduction 262
14.1 Theory of Development 263
14.2 Methods of Development 263
14.2.1 Parallel-line Development 263
14.2.2 Radial-line Development 265
14.3 Development of Lateral Surfaces Along with Base 275
14.4 Reverse Development 276
Exercise A (Development of Surfaces of Solids) 278
Exercise B (Reverse Development) 282

15 Intersection of Surfaces 284–313

Introduction 284
15.1 Line of Intersection 285
15.2 Rule for Visibility 287
15.3 Intersection of Lines and Solids 287
15.4 Intersection of Plane versus Plane 289
15.5 Intersection of Surfaces of Two Solids 292
15.5.1 Initial Steps 292
15.6 Interpenetration of Two Solids 295
15.6.1 Initial Steps to Solve the Interpenetration Problem 296
Exercise A (Point of Intersection and Line of Intersection) 307
Exercise B (Intersection of Two Solids) 308
Exercise C (Interpenetration of Two Solids) 310

16. Freehand Sketching 314–323

Introduction 314
16.1 Importance of Freehand Sketches 315
16.2 Basic Skills 315
16.3 Proportion in Sketching 315
16.4 Sketching Straight Lines 316
16.5 Sketching Circles, Arcs and Fillets 316
16.6 Sketching Orthographic Views 318
16.7 Sketching Isometric Views 318
16.7.1 Sketching of Isometric Circles in Isometric Block 319
16.7.2 Sketching of Isometric Cylinders 320
Exercise 322

Index 325–326
Preface

Engineering Graphics is the language of the engineers. An engineer requires skill in three areas of
engineering or technical drawing: firstly, he must be proficient to use the tools to produce the
drawings. Secondly, he must be able to draw freehand technical sketches clearly and rapidly.
Thirdly, he must be able to read a drawing.
The need for writing internal course notes on Engineering Graphics was felt in 1998, when the
course was made fully online at BITS Pilani. It did not follow the usual sequence of topics followed
in the traditional method of teaching the course. It had been found to be very successful over the
years. The internal course notes were produced in the way it is being taught at BITS. The present
edition of the book is based on those course notes. Though the book is written on AutoCAD as a
drafting tool, it can be successfully used by the readers following traditional drafting instruments.
The contents in this volume have been divided into three parts. Part I deals with the basic
commands of AutoCAD. It is a widely used drafting package for engineers and architects. It is,
therefore, believed that some hands-on experience in AutoCAD will not only help the students in
learning Engineering Graphics, but also will help them to maintain their cutting edge in the
professional job market. Part II contains the various projection techniques used in engineering for
technical drawings. These techniques have been explained with a number of graphical
representations so that the students can understand the techniques easily. Part III contains
descriptive geometry which mainly deals with three dimensional objects that require imagination.
In this book, the model solutions and exercises have been treated in the third-angle as well as
the first-angle methods of projection according to the revised code of Indian Standard Code of
Practice for General Drawing. All drawings and the textual matter are in conformity with the
specifications of Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S.), adopted from I.S.O.
Engineering graphics is not only engineering and science, but also an art of imagination. The
engineering and science can be taught in the class, but the art of imagination can be inculcated by
practising as many exercises as possible. For best results, it is suggested that the exercises should
be solved in practical classes under the supervision of the instructors.
The authors would welcome any constructive suggestions from the readers of this book at
[email protected].

Dhananjay M. Kulkarni
A.P. Rastogi
Ashoke K. Sarkar

xi
Acknowledgements

This book, Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD, is the final outcome of an idea that was originated
in year 2002, when we undertook the task of writing the subject course notes. During the last seven
years we have put in our efforts to produce the revised versions of the course notes, with the help
and support of many well-wishers. Thanks are due for all who have directly or indirectly contributed
to this work.
We thank Prof. L.K. Maheshwari, Vice Chancellor, Prof. K.E. Raman, Director, BITS Pilani, Goa
campus, Prof. V.S. Rao, Director, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad campus and Prof. M. Ramachandran,
Director, BITS Pilani, Dubai campus for providing us the opportunity to bring out this book. Sincere
appreciation is extended to Prof. R.K. Patnaik, former Dean, Instruction Division, BITS Pilani, who
suggested us to write a book.
We acknowledge the inspiration and support of the students and colleagues over the years that
have led to the writing of this book. We are grateful to the colleagues who have been teaching the
course in BITS Pilani, Dubai, Goa and Hyderabad campuses. Their solicitous comments and
feedback were of great assistance in planning and developing the contents of this text.
We are also grateful to Prof. M.S. Dasgupta for permitting us to use the handouts and problem
sheets that he developed along with Prof. A.P. Rastogi after the course was made fully online at
BITS Pilani.
We are also indebted to the Editor, Ms. Shivani Garg; Copyeditor, Ms. Koyel Chakraborty and
Assistant Production Manager, Mr. Pankaj Manohar of PHI Learning for their guidance and
assistance in developing and producing this work.
Special thanks are extended to Mr. Shreenivasa Paramahamsa and Mr. Avinash Sonee,
students of BITS Pilani, Goa campus, who had initially conceived the concept of the cover page.
Finally, we extend profound and heartfelt thanks to our family members. Without their
encouragement, patience and understanding this endeavour would not have been possible. The first
author would like to express his deep affection and thanks to his parents-in-law, elder brother, wife
Reshma and daughters Vedashree and Sanika for their constant persuasion and moral support.

Dhananjay M. Kulkarni
A.P. Rastogi
Ashoke K. Sarkar

xiii
1
Engineering Graphics:
An Overview

Objectives
® Knowing Engineering Graphics as a subject.
® Learning the graphic language.
® Need of Engineering Graphics.

Introduction
Engineering Graphics is the field of solving graphical problem and includes two areas of
specialisation: working drawings and descriptive geometry. Other areas that can be used for a
wide variety of applications are nomography, graphical mathematics, empirical equations,
technical illustration, vector analysis, data analysis and computer graphics. Graphics is one of
the designer’s primary methods of thinking, solving problems and communicating ideas.

1
2 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Gaspard Monge (1746–1818)

Gaspard Monge (1746–1818) is the “father of descriptive geometry”. While a military student in
France, young Monge used the graphical methods to solve design problems related to fortifications
and battlements. He was scolded by his headmaster for solving problems graphically instead of the
usual (long and tedious) mathematical process. Only after long explanations and comparisons of
both methods’ solutions, Mongue was able to convince that his graphical methods solved problems
in considerably less time. Descriptive geometry was such an improvement upon the mathematical
method that it was kept a military secret for fifteen years before it was allowed to be taught as part
of the technical curriculum. Monge became a scientific and mathematical aide to Napolean during
his reign as the Emperor of France.

1.1 The Graphic Language

People learned to draw pictures of the objects around them long before they learned to write.
Drawings carved by primitive people on rocks, the walls of caves and so forth have survived to our
day. Many drawings of human beings, animals, fish and so on, made by our forefathers thousands
of years ago, have been found on the eastern shore of lake Onega and on the shores of the White
Sea. These drawings were carved on granite rocks with stone (flint) tools. The ability to make simple
drawings helped man to develop his first written language. There were no words or characters in
ancient writing. Ideas of things were conveyed by pictures of the things themselves.
Engineering drawing is a graphic language, a universal language, a language of use and of ever-
increasing value. Like every other systematised language it has its rules of grammar. To express
ourselves in a literate fashion, we must master, as it were, laws of syntax and of concord. Just as
in our English books we are warned against the improper use of words in sentences, likewise, in
our study of engineering drawing we shall be warned against the improper use of lines in drawings.
Each word in a well-constructed sentence has its function; each line on a well-executed drawing has
its function too. Drawings, then, to those initiated into the language, become articulate vehicles of
expression between the drawing-office and workshop, between the textbook and the student.
With a very little application we shall master the rules of the universal graphic language, and thus
be able to not only express ourselves in it on drawing paper, but also to understand the expression
of it by another. In a word, we set out to learn to draw so that our ideas may readily be interpreted
by others and to read drawings so as to gather a clear mental picture of what another wishes to
convey to us.
 CHAPTER 1: Engineering Graphics: An Overview ® 3

1.2 Need of Engineering Graphics

Without a good knowledge of engineering graphics, engineers and scientists are nowhere. An
engineer or a scientist needs skill in three areas: firstly, he must be able to imagine; secondly, he
must be able to draw clearly and rapidly; thirdly, he must be able to read the drawings drawn by
others. This course develops imagination skill, drawing skill and reading skill in the early part of
engineers’ education, which is repeatedly used in successive courses.
Engineering design uses engineering graphics as the way to communicate and document ideas.
By studying engineering graphics, student becomes aware of how the industry communicates
technical information. Engineering graphics teaches the principles of accuracy and clarity in
presenting the information necessary to produce products. It offers students an insight into the
methods of attacking engineering and scientific problems. Its lessons teach the principles of
accuracy, exactness and positiveness with regard to the information necessary for the production of
non-existing object or structure. Finally, it develops the imagination skill that is essential to the
creation of successful design.

1.3 Objectives of Course

Engineers and scientists are constantly engaged in creative and productive work. Rapid advances
in technological world demand engineers and scientists to invent new devices, to improve existing
ones, to optimise the use of resources and to reduce the time and cost of production. Proficiency
in Engineering Graphics will be of considerable aid in achieving these aims.
The objective of this course is to develop a clear understanding of the basic principles involved
in engineering drawings. The basic principles of Engineering Graphics help an engineer and scientist
in communicating their ideas through engineering drawings. Apart from basic principles, this course
teaches the use of standardised practices and conventions in the preparation of engineering
drawings.
PART I
AutoCAD
2
Computer Aided Drafting

Objectives
® Study of AutoCAD software for the Engineering Graphics course.
® Know the required AutoCAD commands for the course.
® Practice AutoCAD commands to acquire a drawing skill.

Introduction
An engineering drawing is prepared by using conventional tools. Traditionally, drawing board,
drafter, T-square, drawing sheet and other drafting instruments have been used. The popular
alternative now is to prepare engineering drawing with the aid of computer. This method is
known as Computer Aided Drafting and is abbreviated as CAD. The CAD requires computer
hardware and drawing software. The user needs a good training on the drawing software, which
can reduce the time of drawing. The advantages, applications of computer aided drafting
system and the required commands for Engineering Graphics course are covered in this
Chapter.

7
8 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

2.1 Computer Aided Drafting System

A computer aided drafting system consists of computer hardware (CPU, monitor, key board and
mouse) and drawing software. This system totally eliminates the traditional equipments like drawing
board, drafter, scales, various grades of pencils etc. More important is this system completely
eliminates a human skill of drawing. The well known software used for engineering drawing is
AutoCAD developed by a company AutoDesk.
An engineer designing a new engineering element (machine/building/electronic circuit) can view
a drawing on the screen. He can make the drawing to turn slowly, thus providing different views. He
can quickly make changes, which will be instantaneously shown on the screen. The changes will
also get recorded in the storage. He can reduce or enlarge any part of the drawing and can show
the various components in different colours. He can also test the performance of the design through
a simulation exercise. Overall, the design cycle is reduced drastically and the new car can be on
the road in a remarkably short time.

2.1.1 Advantages of Computer Aided Drafting

There are many advantages of computer aided drafting system over the traditional drafting system.
A few advantages are listed over here.
1. The computer has tremendous speed and it has almost unlimited storage and rapid recall
capabilities. This results in reduction of drafting labour and drafting time.
2. The drawing can be stored in 'database' for future use by different programmers for variety
of applications.
3. With the ability to interact with the computer, we can quickly correct a drawing error and see
a revised picture on the graphic screen.
4. Visual modeling of any object or engineering component is possible.
5. When we use computer aided drawing for a drawing containing the same component at
several places, we can draw the component once and then insert it wherever needed.
6. Colour graphics help to display more distinct information on the screen, highlight certain
important features, etc.
7. The computer aided drawing can be exported to commercial analysis software for analysis
purpose.
8. Computer aided design and drafting is used in the creation, modification, analysis and
optimization of designs for improved engineering productivity. An engineer can try out
different design ideas by just sitting at the terminal without making any prototype.

2.1.2 Applications of Computer Aided Drafting

Computer aided drawing applications in various fields of engineering are given here.
(i) Mechanical: Design of machine elements, CNC machine tools, Robotics.
(ii) Automotive: Kinematics, Hydraulics, Steering.
(iii) Electrical: Circuit layout, Panel design, control system.
(iv) Electronics: Schematic diagrams of PCs, Ics, etc.
(v) Communication: Communication network, satellite transmitting pictures, T.V. telecasting.
(vi) Civil: Mapping, contour plotting, building drawing, structural design.
(vii) Architectural: Town planning, interior decorations, multi storyed complex.
(viii) Aerospace: Design of spacecraft, flight simulator, lofting, etc.
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 9

2.2 AutoCAD: Drafting Software

AutoDesk, the developer of ‘AutoCAD software’ is the world-leading supplier of computer aided
design and drawing software packages. The AutoCAD automates repetitive design and drawing
tasks. We can create and erase drawing with ease. Since its inception in 1982, the company has
introduced a family of software packages for use in a wide range of industries. It has hit the technical
world like a shock wave, revolutionizing the manner of drawing operation. Any technical person can
use this software with ease and without bothering to learn computer programming.
In October, 1988, AutoDesk launched AutoCAD release 10 (R10) with 3-D enhancement was
launched, which become very popular in DOS based system. The present version is ‘AutoCAD2008’.
For a first year course on Engineering Drawing, instead of windows based version of AutoCAD
software, the DOS based version is used. It offers many advantages.

2.2.1 Advantages of AutoCAD R10

R10 graphic screen is broad and suitable for the basic course of engineering drawing. This graphic
screen helps to accommodate number of drawings for practical assignments as well as for online
examinations. AutoCAD, R10 is both command based and menu based version. Like the windows
based version of AutoCAD, icons are not present in R-10. It teaches basics of 2-D and 3-D drawing
and solid modeling which is easy to learn for first year students. The R10 version is now open source
software and can be downloaded from internet.
The commands which are required only for course on Engineering Graphics are explained here
as it appears in the AutoCAD software. The commands are shown with the help of capital letters
throughout the text book wherever these are required to mention. The features of response of
required command during command operation are explained here.

2.2.2 Key Points and Important Guidelines During Command Operation

1. AutoCAD does not have any unit like meter or millimeter. It has got its own unit called as
AutoCAD unit.
2. Prompt means an instruction or symbol asking user to implement the next operation.
3. The input at the command prompt is case insensitive (capital letters or small letters can be
input).
There are only two important instructions for user. These instructions are enclosed in
square bracket as shown in (4) and (5).
4. [Enter] to instruct ‘Press Enter Key’
5. [Select ……….] to instruct ‘Select Object’. The cursor is converted into a target box … to
select entity (object) in AutoCAD.
6. The parenthesis is used for user (information) during command steps.
7. Text in angle bracket e.g. <Diameter> gives a default option.
8. Other options are shown separated by an oblique sign: Xyz/Pqr/Abc <lmn>:
In this response shown above, the lmn option is a default option. To activate other options
first capital letter is required to be typed. e.g. to activate Xyz option, X needs to be typed and
to activate Pqr option, P needs to be typed.
9. Use of Mouse for AutoCAD software (Fig. 2.1).

(a) Left button

(i) To select object
(ii) To select location
(iii) To create a window to cover an object or number of objects
10 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

(b) Right button

(i) Instead of Enter Key this is used, wherever [Enter] instruction is given.
(ii) To cancel current command.
(iii) To carry forward just previous command used instead of typing the same.

(c) Mouse is required to be dragged to create a window or to displace an object from one location to
another location.

Right

Left

Fig. 2.1 Use of mouse in AutoCAD.

2.2.3 Getting Started with AutoCAD R10

The version R10 of AutoCAD is a DOS (Disc Operating System) based software. Let the DOS
prompt C:\> appear on the screen (prompt means instruction or symbol asking user to implement
the next operation). Follow the given procedure
C:\>cd acad10
C:\ACAD10> acad
(Now we will reach to main menu of AutoCAD 10)
0. Exit AutoCAD
1. Begin a NEW drawing
2. Edit an EXISTING drawing
3. Plot a drawing
4. Printer plot a drawing
5. ConFig. AutoCAD
6. File utilities
7. Compile shape/font description file
8. Convert old drawing file
Enter selection: 1 [Enter]
Enter name of drawing: 9A312201 [Enter]
The name of drawing file is designed for BITS format. The name of drawing can accommodate
maximum eight digits. In the given format, the first digit indicates a year of admission. Second and
third digits indicate the branch of Engineering/Science. Fourth, fifth and sixth digits indicate an
identity number which is unique for a particular year of admission. Last two digits indicate the
assignment number.
(Now we will enter into main AutoCAD screen)
Figure 2.2 shows an outline of R-10 AutoCAD graphic screen. There are four regions: Pull down
menu on the top, Main menu on the right, drawing area for drawing objects and command prompt
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 11

Fig. 2.2 Graphic screen of R-10 AutoCAD.

region. There are two options for drawing. We can use menu to reach to a required command or
its options. Otherwise, we can use a required AutoCAD command directly at the command prompt.
AutoCAD users are encouraged to use command at the command prompt than the menu option for
Engineering Graphics. In menu option, one has to enter into depth to search for a particular option.
The command option reduces the search time to a great extent.
All higher version of AutoCAD are windows based. A snap shot of R14 version of AutoCAD is
shown in Fig. 2.3.

2.3 Initial Setup Commands

Initial setup commands are used to set technical aspect of drawing sheet. Various technical aspects
of drawing sheet are discussed in Chapter-4 in detail.

LIMITS
This command is used to set the limits of the rectangular graphic screen area i.e. the X and Y
coordinate limits. For all drawing assignments we will be using full screen limits to create maximum
drawing area.
Command: LIMITS [Enter]
ON/OFF/<Lower left corner> <0.0000,0.0000>: [Enter]
Upper right corner <11.5, 8.00>: [select upper-right corner]
The limits shown in angle bracket are defined in AutoCAD unit. The limits of rectangular area are
set as per the drawing sheet size. This is discussed in Chapter-4 in detail.
12 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 2.3 R-14 AutoCAD graphic screen.

GRID
This command is used to introduce non-printing equally spaced grids (dots) in the workspace area
defined by the LIMITS command. The grid spacing in X- and Y-directions can be specified. Two
grids define one grid spacing. Four grid spacing (5 grids) define 1 AutoCAD unit. Therefore, one grid
spacing is 0.25 AutoCAD unit. We will use grid at a spacing of 0.25 units, as in the grid paper shown
in Annexure.
Command: GRID [Enter]
Grid spacing (X) or ON/OFF/Snap/Aspect <current>: 0.25 [Enter]

SNAP
This command is used to set the movement (or jumping) of cursor on the graphic screen from one
grid point to adjacent grid point.
Command: SNAP [Enter]
Snap spacing or ON/OFF/Aspect/Rotate/Style <1.0000>:0.25 [Enter]

AXIS
The AXIS command controls the display of axis, or ruler lines, along the edge of the graphics
display.
Command: AXIS [Enter]
Tick spacing (X) or ON/OFF/Snap/Aspect <0.0000>: 0.25 [Enter]
Using initial setup commands, the plotting area is prepared as shown in Fig. 2.4.
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 13

TOOLS DRAW MODIFY DISPLAY SETTINGS OPTIONS FILE HELP AutoCAD

****
Set up

BLOCKS
DIM
DISPLAY
DRAW
EDIT
INQUIRY
LAYER
SETTINGS
PLOT
UCS
UTILITY

3D
ASHADE
SAVE
Loading acad.lsp…loaded
Loaded menu C:\ACAD.mnx
Command:

Fig. 2.4

2.4 Utility Commands

These are general commands which are used to operate the drawing file.

HELP
This command is used to know more about a specific command. Type HELP followed by command
name for the on-line help about that command. The help will be displayed on to a text screen, which
is at the back of graphic screen. In order to flip back to the graphics screen, function key F1 is
pressed. Following command explanation shows help for a DRAW command.
Command: HELP DRAW [Enter]
(Now you will reach to back of graphics screen where the explanation of DRAW command will be
available.

END
This command is used to exit from drawing file. This command will save the file automatically and
main menu will appear on the screen.
Command: END [Enter]

QUIT
The QUIT command exits from the Drawing Editor, discarding all updates to the current drawing, and
returns you to the main menu. To exit entirely, select item 0 from the main menu.
14 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Command: QUIT [Enter]

Really want to discard all changes to drawing? (Y/N)
If YES is replied then the changes are discarded. It is advised not to use this command. The
END command is always preferred over the QUIT command, which ends the drawing process and
saves the changes automatically.

SAVE
This command is used to save the drawing file. This command should be used frequently in order
to save changes and to avoid power failure problem if any.
Command: SAVE [Enter]
SAVE<current file name>: filename [Enter]
Make use of either right button of mouse OR Ctrl + C keys together to interrupt the drawing process
and return to the command prompt.

2.5 Drawing Aids

There are various control modes, which are frequently required while drawing. These are operated
by function keys, which are also called as toggle keys.

Function key Use of function or toggle keys

F1 To flip back to text screen from graphic screen and vice a versa.
F6 To turn the coordinates ON or OFF
F7 To turn the grid ON or OFF
F8 To turn Ortho ON or OFF. In Ortho ON mode, only orthogonal (horizontal or
vertical) cursor movement is possible. The default setting is OFF. If OFF,
angular movement of cursor is responded.
F9 To turn the snap ON or OFF. If ON, the cursor jump from one grid to another
grid. If OFF, the cursor can move with a fine movement.

2.6 Entity Draw Commands

POINT
This command is used to specify a point on an object. The appearance of point in drawing is
governed by the PDMODE & PDSIZE system variable. PDMODE command sets the mode of point
as per requirement. Two important modes of POINT are cross (x) mode and plus (+) mode. PDSIZE
command sets the size (height and width) of point entity.

Command: PDMODE [Enter]

PDMODE: 3 [Enter]
Command: PDSIZE [Enter]
PDSIZE: 0.25 [Enter]
Command: POINT [Enter]
POINT: [Select mid point location of length and height of rectangle]
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 15

LINE
The LINE command is used to draw a straight line. Line can be drawn by providing with the
coordinate of a point (we will be using 2 D points only) or by selecting x-y location with the left button
of mouse.

Command: LINE [Enter]

From point: [select P1]
To point: [select P2]
To point: [select P3]
To point: [select P4]

Other options to draw line:

1. C: This option draws a line from the last point to the first point
entered when the LINE command was invoked and makes a
polygon. Previous To point prompt is continued here to explain
this option.
To point: [select point say P4]
To point: C [Enter]

2. U: While LINE command is in operation (i.e. at To Point prompt),

use of UNDO command undoes the last line drawn.
To point: U [Enter]
3. LINE from or to specific point
Command: LINE [Enter]
From point: [select A]
To point: [select B]
To point: [select C]
To point: Mid (for mid point location of AB) [Enter]
Mid point of: [select line 'AB' with target box]
To point: Per (for perpendicular location) [Enter]
Per to: [select line 'BC' with target box]
To point: End (for end point location) [Enter]
End point of: [select line AB with target box, near to A]
To point: Tan (for tangent location) [Enter]
Tan to: [select arc with target box]
To point: Cen (for center location) [Enter]
Center of: [select arc with target box]
To point: Int (for intersection location) [Enter]
Intersection of: [select intersection point of CM & AP]
To point: [Ctrl + C or click right button of mouse to come to
command prompt]
4. Using length and angle
This option is used to draw a line of specific length at specific
angle. E.g. it is required to draw a line of 2.25 AutoCAD unit at
an angle of 30°.
The angle is measured from +ve X-axis in anticlockwise
direction.
Command: LINE [Enter]
From point: [select P]
To point: @2.25<30 [Enter]
16 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

CIRCLE
This command is used to draw a circle based on input of a center point and diameter or radius.
Three more options to draw a circle are also explained here.
Command: CIRCLE [Enter]
3P/2P/TTR/<Center Point>: [select center point location]
Diameter/<Radius>: [drag the mouse for required radius and click
left button]
In this example, radius of circle is 1 AutoCAD unit (4 grid spacings).
1. TTR option
Circle C1 & C2 are drawn. It is required to draw a circle C3 with
0.75 AutoCAD unit radius and tangent to C1 & C2.
Command: CIRCLE [Enter]
3P/2P/TTR/<Center Point>: TTR [Enter]
Enter tangent specification: [select circle C1]
Enter second tangent specification: [select circle C2]
Radius: 0.75 [Enter]

2. Use of 2P (2 points) option to draw a circle

Command: CIRCLE [Enter]
3P/2P/TTR/<Center Point>: 2P [Enter]
First point on diameter: [select P]
Second point on diameter: [select Q]
3. Use of 3P (3 points) option to draw a circle
Command: CIRCLE [Enter]
3P/2P/TTR/<Center Point>: 3P [Enter]
First point: [select P]
Second point: [select Q]
Third point: [select R]

ARC
This command is used to draw an arc based on input of center point and diameter or radius.
Command: ARC [Enter]
<Start point>/center: C (for center option) [Enter]
Center point: [select O]
Start point: [select P1]
End point : [select P2]
The other available options are:
1. 3 points
2. Start, Center, End (SCE)
3. Start, Center, Angle (SCA)
4. Start, Center, Length (SCL)
5. Start, End, Angle (SEA)
6. Start, End, Direction (SED)
7. Start, End, Radius (SER)
8. Center, Start, End (CSE) explained here
9. Center, Start, Angle (CSA)
10. Center, Start, Length (CSL)
CSE is a frequently used option in Engineering Graphics.
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 17

POLYGON
This command is used to draw a regular triangle, square, pentagon and hexagon. A polygon is a
poly-line object. AutoCAD draws poly-lines with zero width. It can draw regular 2-D polygons with
3 to 1024 sides.
Command: POLYGON [Enter]
Number of sides: 3 [Enter]
Edge/<Center of Polygon>: E [Enter]
First endpoint of edge: [select point P1]
Second endpoint of edge: [select point P2]
Depending upon the selection of location of P1 and P2, polygon
with various orientations can be drawn.

To draw a POLYGON of specific edge length and of specific

orientation.
Command: POLYGON [Enter]
Number of sides: 4 [Enter]
Edge/<Center of Polygon>: E [Enter]
First endpoint of edge: [select P1]
Second endpoint of edge: @1.5<30 [Enter]

PLINE
This command is used to draw a poly-line i.e. continuous line segments. The number of segments
drawn in one operation becomes a single entity. User can control the width of PLINE.
Command: PLINE [Enter]
From point: [select P1]
Current line width is 0.0000 [Enter]
Arc/Close/Half width/Length/Undo/Width/<Endpoint of line>:
W [Enter]
Starting width <0.0000>: 0.025 [Enter]
Ending width <0.000>: 0.025 [Enter]
Arc/Close/Half width/Length/Undo/width/<Endpoint of line>:
[select P2]

Similarly, a PLINE with width 0.05 AutoCAD unit is drawn. The PLINE command can be used to
draw a taper line as shown. The PLINE command is used to draw a series of lines as shown. The
PEDIT command is used to fit a smooth curve passing through all key points of series of lines.

HATCH
This command is used to show a cut section of an engineering solid. This command is also used
to HATCH two adjacent areas which are made from different materials. You can fill a boundary that
consists of an object or objects that completely enclose an area. The area to be hatched should have
closed boundary. There are various patterns to hatch the area. In Engineering Graphics, we use a
Universal (U) pattern to show the sections of solids. Other patterns are shown in Plate 2.9.
Command: HATCH [Enter]
Enter pattern name [?/Solid/User defined] <U>: U (for universal pattern) [Enter]
Angle for crosshatch lines <0>: 45 [Enter]
Spacing between lines <1.00>: 0.125 [Enter]
18 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Double hatch area? <N>: [Enter] (for No option)

Select objects: [select inner square in case 1 and both, inner and
outer in case 2]
If two cut sections are adjacent to each other then hatch lines in two
sections should be mutually perpendicular to each other as shown in
case-3.

DTEXT
This command is used to describe an object or specify notes on electronic drawing sheet. You can
enter several lines of text using DTEXT. Each line of text is a separate object.
Command: DTEXT [Enter]
Justify/Style/ <Start point>: [select location]
Height <0.200>: [specify required value]
Rotation angle <0>: [specify required]
Text: 2001C6PS337 [Enter]
Text: Balaji Rao K [Enter]
Text: BITS-Pilani
Text: Rajasthan [press enter to end the text command]

With the DTEXT command, we can prepare the title block. Now we are ready to prepare our
standard file. In Fig. 2.5, we can draw a border line using a LINE command and ORTHO ON option.
We can draw a title block with the help of a LINE command. We can type required text in the title
block. This is shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 19

2.7 Display Commands

REDRAW
This command is used to redraw the screen and to remove any non-printing marks left by previous
commands. This command should be used frequently to keep the drawing file clear.
Command: REDRAW
Instead of REDRAW, R can be used as a short form to activate the command.

ZOOM
This command is used to increase the apparent size of object in the current view port.

Command: ZOOM [Enter]

All/Center/Dynamic/Extents/Left/Previous/Window/
<Scale (x)>: W [Enter]
First corner: [select upper left location outside the Fig.]
Other corner: [select lower right location outside the Fig.]

Normal view Zoomed view

Three options are useful for Engineering Graphics. A is for All, P is for Previous and W is for
Windows. The Previous option is used to reach to the previous view port. The All option is used to
reach a normal screen view. The user is always advised to edit a particular object in zoomed view
in order to be able to draw comfortably with AutoCAD and thereby reduce the time of drawing.

2.8 Edit Commands

ERASE
AutoCAD removes objects from the drawing. If it is a single entity then a target box (…) can be used
to select a particular object to be removed. Otherwise a window is created to cover number of
objects.
Command: ERASE [Enter]
Select objects: [select desired objects to erase with target box]
Select objects: [select another object to erase]
Select objects: [press enter to end the object selection process if it is over]
Command: ERASE (with windows option for more than one object)
Select objects: W [Enter]
First corner: [select point nearest to top-left of the object]
Other corner: [select point nearest to bottom-right of the object]
Select objects: [press enter here to end the selection process or click a right button of mouse]

OOPS
OOPS restores objects erased by the last ERASE command.
Command: OOPS [Enter]
20 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

UNDO (U for UNDO)

With UNDO command, whatever is done in previous command is undone. e.g. if an object is drawn
in the previous command, UNDO command removes the same. On the other hand, if an object is
erased in the last command, the UNDO command restores the same. However OOPS command
restores only the last erased object.

MOVE
This command displaces object from current location to the desired location with a specified distance
in a specified direction without changing the orientation and size.
Command: MOVE [Enter]
Select objects: W [Enter]
First corner: [select]
Other corner: [select]
Base point or displacement: [select O1]
Second point of displacement: [select O2]
Instead of giving displacement in terms of numerical value in AutoCAD unit, we use a base point
option. The base point is to be carefully selected, as this is the point with respect to which the object
is moving. Generally the base point should be either corner or center of the object.

COPY
This command is used to duplicate object(s). The response steps of this COPY command are similar
to the MOVE command. In this case, an original object remains in its position and only a replica of
an object is moved to the second point of displacement. There are two options: single copy and
multiple copies.
1. Single copy
Command: COPY [Enter]
Select objects: W [Enter]
First corner: [select top-left corner outside the object]
Other corner: [select bottom-right corner outside the object]
Select object : [Enter here if the selection is over]
<Base point or displacement>/Multiple: [select O1]
Second point of displacement: [select O2]

2. Multiple copy
Command: COPY [Enter]
Select objects: W [Enter]
First corner: [select top-left corner outside the object]
Other corner: [select bottom-right corner outside the object]
Select objects: [Enter]
<Base point or displacement>/Multiple: M [Enter]
Base point: [select O1]
Second point of displacement: [select O2]
Second point of displacement: [select O3]
Second point of displacement: [select O4]
Second point of displacement: [Enter]

ROTATE
This command is used to move an object to a new angular position (orientation) about a base point.
The rotation angle can be entered relative to a line or as an absolute angle measured counter
clockwise from the original poison. Following example shows, the rotation of a square through 45°
in ccw direction about base point ‘B’.
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 21

Command: ROTATE [Enter]

Select objects: [select object by target box or W option)
Select objects: [Enter]
Base point: [select B]
<Rotation angle>/reference: 45 [Enter]
The angular position can also be adjusted with the help of mouse.

MIRROR
This command is used to form a mirror image of an object. The result of this command is an object,
symmetric to the original object and place equally back to the mirror. The mirror command involves
first selecting the object to mirror and then defining a mirror location by entering the starting and
ending point of a mirror line.
Command: MIRROR [Enter]
Select object: W [Enter]
First corner: [select]
Other corner: [select]
First point of mirror line: [select P]
Second point: [select Q]
Delete old object? N: [Enter] (Y, if yes)
The starting and end points of MIRROR line are shown as cross
mode point

CHANGE
This command is used to change the properties of existing objects. We will be often required to
change the type of line and colour of objects.
Change of Line Type
To change a solid continuous line (default type bylayer) to various
types of lines, following are the command steps.
Command: CHANGE
Select objects: [select line AB]
Select objects: [Enter]
Properties/<Change point>: P [Enter]
Change what property (Color/Elev/Ltype/LTscale/Thickness)?
Lt [Enter]
New linetype <BYLAYER>: hidden [Enter]
Change what property (Color/Elev/Ltype/LTscale/Thickness)?: [Enter]
Following similar steps, the bylayer line can be changed into various
options shown.
Following similar steps, the default colour can be changed into
various colours.
Command: CHANGE [Enter]
Select objects: [select line AB]
Select objects: [Enter]
Properties/<Change point>: P
Change what property Color/Elev/Ltype/LTscale/Thickness)?
C [Enter]
New colour <BYLAYER>: red [Enter]
Change what property (Color/Elev/Ltype/LTscale/Thickness)?: [Enter]
22 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

ARRAY
This command is used to create multiple copies of object(s) in a rectangular/polar pattern.
Polar ARRAY
To draw 12 radial lines in a circle following are the command steps.
Command: ARRAY [Enter]
Select object: [select line OP]
Select object: [Enter]
Rectangular or Polar (R/<P>): P [Enter]
Base/<Specify center point of array>: cen [Enter]
Centre of: [click circle with target box]
Number of items: 12 [Enter]
Angle to fill (+=ccw, -=cw) <360>: 360 [Enter]
Rotate objects as they are copied? <Y>: [Enter]
Rectangular ARRAY
It is required to create multiple copies of a square object in X & Y
directions. Following are the command steps.
Command: ARRAY [Enter]
Select objects: (R/P): R [Enter]
Select objects: [Enter]
Number of rows (---)<1>: 6 [Enter]
Numbers of Columns ( | | | ) <1>: 5 [Enter]
Distance between rows (---): 0.75 [Enter]
Distance between columns (iii): 0.75 [Enter]

TRIM
This command is used to trim an object so that it ends precisely at a cutting edge (intersection
points).
It is required to remove segments of lines AB &
CD trapped by line PQ & RS.
Similarly, it is required to remove segments of
lines PQ & RS trapped by line AB & CD
Command: TRIM [Enter]
Select cutting edge(s)
Select objects: [select PQ]
Select objects: [select RS]
Select objects: [Enter]
Select object to trim: [select the portion of AB &
CD covered by PQ & RS]
Select object to trim: [Enter]
Following similar steps, the portion of PQ & RS covered by AB &
CD is trimmed.

BREAK
This command is used to erase part of object or splits an object in to two at required location. We
will often require changing part of a line to hidden. In order to do that the line needs to be broken
at specified location and redraw in the same portion.
Command: BREAK [Enter]
Select object: [specify object to be broken] (line AB)]
Enter second point (or F for first point): F [Enter]
Enter first point (point to one end of deletion): [Enter]
Enter second point (point to other end of deletion): [select S]
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 23

EXTEND
This command is used to lengthen a line/arc so that it precisely touches a boundary defined by
another line/arc. The steps are self-explanatory.
It is required to extend a line PQ so that it touches line AB.
Command: EXTEND [Enter]
Select boundary edge(s)
Select objects: [select line AB as a boundary edge]
Select objects: [Enter]
Select object to extend: [select line PQ near to
end point Q]
Following similar steps, arc PQ also can be extended
to touch line AB as shown in adjacent Fig.

FILLET
This command is used to fit a smooth curve between two lines /arcs. It involves two stages, first to
define a fillet radius, second filleting.
Command: FILLET [Enter]
Polyline/Radius/trim/<select first object>: R [Enter]
Enter fillet radius <0.25>: 0.5 [Enter]
Command: FILLET [Enter]
Polyline/Radius/trim/<select first object>: [select L1]
Select second object: [select L2]

OFFSET
This command creates concentric circles, parallel lines, and parallel curves. The concentric circles
and concentric squares are drawn using offset command. The entity to be offset should be a single
entity.
Command: OFFSET [Enter]
Offset distance or through <Through>: T [Enter]
Select object to offset: [Select outer circle]
Through point: [select point inside the outer circle]

DIVIDE
This command lets you to divide an entity into specified number of equal parts. Before use of DIVIDE
command, the point should be set with PDMODE: 3 and PDSIZE: 0.125

Command: DIVIDE [Enter]

Select object to divide: [select line AB]
<Number of segments>/Block: 6 [Enter]
Following similar steps, of command, circle is divided into
6 segments.

MEASURE
This command lets you to divide an entity with a specified distance, starting from the end, which is
nearer to the target box placed for selection. Before use of MEASURE command, the point should
be set with PDMODE: 3 and PDSIZE: 0.125.
24 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Command: MEASURE [Enter]

Select object to measure: [select line AB]
<Segment length>/Block: 0.5 [Enter]
Following similar steps, of command, arc is divided into 6 segments
with 0.5 unit of division.

EXPLODE
This command is used to break entities say a polyline or polygons into individual lines.

Polygon is a single entity. By EXPLODE command the sides of the

polygon will be an individual entity.
Command: EXPLODE [Enter]
Select objects: [select polygon]

PEDIT
This command is used to edit polyline. In engineering graphics, this is used to fit a smooth curve
passing through the key points of entity.

Command: PEDIT [Enter]

Select polyline: [select PLINE]
Close/Join/Width/Edit vertex/Fit/Spline/Decurve/Ltype gen
/Undo/eXit <X>: F (for fit)
Following similar steps, of command, PLINE is converted into a
spline.

DIST
This command is used to display the distance between two selected points and the angle of the line
joining the first point to the second. Note that the scale, displaying angle is rounded to nearest
degree.

Command: DIST [Enter]

First point: [select A]
Second point: [select B]
Length = 2.5739, Angle in XY Plane = 29, Angle from XY Plane = 0
Delta X = 2.2500, Delta Y = 1.2500, Delta Z = 0.0000

LIST
This command is used to display exhaustive list of data stored about the selected object(s). The
screen flips to the text mode.

Command: LIST [Enter]

Select objects: [select circle]
Center point, X = 7.2500 Y = 2.0000 Z = 0.0000
Radius = 1.0000; Circumference = 6.2832
Area = 3.1416
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 25

Exercise (Practice of AutoCAD Commands)

1 AutoCAD Unit = 4 grid spacing = 100 mm
2.1 Draw Figs. shown in Plate 2.1 using LINE command.
2.2 Draw Figs. shown in Plate 2.2 (P.1 to P.9) using LINE and CIRCLE command.
2.3 Draw Figs. shown in Plate 2.2 (P.10 to P.27) using LINE, CIRCLE and ARC command.
2.4 Draw Figs. shown in Plate 2.2 (P.28 to P.45) using LINE, CIRCLE, ARC and ELLIPSE
command.
2.5 Draw Figs. shown in Plate 2.2 (P.46 to P.54). Every Fig. has two views aligned vertically.
2.6 Two lines AB, BC along with an arc exist as shown in P.1/Plate 2.3. Draw lines CM, MP, PE
and ET using Mid, Perpendicular, End and Tangent, options of LINE command.
2.7 Two lines AB, BC along with a circle exist as shown in P.2/Plate 2.3. Draw lines CM, MP,
PE and ET, TO and OI using Mid, Perpendicular, End, Tangent, Center and Intersection
options of LINE command.
2.8 Draw a line AB, 200 mm long and at an angle of 30° as shown in P.3/Plate 2.3.
2.9 Draw a PLINE with width 0.0, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 and 1.0. Draw a taper line with width
0.2 at one end and width 0.75 at another end. This is shown in P.4/Plate 2.3.
2.10 Two smaller circles exist as shown in P.5/Plate 2.3. Draw a third circle touching the smaller
two with TTR option of CIRCLE command and radius R = 1.50 AutoCAD unit as shown.
2.11 Two smaller circles exist as shown in P.6/Plate 2.3. Draw a third circle touching the smaller
two with TTR option of CIRCLE command and radius R = 1.25 AutoCAD unit as shown.
2.12 Draw a bylayer (continuous) line of 400 mm length. DIVIDE it into 4 numbers of segments
with cross mode of point as shown in P.1/Plate 2.4. (POINT with cross mode and size 0.25
should be set in your file before use of this command).
2.13 Draw a bylayer (continuous) line of 400 mm length. Divide it into equal number of segments
using MEASURE command and cross mode of point. Each segment has length of 60 mm.
2.14 Draw an arc and DIVIDE it into 6 numbers of segments with cross mode of point as shown
in P.3/Plate 2.4.
2.15 Draw an arc and divide it into equal number of segments using MEASURE command and
with cross mode of point. Each segment has length of 75 mm as shown in P.4/Plate 2.4.
2.16 Lines AB, BC and PQ are existing as shown in P.5/Plate 2.4. EXTEND the line PQ to meet
line AB. Also, EXTEND the line BC to meet the line PQ.
2.17 Line PQ and an arc AB are existing as shown in P.6/Plate 2.4. EXTEND the arc AB to meet
the line PQ.
2.18 Draw a circle with 175 mm diameter. DIVIDE it into 6 equal numbers of parts as shown in
P.7/Plate 2.4.
2.19 Draw an ellipse with 125 mm major radius and 75 mm minor radius. DIVIDE it into 8 equal
numbers of parts as shown in P.8/Plate 2.4.
2.20 A circle and an arc are existing as shown in P.9/Plate 2.4. EXTEND the arc to intersect the
circle.
2.21 Draw a square with 250 mm diagonal length. DIVIDE it into 12 equal numbers of parts as
shown in P.10/Plate 2.4.
26 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 2.1

PLATE 2.2
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 27

PLATE 2.3

PLATE 2.4
28 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

2.22 Draw a pentagon of 75 mm edge length using POLYGON command with (a) one edge
horizontal, (b) one edge vertical as shown in P.1/Plate 2.5.
2.23 Draw a hexagon of 100 mm edge length using POLYGON command with Circumscribed
option (C) as shown in P.2/Plate 2.5.
2.24 Draw a pentagon of 100 mm edge length using POLYGON command with Circumscribed
option (C) as shown in P.3/Plate 2.5.
2.25 Draw a hexagon of 100 mm edge length using POLYGON command with Inscribed option
(I) as shown in P.4/Plate 2.5.
2.26 Draw a pentagon of 100 mm edge length using POLYGON command with Inscribed option
(I) as shown in P.5/Plate 2.5
2.27 Draw a square of 100 mm edge length using POLYGON command with one edge (P1-P2)
at an angle of 30° as shown in P.6/Plate 2.5.
2.28 Draw a pentagon of 100 mm edge length using POLYGON command with one edge (P1-P2)
at an angle of 45° as shown in P.7/Plate 2.5.
2.29 Draw an arrow as shown in P.8/Plate 2.5. Use OFFSET command to draw outside arrow.
2.30 Draw a hexagon of 100 mm edge length using POLYGON command. Use OFFSET
command to draw inside hexagons as shown in P.9/Plate 2.5.
2.31 Draw a PLINE as shown in P.10/Plate 2.5. Use a F (Fit) option to fit the PLINE into a curve.
Use a S (Spline) option to fit the PLINE into a spline curve.
2.32 Draw a PLINE as shown in P.11/Plate 2.5. Use a S (Spline) option to fit the PLINE into a
spline curve. (PLINE is shown in hidden status as it is converted into a Spline curve).

PLATE 2.5
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 29

2.33 Draw two PLINEs crossing each other as shown in P.12/Plate 2.5. Use a F (Fit) option to fit
the PLINEs into curves.
2.34 Draw a PLINE as shown in P.13/Plate 2.5. Use a F (Fit) option to fit the PLINE into a spiral.
2.35 Draw a design as shown in P.1/Plate 2.6.
2.36 Draw a design as shown in P.2/Plate 2.6.
2.37 Draw a design as shown in P.3/Plate 2.6.
2.38 Draw a design as shown in P.4/Plate 2.6.
2.39 Draw a design as shown in P.5/Plate 2.6.
2.40 Draw a design as shown in P.6/Plate 2.6.
2.41 Draw a design as shown in P.7/Plate 2.6.
2.42 DIVIDE a circular sector into 12 equal numbers of parts as shown in P.8/Plate 2.6.
2.43 Draw a design as shown in P.9/Plate 2.6.
2.44 Draw a wall with brick pattern as shown in P.10/Plate 2.6.
2.45 Draw a table as shown in P.11/Plate 2.6.

PLATE 2.6

2.46 Draw two sets of two concentric squares as shown in P.1/Plate 2.7. HATCH them as shown
in the same Figure.
2.47 Draw three sets of two concentric ellipses as shown in P.2/Plate 2.7 using polar ARRAY and
TRIM command.
30 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

2.48 Draw three sets of three concentric hexagons as shown in P.3/Plate 2.7 using COPY and
TRIM command.
2.49 COPY the Fig. drawn in P.3/Plate 2.7 as shown in P.4/Plate 2.7.
2.50 Draw a design as shown in P.5/Plate 2.7 using MIRROR command.
2.51 Draw a design as shown in P.6/Plate 2.7 using MIRROR command.
2.52 Draw a design as shown in P.7/Plate 2.7 using MIRROR command.
2.53 Draw a design as shown in P.8/Plate 2.7 using MIRROR command.
2.54 Use multiple COPY option to COPY the Fig. drawn in P.2/Plate 2.7 as shown in P.9/Plate 2.7
at bottom left and bottom right locations.
2.55 Draw a design as shown in P.10/Plate 2.7.
2.56 Draw a design as shown in P.11/Plate 2.7.

PLATE 2.7

2.57 Draw four bylayer (continuous) lines of 500 mm length. CHANGE it into dashed, hidden,
center, dash-dot, border, divide dot, phantom type line as shown in P.1/Plate 2.8.
2.58 Draw a square of edge 150 mm. HATCH the area with universal pattern, 45°, 0.125 spacing,
as shown in P.2/Plate 2.8.
2.59 Draw a square of edge 150 mm. HATCH the area with universal pattern, 45°, 0.125 spacing
and double hatch option, as shown in P.3/Plate 2.8.
2.60 Draw a circle of diameter 150 mm. HATCH the area with universal pattern, 45°, 0.125 spacing
as shown in P.4/2.8.
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 31

2.61 Draw two squares of edge length 150 mm and adjacent to each other. HATCH one square
with Universal pattern, 45°, 0.125 spacing and other square Universal pattern, 135°, 0.125
spacing as shown in P.5/Plate 2.8.
2.62 Draw a rectangle of 300 ¥ 150 mm. Use OFFSET command to draw inside rectangle
200 mm ¥ 50 mm. Hatch the portion in between two rectangular boundaries with universal
pattern, 45°, 0.125 spacing, as shown in P.7/Plate 2.8.
2.63 COPY solution of P.7/Plate 2.8. HATCH the inside square with universal pattern, 135°, 0.125
spacing, as shown in P.8/Plate 2.8.
2.64 Draw an ellipse and two concentric circles as shown in P.9/Plate 2.8. HATCH the portion in
between boundaries of ellipse and outer circle with Universal pattern, 45°, 0.125 spacing, and
inner circle with Universal pattern, 135°, 0.125 spacing.
2.65 Draw two circles as shown in P.10/Plate 2.8. HATCH the portion in between intersecting
boundaries with Universal pattern, 45°, 0.125 spacing.

PLATE 2.8

2.66 Draw a circle with 150 mm diameter. Draw another concentric circle with 100 mm diameter.
(a) HATCH the inner circle with universal pattern, 45° and 0.125 spacing.
(b) HACTH the portion confined by two circular boundaries with universal pattern, 135° and
0.125 spacing.
2.67 Draw a circle with 150 mm diameter. Draw another concentric circle with 100 mm diameter.
HATCH the inner circle with universal pattern, 45° and 0.125 spacing. HATCH the annular
portion with universal pattern, 135° and 0.125 spacing.
2.68 Draw a circle with 150 mm diameter. Draw a line in horizontal direction passing through
center of circle as a diameter. HATCH upper semicircle universal pattern, 45° and 0.125
spacing.
32 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

2.69 Draw a circle with 150 mm diameter. Draw two lines one in horizontal direction and one in
vertical directions passing through center of circle as diameters. Hatch any quarter-circle
using universal pattern, 45° and 0.125 spacing.
2.70 Draw a circle with 150 mm diameter. Draw a line in horizontal direction passing through
center of circle as a diameter. Draw a line in vertical direction passing through center of circle
as a diameter. HATCH any two opposite quarter portion with universal pattern, 45° and 0.125
spacing and remaining two quarter portion with universal pattern, 135° and 0.125 spacing.
2.71 Draw a hexagon with 75 mm edge. Draw another concentric hexagon with 125 mm edge.
HATCH the portion confined by two hexagonal boundaries with universal pattern, 45° and
0.125 spacing.
2.72 Draw a square of side 150 mm. Use variety of hatch pattern shown in Plate 2.9 to HATCH
the closed area. Mention the name of pattern below each type of pattern.

PLATE 2.9

2.73 Draw a square with edge 100 mm long and in horizontal direction. ROTATE the square by
45°.
2.74 Draw a hexagon with edge 100 mm long, in horizontal direction. ROTATE the hexagon by
45°.
2.75 Draw a circle with 150 mm diameter. Divide the circular sector into ten equal numbers of parts
by using straight lines.
2.76 Draw a circle with 0.5 AutoCAD unit diameter. Make an ARRAY of the circle in horizontal and
vertical direction with unit cell distance in between two rows is 0.5 AutoCAD unit and in
between two columns is 0.5 AutoCAD unit.
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 33

2.77 Draw four bylayer (continuous) lines of 500 mm length. CHANGE the status of these lines into
hidden, center, dot and phantom.
2.78 Draw a circle with 100 mm diameter. CHANGE the status into a hidden circle.
2.79 Draw four bylayer (continuous) lines of 500 mm length. CHANGE the colour to red, yellow,
blue and green.
2.80 Draw a Table of 6 columns and 8 rows. The height of row is 0.5 AutoCAD unit and width of
column is 0.75 AutoCAD unit.
2.81 Draw two circles of 150 mm radii with centers 100 mm apart. TRIM overlapping part of both
circles and create a common area.
2.82 Draw a line of 200 mm length and at 40° to the horizontal. Find out horizontal distance and
vertical distance between end points.
2.83 Draw a hexagon with edge 100 mm long and in horizontal direction. EXPLODE the hexagon
to make the edges as separate entities.
2.84 Draw Fig.s as shown in Plate 2.10.

PLATE 2.10

2.85 Draw Figs. as shown in Plate 2.11.

2.86 Draw Figs. as shown in Plate 2.12.
2.87 Draw Figs. as shown in Plate 2.13.
2.88 Draw Figs. as shown in Plate 2.14.
34 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 2.11

PLATE 2.12
 CHAPTER 2: Computer Aided Drafting ® 35

PLATE 2.13

PLATE 2.14
 PART II
Projection Techniques
3
Theory of Projection

Objectives
® Know the elements of projection.
® Study the systems of projection.
® Learn the methods of projection.
® Focus on the standard practices in projection.

Introduction
We record the shapes and sizes of three-dimensional (3-D) objects on an electronic sheet or
on a drawing paper. The electronic sheet or a drawing paper is the picture plane on which the
geometry is projected or drawn. When we represent a 3-D object on a computer screen or on
a paper, we should be aware of what type of projection method we are using in representing
the object. Our goal should always be to represent an object with:
∑ least amount of distortion;
∑ critical features most visible; and
∑ highest degree of realism.
We will find that these requirements are, in most cases, mutually exclusive. Instead, we will
have to decide which projection method will best achieve these goals. This chapter deals with
the elements, system and methods of projection.

39
40 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

3.1 Elements of Projection

A projection is the representation of an object on a plane. The projections convey all the three
dimensions (length, width and height) of the object besides other details. The elements to be
considered while drawing a projection are the point of sight (observer’s eye position), visual rays,
an object and plane of projection. Figures 3.1(a) and (b) show the elements of parallel projection.
The parallel projection system is based on the following assumptions:
1. The observer is at infinite distance.
2. Visual rays are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection.
The difference between these two figures is the position of the plane of projection and object. In
Fig. 3.1(a) the plane of projection is in between the object and an observer while in Fig. 3.1(b) an
object is in between an observer and the plane of projection. The rays or lines connecting all these
elements are called projectors.

Fig. 3.1 Elements of parallel projection.

3.2 Systems of Projection

The systems of projection used by engineers and technologists to represent shape and size of an
object and the theory governing each system should be understood thoroughly before it is used.
Basically, projections are classified into two types based on the number of views. The given
classification shows the various systems of projection (Fig. 3.2).

Projection

Multiview projection Single view projection

(Orthographic projection) (Pictorial projection)
Projection
Multiview projection
(Orthographic projection)
Single view projection (Pictorial
projection)
Axonometric projection
Axonometric projection Oblique projection Perspective projection
Isometric

Oblique projection
Cavalier

Perspective projection Isometric Cavalier Linear Aerial

Linear
Aerial
Dimetric Dimetric Cabinet Parallel
Cabinet
Parallel
Trimetric
Clinographic
Trimetric Clinographic Angular
Angular
General
Oblique
General Oblique
Fig. 3.2 Classification of projections.
 CHAPTER 3: Theory of Projection ® 41

3.3 Multiview Projection

In multiview (multiplanar) projection, exact shape and size of an object is represented by two or more
views projected on projection planes, which are at right angles to each other.
The views of an object may be obtained by using either of the two methods:

Natural method
In this method, each of the necessary view is obtained by looking directly at the particular side of
an object. This method is also called the “direct view” method.
Figure 3.3 shows two-dimensional views of an object: front, top and side views. These are
obtained by looking directly at front, top and right side, respectively. In application of this method,
for heavy/bigger objects, the position of an object is fixed and the position of an observer is shifted
(Fig. 3.3) for each view. For smaller objects, observer's position is fixed and the position of an object
is changed for each view. The planes of projections are imagined as transparent planes, which are
perpendicular to visual rays.

Fig. 3.3 Two-dimensional views of a 3-D object with natural method.

Glass box method

An imaginary glass box is used to explain the arrangement of 2-D views. The object is imagined in
an open glass box and projections are taken on five faces of glass box. The projection planes (top,
bottom, left and right are assumed to be hinged to the frontal plane at AB, CD, AD and BC,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 3.4. It is considered that planes of projection, parallel to the six faces
of an object, form an enclosing glass box. The observer views the enclosed object from outside. The
views are obtained by running projectors from points on the object to the planes.
Multiview projection is also called orthographic projection as the visual rays are perpendicular
to the planes of projections. This kind of projection is widely used for the presentation of 2-D views
of an object.
42 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 3.4 Glass box method.

3.4 Single View (Pictorial) Projection

In single view projections an object is projected upon a single plane. In this system, an object is
represented in different ways, which can easily be understood by persons even without technical
background. Single view projection shows several faces of an object in a single view as they appear
to the eye. The single view drawings are mainly used to show complicated structures such as
airplane, rocket shell, machine element and a civil structure. The single view projection suffers from
the limitations such as distorted appearance, unduly long time of execution and difficult
dimensioning.
Figures 3.5(a) and (b) show a single view projection of a complicated machine element and an
airplane, respectively. These are also known as pictorial drawings. There are three types of single
view projections. They are axonometric, oblique and perspective projections.

(a) Machine element (b) Airplane

Fig. 3.5 Single view projection.

 CHAPTER 3: Theory of Projection ® 43

3.4.1 Theory of Axonometric Projection

Figure 3.6 shows a cube placed on its bottom face on a platform with a transparent projection plane.
In the first stage, one face of the object is parallel to the plane of projection and the observer can
see the true shape and size of that face. In the second stage, the cube is turned on its bottom face
such that two faces are equally inclined to the plane of projection and the observer can see the
reduced size of these two faces. In the third stage, the cube is tipped forward on the front-most
bottom face corner such that three faces are visible to the observer. These three faces are inclined
to the plane of projection resulting in an axonometric projection. In this view, the observer can see
the reduced size of these three faces.

Fig. 3.6 Theory of axonometric projection.

This is further explained with respect to Cartesian coordinate system. Let us consider a
coordinate system x, y and z having origin O as one of the bottom-face corner about which the object
was tipped forward. This is shown in Fig. 3.7.

Fig. 3.7 Object with coordinate system.

44 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

In the first stage, in Fig. 3.7, the x-axis is parallel to the projection plane, y-axis is perpendicular
to the platform and z-axis is perpendicular to the projection plane. In the second stage, y-axis
remains perpendicular to the platform; however, x- and z-axis are equally inclined to the projection
plane. In the third stage, x-, y- and z-axes are inclined at an angle of a, b and y to the platform,
respectively. Based on the axes inclination to the platform, there are three kinds of projections.
(a) Isometric projection (a = b = g )
(b) Dimetric projection (a = b π g or a π a = g or a = g π b )
(c) Trimetric (Axonometric) projection (a π b π g )
In this process, an object is turned to understand the axonometric projection.
In another way of understanding the axonometric projection, is that the object position is fixed,
similar to the first stage of Fig. 3.6 (i.e., one face parallel to the projection plane). In addition to this
projection plane, one more projection plane is imagined to understand the three kinds of axonometric
projection. This additional plane of projection is called an axonometric plane of projection.
This is explained with the help of Fig. 3.8. In this figure, the axonometric plane of projection is
inclined to any three edges meeting at one point. The x-, y- and z-axes can pass through any three
edges, meeting at one corner. This figure shows three types of axonometric projections. If the
axonometric plane is equally inclined to three edges [Fig. 3.8(a)], an isometric projection is
produced. All three edges are equally foreshortened.

(a) Isometric projection (b) Dimetric projection (c) Trimetric projection

a = b= g a = b π g or a π b = g or a = g π b a π b π g

Fig. 3.8 Types of axonometric projection.

If the axonometric plane is equally inclined to two of the three edges [Fig. 3.8(b)], a dimetric
projection is produced. Two of the edges are equally foreshortened and the third edge is
foreshortened by a different amount. Two of the angles between the axes are equal and the third
angle is different. If the axonometric plane is unequally inclined to all the three principal planes
[Fig. 3.8(c)], the result is a trimetric projection. When this happens all the three edges are
foreshortened by different amounts and all the three angles are unequal.
An axonometric projection may be defined as an orthographic projection upon a plane oblique
to three principal planes. This is because the projection rays are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane of projection. In axonometric projection, parallel lines in an object remain
parallel in drawing.
Axonometric is also referred as planometric projections as it is known to be a method of drawing
a top view with a third dimension. It is used by the interior designers, architects and landscape
gardeners. This gives the impression that you are viewing the objects from above. Planometric
projection of a kitchen is shown in Fig. 3.9.
 CHAPTER 3: Theory of Projection ® 45

Fig. 3.9 Planometric projection (a specific type of axonometric projection).

3.4.2 Theory of Oblique Projection

Another form of single view projection is an oblique projection. In this type of single view projection,
front face of an object is imagined to be parallel to the plane of projection and appears in its true
shape and size. The receding lines representing the other two faces are usually drawn at 30°, 45°
or 60° to the horizontal. 45° is the most common practice. Obviously, the projectors are not
perpendicular to the plane of projection and hence, this kind of projection is not an orthographic
projection. Oblique projection provides an easy way of turning an existing orthographic view into a
pictorial view as shown in Fig. 3.10(b). Figure 3.10 shows an isometric view and an oblique view
together for a comparison. Figure 3.11 shows an oblique view of an office table.

(a) Isometric projection (b) Oblique projection

Fig. 3.10 Stair case.

Fig. 3.11 Oblique projection of an office table.

In axonometric and oblique projections all parallel lines in an object appear parallel in the
drawing. Vertical lines on the object appear vertical.
46 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

3.4.3 Theory of Perspective (Convergent) Projection

Perspective projection is the representation of an object as it appears to an observer stationed at
a particular position relative to the object. A picture taken by a camera is a real perspective i.e., a
natural view. The four elements involved in the photography are, namely: object, visual rays, point
of sight and picture plane, respectively. In perspective projection, the projecting lines or visual rays
converge at a point (Fig. 3.12). The size of the view depends upon the distance from an observer
to the projection plane and the distance from the projection plane to the object.

Fig. 3.12 Elements of perspective (convergent) projection.

Perspective projection has three types of system of projection.

1. Perspective projection with single vanishing point (Fig. 3.13)
2. Perspective projection with two vanishing points (Fig. 3.14)
3. Perspective projection with three vanishing points (Fig. 3.15)
Figure 3.13 shows an architectural perspective view with a central vanishing point.

Fig. 3.13 Architectural perspective view with a central vanishing point.

 CHAPTER 3: Theory of Projection ® 47

Figure 3.14 shows an architectural perspective view with two vanishing points. Figure 3.15
shows a perspective view with three vanishing points.

Fig. 3.14 Architectural perspective view with two vanishing points.

Fig. 3.15 Perspective projection with three vanishing points.

Perspective view of an object has considerable advantages over the other types of single view
projections since it clearly represents the object as seen by the observer. It is often shaded and
tastefully coloured, sometimes, to get a more realistic appearance. Perspective projections are not
used by engineers for manufacturing and construction because a perspective view does not reveal
the exact size and shape. Perspectives may be used in marketing where a natural view of the
product may be desirable.

3.5 Principal Planes of Projection

If two planes: vertical plane (VP) and horizontal plane (HP) intersect each other at right angle to each
other, they form four quadrants as shown in Fig. 3.16(a). With respect to an observer’s position,
these four quadrants are named as I, II, III and IV. Figure 3.16(b) shows such four individual
quadrants.
In the I-quadrant, an object is held above HP and in front of VP. In the II-quadrant, an object
is held above HP and behind VP. In the III-quadrant, an object is held below HP and behind VP.
In the IV-quadrant, an object is held below HP and in front of VP.
The line of intersection formed by the intersection of HP and VP is taken along the x-axis. The
line of intersection formed by the intersection of VP and profile plane (PP) is taken along the y-axis.
The line of meeting of HP and PP is taken along the z-axis. Now, we have three principal planes:
HP, VP and PP. We have three principal axes: x-, y- and z-axes.
48 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

(a) Four quadrants (b) Individual quadrants

Fig. 3.16 Principal planes of projection.

With reference to an object, the x-axis is considered to be along length L dimension, y-axis is
considered to be along height H dimension and z-axis is considered to be along depth D dimension.
This convention is used throughout the textbook.

3.6 Methods of Projection

Theoretically, an object could be placed in any of the four quadrants. The FV appears on VP and
TV appears on HP. After getting projection we turn the HP through 90° towards the feet of an
observer and PP through 90° as shown in Fig. 3.17. With this standard practice, an object cannot
be placed in II and IV quadrant as the TV and FV will overlap each other in these quadrants. The
options left are first (I) and third (III) quadrant.

Fig. 3.17 Combined principal planes of projection.

3.6.1 III-Quadrant Method of Projection

The III-quadrant is generally used because when the views (side view and TV) are turned through
90° and brought into the plane of the front view may, they are in their natural positions. That is, the
 CHAPTER 3: Theory of Projection ® 49

top view (TV) appears above the front view (FV). The side view showing the right side falls to the
right side of the front view, and side view showing the left side falls in the left side of the front view.
This is shown in Figs. 3.18(a) and (b).

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.18 III-Quadrant method of projection.

50 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

3.6.2 I-Quadrant Method of Projection

In some countries, the I-quadrant projection is used for engineering drawings. Once we turn the HP
and PP through 90° following a standard practice, the top view will be below the front view, the left
side view will be to the right side of the front view and the right side view will be to the left side of
the front view. This is shown in Figs. 3.19(a) and (b).

(a)

(b)
Fig. 3.19 I-Quadrant method of projection.
 CHAPTER 3: Theory of Projection ® 51

FV shows length L and Height H dimensions. TV shows length L and depth D dimensions. Side
view (SV) shows depth D and height H dimensions.
The length is a common dimension between TV and FV. The depth is a common dimension
between SV and TV. The height is a common dimension between FV and SV.

3.6.3 45° Reference Line Method

This method is used to obtain side views (LSV and RSV) from TV and FV. The 45° reference line
method is used in Fig. 3.18 and Fig. 3.19 in order to obtain the side views. The procedure is
mentioned here to understand the method.
1. Draw horizontal line xy and vertical lines x1y1 between TV and FV.
2. Draw a 45° line from the intersection point O of horizontal and vertical lines.
3. Project TV key points on the 45° reference line.
4. Draw vertical lines from the points at which, the projector lines meet the reference line.
5. Project FV key points to intersect the TV projection lines. The intersection points of TV
projector lines and FV projector lines, give the key points to draw a side view from TV and
FV.
Figure 3.20 shows an example of I- and III-quadrant method of projection together for
comparison of the two methods of projection.

Fig. 3.20 Object and its orthographic views in I- and III-quadrant.

3.6.4 Symbolic Representation

The two views (FV and SV) of a truncated cone (Fig. 3.21) are used to identify which method of
projection is used in the drawing. This has to be shown clearly in the title block of drawing sheet
as will be discussed in Chapter 4. In the I-quadrant method, the RSV of a truncated cone appears
on left side of FV and in the III-quadrant method, the LSV appears on left side of FV.
52 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 3.21 Symbolic representations for I- and III-quadrant method of projection.

3.7 Indian Standard Institution (ISI) Code of Practice

The I-quadrant method of projection is the British standard practice. The III-quadrant method of
projection is the standard practice followed in America. In our country, I-quadrant method of
projection was formerly in use. The Indian Standard Institution, in its earlier versions of “Indian
Standard Code of Practice for General Drawing” published in 1955 and revised in 1960, had
recommended the use of III-quadrant method of projection. In the second revised version of this
standard published in December 1973, the committee responsible for its preparation has left the
option of selecting method of projection to the users. Persons engaged in engineering profession
may come across with drawings from industries and organisations following any one method. It is,
therefore, necessary for them to be perfectly conversant with both the methods.
In order to have a professional practice, both, I- and III-quadrant methods of projection are
followed in this textbook. In Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8, III-quadrant method of projection is used. In
Chapter 9 (projection of straight lines), all four quadrants are used. In Chapter 10 (projection of
planes), I-quadrant method of projection is used. In Chapters 12, 13, 14 and 15, III-quadrant method
of projection is used.

Exercise (You should know)

3.1 What are the elements of projection?
3.2 What are the possible relative locations of the elements of projection?
3.3 Classify the system of projection.
3.4 What is an axonometric projection? What are the types of axonometric projection?
3.5 What is a planometric projection? Where is it used?
 CHAPTER 3: Theory of Projection ® 53

3.6 What is an oblique projection?

3.7 What is a perspective projection? Where is it used?
3.8 What are the principal planes of projection?
3.9 What are the principal axes and how they are related to dimensions of an object?
3.10 What are the methods of projection?
3.11 What are the relative positions of TV, FV, RSV and LSV in I-quadrant and III-quadrant method
of projection?
3.12 Why cannot we use II- and IV-quadrant methods of projection?
3.13 What are the relative positions of an object, observer and plane of projection in I- and
III-quadrant methods of projection?
3.14 Why LSV comes on the right side of PP and RSV comes on the left side of PP in case of
I-quadrant method of projection?
3.15 What is the symbol for I- and III-quadrant methods of projection?
4
Aspects of Technical Drawing

Objectives
® Know the standard practices of technical drawing.
® Observe the standard practices for dimensioning.
® Learn the related AutoCAD commands for setting the electronic drawing sheet and plot the
dimensioning.

Introduction
While producing an engineering drawing, it is important that one should follow some important
rules. Some of these rules, although may not be applicable for Engineering Graphics, will be
useful when working in industry. In this chapter, aspects of technical drawing are discussed in
details.
These include selecting sheet size and setting limits suitable to sheet size. These also
include selecting a proper format and preparing a systematic drawing sheet. Various types of
lines used and dimensioning rules are also discussed in this chapter.

54
 CHAPTER 4: Aspects of Technical Drawing ® 55

4.1 Size of Drawing Sheet

The drawing size typically comply with either ISO standard or US standard. The size of drawing
sheet needs to be defined, based on the drawing size and drawing scale. Two popular series ISO
‘A’ and ISO ‘B’ are discussed here.

4.1.1 ISO ‘A’ Series

The ISO ‘A’ series has A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6 family members. The ISO ‘A’ series of sheet
sizes is based on a constant width to length ratio of 1: 2 . The maximum A0 size is defined as
having an area of approximately one square metre (1189 ¥ 841 mm2). Each smaller sheet size is
exactly half the area of the previous size, i.e., if we cut an A0 sheet in half, we get two A1 sheets;
if we cut an A1 sheet in half, we get two A2 sheets; and so on.
This relationship of 1: 2 is particularly important as all metric equipment including microfilm
cameras, microfilm printers, photocopiers and even drawing pen sizes are designed around this
ratio. This makes the process of archiving drawings, resizing and modifying drawings easy.
Table 4.1 shows dimensions of regular sheets for A series.

Table 4.1 Dimensions of Regular Sheet

Designation Dimensions in mm2 Dimensions in inches2

A0 841 ¥ 1189 46.81 ¥ 33.11

A1 594 ¥ 841 33.11 ¥ 23.39
A2 420 ¥ 594 23.39 ¥ 16.55
A3 297 ¥ 420 16.55 ¥ 11.69
A4 210 ¥ 297 11.69 ¥ 8.27
A5 149 ¥ 210 8.27 ¥ 5.84
A6 105 ¥ 149 5.84 ¥ 4.13

Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 show comparisons of one sheet size with respect to next sheet size based
on the actual size.

Fig. 4.1 A0 and A1 drawing sheet.

56 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 4.2 A2 and A3 drawing sheet.

Fig. 4.3 A4 and A5 drawing sheet.

Figure 4.4 shows a qualitative comparison of all the drawing sheets of ‘A’ series with respect to each
other. All the types of ‘A’ sheets are placed in A0 sheet to know the relative size at a glance.

Fig. 4.4 Relative sheet size of all ‘A’ sheets.

 CHAPTER 4: Aspects of Technical Drawing ® 57

4.1.2 Oversize Sheet

Oversize sheets are used when it is desirable to give extra protection to the drawing sheets to
provide a binding or trimming margin. Table 4.2 shows dimensions of oversize sheet.

Table 4.2 Dimensions of Oversize Sheet

Designation Dimensions in mm2

RA0 860 ¥ 1220

RA1 610 ¥ 860
RA2 430 ¥ 610
RA3 305 ¥ 430
RA4 215 ¥ 305
RA5 153 ¥ 215

4.1.3 ISO ‘B’ Series

The ISO ‘B’ series is defined to satisfy the requirements of drawing offices if the differences between
the ‘A’ series sizes are too high. The area of a Bn sheet is the area of the An sheet multiplied by
the square root of 2. In practice, B series is not commonly used. Table 4.3 shows the dimensions
of oversize sheet.

Table 4.3 Dimensions of Regular Sheets

Designation Dimensions in mm2

B0 1000 ¥ 1414
B1 707 ¥ 1000
B2 500 ¥ 707
B3 354 ¥ 500
B4 250 ¥ 354
B5 177 ¥ 250

4.1.4 Non-metric Paper Sizes

For reference purposes, the non-metric paper sizes are still in use in some parts of the world.
Tables 4.4 and 4.5 show a list of non-metric paper sizes for US Engineering and US Architectural,
respectively.
Table 4.4 Non-metric Paper Sizes (US Engineering)

Designation Dimensions in mm2 Dimensions in inches2

US Engineering:
ANSI A 215.9 ¥ 279.4 8.5 ¥ 11
ANSI B 279.4 ¥ 431.8 11 ¥ 17
ANSI C 431.8 ¥ 558.8 17 ¥ 22
ANSI D 558.8 ¥ 863.6 22 ¥ 34
ANSI E 863.6 ¥ 1117.6 34 ¥ 44
58 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Table 4.5 Non-metric Paper Sizes (US Architectural)

Designation Dimensions in mm2 Dimensions in inches2

US Architectural:
ARCH A 228.6 ¥ 304.8 9 ¥ 12
ARCH B 304.8 ¥ 457.2 12 ¥ 18
ARCH C 457.2 ¥ 609.6 18 ¥ 24
ARCH D 609.6 ¥ 914.4 24 ¥ 36
ARCH E 94.4 ¥ 1219.2 36 ¥ 48

4.2 Drawing Formats

Drawing format depends upon the size of views (2-D views or 3-D views). This also depends upon
the user or company. Figures 4.5 and 4.6 show two drawing format for same A3 size drawing.
Figure 4.5 shows drawing format for A3 size sheet in landscape mode and Figure 4.6 shows drawing
format for A3 size sheet in the portrait mode.

Fig. 4.5 Drawing format for A3 size sheet in landscape mode.

 CHAPTER 4: Aspects of Technical Drawing ® 59

Fig. 4.6 Drawing format for A3 size sheet in portrait mode.

4.3 Setting Limits for Various Sheet Sizes

Before starting your engineering drawing you should plan how you are going to make the best use
of the space of drawing sheet. It is important to think about the number of views your drawing will
have and how much space of the paper you will use. Important points to remember are: (a) try to
make the maximum use of the available space and (b) if you intend to add dimensions to the
drawing, remember to leave enough space around the drawing for them to be added later.
Boundaries of a drawing sheet are set with the help of LIMITS and ZOOM command in
AutoCAD. LIMITS and ZOOM command set the drawing area to match the particular size of a
drawing sheet. Following the five steps of AutoCAD command set the boundary limits for a A2 size
of a drawing paper. Table 4.1 shows A2 paper has 594 mm ¥ 420 mm dimensions. However, to
provide extra protection to the drawing sheets for binding or trimming margin, RA2 size (610 mm ¥
430 mm) is selected from Table 4.2 for A2 size drawing.
Command: LIMITS [Enter]
ON/OFF/<Lower left corner> <0.00, 0.00>: [Enter]
Upper right corner <12.00, 9.00>: 610, 430 [Enter]
Command: ZOOM [Enter]
All/Center/Dynamic/Extents/Previous/Scale(X/XP)/Window/<Realtime>: A [Enter]
The change in the drawing limits brought by these two commands is not visible to the user.
However, now the graphic screen is set to align new drawing limits. While drawing, the user is
always advised to zoom a particular portion of the drawing to edit or draw the entities in drawing.
This is because a normal monitor screen is used to accommodate a larger size drawing. Now, the
AutoCAD unit is matched with the drawing unit e.g. 1 AutoCAD unit = 1 mm. Accordingly, grids can
be set on the background to produce drawings with a least count of 1 grid spacing = 1 mm.
60 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

4.4 Drawing Scale

Objects are not always drawn to their actual size. They may be too large to fit a standard drawing
sheet, or too small for all the details to show clearly. In either case, it is still possible to represent
an object by simply reducing or enlarging the size to which the drawing is made. For example, a
microchip circuit must be drawn at several thousand times its actual size that is to be seen. On the
other side, a planned view of a small town must be drawn with reduced scale than the actual size.
This practice does not affect the dimensions of an object since the actual dimensions are shown
on the drawing. Whenever it is required to draw a drawing with reduced size or enlarged size, a note
for scale is placed on the drawing in a title block. The title block features are discussed in
Section 4.9.

Recommended scale
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), SP: 46-1988 “Engineering Drawing Practice for Schools and
Colleges" has recommended scales for use in the engineering drawing. Table 4.6 shows types of
scale and scale values.

Table 4.6 Types of Scale and Scale Values

Type of Scale Recommended Scale

Reduction scale 1 :10 1 :2 1 :5

1 :100 1 :20 1 :50
1 :1000 1 :200 1 :500
1 :10000 1 :2000 1 :5000

Enlargement scale 10 :1 20 :1 50 :1
2 :1 5 :1

Full scale 1 :1

In AutoCAD, the scale is set by a SCALE command. The normal drawing file or an individual object
can be scaled to the defined scale. Following are the few steps of SCALE command.
Command: SCALE [Enter]
Select Objects: [select object]
Select Objects: [Enter]
Base point: [select appropriate]
<Scale factor>/Reference: (enter a scale value) [Enter]

4.5 Various Types of Lines and Their Usage

Drawings are made up of a combination of lines of different lengths and intensity. These define
shape, size and details of an object. It is possible, through correct use of lines, to graphically
describe an object so that it can be accurately visualised by any person having a basic
understanding of drawing principles. Since lines are the basis for all drawings or sketches, important
lines are listed over here which are useful for Engineering Graphics.
 CHAPTER 4: Aspects of Technical Drawing ® 61

Outline of view
This line is a continuous thick line used to represent
boundaries of view and visible edges of an object.

Projection line
This line is a continuous thin line used to construct one
figure with reference to another figure. This line is also
called as construction line.

Hidden line
This line is used to indicate invisible line or hidden surface
which is falling into a line view. These consists of short
dashes closely and evenly spaced and of medium thickness.

Centre line
This line is used to indicate the axis of an object, pitch
circles and centreline of circles. These are thin long chain
lines with alternate long and short dashes.

Section line
This line is used to indicate a section plane. This line is a
line view of a section plane. These are thin long chain lines
with alternate long dash and two short dashes.

Figure 4.7 shows a model example which includes all types of lines used in Engineering
Graphics.
The lines related to the dimensioning are discussed in section 4.7.

Fig. 4.7 Lines used in engineering graphics.

62 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

4.6 Lettering
Lettering is used to convey additional information on engineering drawings. Writing of titles, subtitles,
dimensions and other details on a drawing is known as lettering.
All notes and dimensions should be clear and easy to read. In general, all notes should be
written in capital letters to aid legibility. All lettering should be of the same size and preferably no
smaller than 3 mm. An example of typeface is shown below.

4.7 Dimensioning
Dimensions show the geometric measurements of objects, the distances or angles between objects,
or the x- and y-coordinate of a feature. The elements of dimensioning are: projection line or
extension line, dimension line, leader line, arrow head and dimension itself. A dimensioned drawing
should provide all the information necessary for a product or an object. An example of dimension
is shown in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Dimension.

Dimensions are always drawn using continuous thin lines. Two extension or projection lines
indicate where the dimension starts and finishes. Projection lines do not touch the object and are
drawn perpendicular to the element you are dimensioning. In general, units can be omitted from
dimensions if a statement of the units is included on drawing (e.g. all dimensions are in mm). The
general convention is to draw dimension in mm. Below are the various lines related to dimensioning.

Dimension line
These are the lines that end with arrowheads and include a numerical dimensional value located
within the line. Dimension lines indicate the direction and extent of a dimension. For example, for
linear dimensioning, the dimension line is a straight line and for angular dimensioning, the dimension
line is an arc.

Extension line
These are the lines that extend away from an object and allow the dimension line and dimension
text to fit in between them.
 CHAPTER 4: Aspects of Technical Drawing ® 63

Leader line
These are the lines drawn at an angle, neither horizontal nor vertical. These are used to dimension
specific shapes such as holes. The start point of a leader line includes an arrowhead. Numerical
values or text is mentioned at the end, opposite the arrowhead. Refer to the dimension of hole in
Fig. 4.8.
The following points are taken care of while dimensioning.
∑ All dimensions necessary to define an object or component must be clearly marked on the
drawing.
∑ No dimension should be repeated, except where unavoidable.
∑ The longer dimension should be placed outside all intermediate dimensions.
∑ Dimensions are placed on the view where corresponding features are shown more clearly.
∑ Dimension lines are placed in such a way that they do not cross each other. Dimension lines
and text are placed outside the drawings except in special cases where marking inside the
drawing is readable.

4.8 Basic Types of Dimensioning

AutoCAD provides three basic modes of dimensioning:
1. Linear
2. Angular
3. Radial

4.8.1 Linear Dimensioning

This mode creates linear dimensions between two points. The DIM command puts the command line
in dimensioning mode in which we can use the dimensioning subcommands. The general scale used
is 1 AutoCAD unit = 4 grid spacing = 100 mm. The linear dimensioning is used to specify horizontal,
vertical and aligned dimensions as shown in Fig. 4.9.

Fig. 4.9 Linear dimensioning.

Baseline dimensioning The subcommand BASELINE draws a series of related dimensions

measured from the same baseline. This subcommand is used to avoid overlaying the previous
dimension line. Baseline dimensioning is also known as parallel dimensioning. In Fig. 4.10, all
dimensions are with respect to a baseline AB.
64 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 4.10 Baseline dimensioning.

Ordinate dimensioning With ordinate dimensions, one horizontal and one vertical extension line
establishes an origin for the entire view. The origin is identified with zeroes placed at the ends of
these extension lines. Distances along the x- and y-axes to other features are specified using other
extension lines, with the distances indicated numerically at their ends. Figure 4.11 shows ordinate
type of dimensioning.

Fig. 4.11 Ordinate dimensioning.

AutoCAD steps for vertical, horizontal and aligned dimensioning

Vertical Dimensioning
Command: DIM [Enter]
DIM: ver (for vertical dimension) [Enter]
First extension line origin or press ENTER to select: [select A]
Second extension line origin: [select B]
Dimension line location (Text/Angle): [select]
Dimension text <1.00>: 100 [Enter]
Horizontal Dimensioning
DIM: hor (for horizontal dimension) [Enter]
First extension line origin or press ENTER to select: [select B]
Second extension line origin: [select C]
 CHAPTER 4: Aspects of Technical Drawing ® 65

Dimension line location (Text/Angle): [select]

Dimension text <1.50>: 150 [Enter]
Aligned Dimensioning
DIM: ali (for aligned dimension) [Enter]
First extension line origin or press ENTER to select:
[select A]
Second extension line origin: [select B]
Dimension line location (Text/Angle): [select]
Dimension text <1.118>: 112 [Enter]

Baseline Option for Step Dimensioning

DIM: ver [Enter]
First extension line origin or press ENTER to select:
[select A]
Second extension line origin: [select B]
Dimension line location (Text/Angle): [select]
Dimension text <0.50>: 50 [Enter]
DIM: baseline [Enter]
Specify a second extension line origin or press
Enter to select: [select C]
Specify a second extension line origin or press
Enter to select: [select D]

Ordinate Option for Step Dimensioning

DIM: ordinate [Enter]
Select feature: [select]
Leader endpoint (Xdatum/Ydatum/Text): Y [Enter]
Leader endpoint: [select]
Dimension text <1.00>: 100 [Enter]

DIM: ordinate [Enter]

Select feature: [select]
Leader endpoint (Xdatum/Ydatum/Text):X [Enter]
Leader endpoint: [select by mouse]
Dimension text <1.00>: 100 [Enter]

Leader Option for Specification Details

DIM: leader [Enter]
Leader to start: [select appropriate point]
To point: [select appropriate point]
To point: [Enter]
Dim Text <1.00>: Hole, 50 [Enter]
66 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

4.8.2 Angular Dimensioning

Angular dimensions measure the angle between two lines or three points.

DIM: angular [Enter]

Select arc, circle, line, or press ENTER: [select line AB]
Second line: [select line AC]
Dimension arc line location (Text/Angle): [select appropriate]
Dimension text <34.00>: [Enter]
Enter text location (or press ENTER): [Enter]
(Here two cases are shown depending upon the text and arc
location)

The angular option is used to measure the angle between the two radii of a circle. The dimension
line forms an arc. Figure 4.12 shows angular dimension between the radii of a circle. There is a
continuous angular dimensioning between the radii of a circle.

Fig. 4.12 Angular dimension between radii of a circle.

4.8.3 Radial Dimensioning

Radial dimensions measure the radii and diameters of arcs and circles with optional centerlines or
a centre mark. Sizes of circular features are indicated using either radial or diametral dimensions.
Radial dimensions use an ‘R’ followed by the value for the radius. Diametral dimensions use a circle
with forward-leaning diagonal line through it, called the diameter symbol (f), followed by the value
for the diameter. A radially-aligned line with arrowhead pointing to the circular feature, called a
leader, is used in conjunction with both diametral and radial dimensions.
 CHAPTER 4: Aspects of Technical Drawing ® 67

DIM: rad (for radial) [Enter]

Select arc or circle: [select]
Dimension text <0.75>: R75 [Enter]
Dimension line location (Text/Angle): [select appropriate]

DIM: dia (for diameter) [Enter]

Select arc or circle: [select]
Dimension text <1.500>: 150 [Enter]
Dimension line location (Text/Angle): [select appropriate]

Figure 4.13 shows a model example, which includes all types of dimensions, which are discussed
before.

Fig. 4.13 Types of dimensions.

4.9 Title Block

Engineering drawings should feature an information box called title block. One example of title block
is shown in Fig. 4.14. The title block can vary from company to company. However, minimum
information should be always available for future reference purposes. This title block is not
applicable to the first year course on Engineering Graphics. The title block for Engineering Graphics
is discussed in Chapter 2.

Fig. 4.14 Title block.

68 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

4.9.1 Minimum Common Information Recorded on an Engineering Drawing

Title
The title of the drawing should clearly indicate the product.

Drawing no.
Every company has its own format to define a drawing number. An example is shown here
(ABC3FFC003) with ABC company, Division 3, Flexible Flange Coupling product, 0003 as drawing
number.

Drawn by
The name of the person who produced the drawing and his signature.

Chkd by
The name of the design executive (design engineer), who verifies the drawing and puts his signature
so that any potential problems can be identified clearly.

Date
This is the date of the drawing when it was released or amended.

Scale
The enlargement or reduction scale of the drawing is mentioned.

Projection system
The projection system used to create the drawing should be indicated to help people read the
drawing.

Company name
The drawings may be distributed outside the company so that the company name is usually added
to identify the source.

Exercise
4.1 What is the series of ‘A’ sheet size?
4.2 What is the ratio of length to width dimension for ‘A’ series?
4.3 How would you scale an object?
4.4 How would you set the boundaries of an A0 sheet in AutoCAD?
4.5 What are the various types of lines used and their usage in engineering drawing?
4.6 Draw a rectangle and dimension it as shown in P.1/Plate 4.1.
4.7 Draw two concentric circles and dimension them as shown in P.2/Plate 4.1.
4.8 Draw two concentric circles and dimension them as shown in P.3/Plate 4.1.
4.9 Draw a circle and dimension them as shown in P.4/Plate 4.1.
4.10 Draw two concentric circles and dimension them as shown in P.5/Plate 4.1.
4.11 Draw a figure and dimension it as shown in P.6/Plate 4.1.
 CHAPTER 4: Aspects of Technical Drawing ® 69

4.12 Draw a figure and mention the angles as shown in P.7/Plate 4.1.
4.13 Draw a figure and dimension it as shown in P.8/Plate 4.1.
4.14 Draw two views and dimension them as shown in P.9/Plate 4.1.
4.15 Draw two views and dimension them as shown in P.10/Plate 4.1.
4.16 Draw a figure and dimension it as shown in P.10/Plate 4.1.
4.17 Draw a figure and dimension it as shown in P.11/Plate 4.1.

PLATE 4.1
5
Orthographic Projections

Objectives
® Know the concepts of orthographic projections.
® Study the guidelines of drawing of orthographic projections.
® Practise various objects and generate an imagination skill.
® Generate drawing communication skill to work in a team environment.

Introduction
Ortho means right-angled and orthographic projection means right-angled drawing. Multiview
drawing is popularly known as orthographic projection since the projectors are perpendicular to
the plane of projection. Orthographic projection is one way to figure out where the sun will come
up at any latitude. Orthographic Projection can show you where the solstice, equinox and cross-
quarter day sunrises and sunsets will take place anywhere on earth.

70
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 71

5.1 Orthographic Projections

In orthographic projections, an observer is assumed to be at a long distance from the object. With
this assumption, visual rays of the observer are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane
of projection. The orthographic projections are also called parallel projections. Figure 5.1 shows
object with visual rays and a view in the direction of visual rays.

Fig. 5.1 Parallel projections.

5.2 Types of Surfaces

Visualisation is the ability to look at a three-dimensional object and mentally see the appropriate
three orthographic views. It is an important skill for a designer and an engineer to develop.
Visualisation also includes the ability to look at two-dimensional orthographic views and mentally
picture the three-dimensional object the views represent. In order to generate the skill of visualisation
let us classify the surfaces (Fig. 5.2) with respect to the principal planes (HP, VP and PP) as:

Fig. 5.2 Types of surfaces.

72 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

1. Principal surface
2. Inclined surface
3. Skew surface
4. Curved surface

5.2.1 Characteristics of Principal Surface

The surface, which is parallel to one reference plane and perpendicular to the other two, is called
a principal surface. It gives two line views and one area view as the true area. This is shown in
Fig. 5.3. Horizontal surfaces are always principal surfaces but not the vertical.

Fig. 5.3 Characteristic views of a principal surface.

5.2.2 Characteristics of Inclined Surface

The surface, which is inclined to two reference planes and perpendicular to a third reference plane,
is called an inclined (or slant) surface. It gives one line view and two area-views of the apparent
area. Figure 5.4 shows an inclined surface which is perpendicular to PP and inclined to HP & VP.
In this type of surface, at least one edge of the surface is along the principal axis.

Fig. 5.4 Characteristic views of an inclined surface.

5.2.3 Characteristics of Skew Surface

The surface, which is inclined to all the three principal planes (HP, VP and PP), is called a skew
(or oblique) surface. It gives three area-views of the apparent area as shown in Fig. 5.5. In this type
of surface, none of the edge of the surface is along the principal axis.
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 73

Fig. 5.5 Characteristic views of a skew surface.

5.2.4 Characteristics of Curved Surface

The surface, which has a constant radius such as an arc or a circle, is called a curved (or rounded)
surface. The surface that does not have a constant radius is classified as an irregular curved surface,
which is out of scope of this course. In this type of surface, the last visible part of the curved surface
falls in line view. This line is called as the line of tangency. Figure 5.6 shows the FV and SV as
rectangles with the longer edge as the last visible part or the line of tangency.

Fig. 5.6 Characteristic view of a curved surface (solid cylinder).

5.3 Concept of Invisible (Hidden) Line

Hidden lines are used to represent surfaces that are not directly visible to the observer and falls into
a line view. Figure 5.7 (A) shows a surface ABCD that is visible directly in the FV and falls in a line
view, however, the same surface in Fig. 5.7(B) is not directly visible to the observer. In order to
satisfy that surface, a hidden line is shown in the FV.
74 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 5.7 Concept of hidden line.

Figure 5.8 shows the visible line BC of front step coinciding with an invisible line EF of the back
step in FV direction. In the FV, these two coinciding lines are shown as one solid line in FV.

Fig. 5.8 Visible line BC coincides with invisible line EF in FV direction.

Figure 5.9(a) shows a half hollow cylinder in which the internal curved surface is visible to the
observer in the front direction and represented with the help of the solid lines in FV. The same
internal surface is not visible to the observer in Fig. 5.9(b) and, therefore, it is represented with the
help of hidden lines in FV. In the right side view of Fig. 5.9(a) and (b), a hidden line represents a
line of tangency which is not visible. In case of Fig. 5.9(c), similar to Fig. 5.9(b), the internal surface
is not visible and, therefore, it is represented with the help of hidden lines in FV. In this case, the
FV and RSV are similar in appearances.

Fig. 5.9 Concept of hidden line, curved objects.

 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 75

5.4 Representation of Curved Surface

We have seen projection of a complete curved surface in section 5.2.4 with the help of Fig. 5.6. In
many objects, we come across with incomplete or partly curved surface in continuation with either
a flat surface or another partly curved surface. In order to understand the visualisation and
projections four cases are discussed with reference to Fig. 5.10(a), (b), (c) and (d).

(a) curved-flat-curved (b) curved-curved (c) visible curved-invisible (d) curved-slant-curved surfaces
surfaces curved surfaces
Fig. 5.10 Representation of curved surface.

(a) In case of curved-flat-curved case, a line in TV represents a vertical surface in between two
curved surfaces.
(b) In case of curved-curved case, a line in TV represents last visible portion of top curved
surface (line of tangency tt in the given object. However, this line of tangency does not exist
in FV. In FV, both the curved surfaces appear to be merged at line of tangency in FV.
(c) In case of visible curved-invisible curved case, a solid line in TV represents last visible part
of curved surface and a hidden line represents last invisible portion of curved surface.
(d) In case of curved-slant-curved case a curved surface and a flat surface have continuity at
their joint. Both the surfaces are blended at their joint. Therefore, there is no line of
intersection or line of tangency at their meeting point.

5.5 Understanding of Object

In interpretation of solids, one method is to break the object into its basic elementary solids and then
the orthographic views of individual components are obtained from the exploded view and
superimposed suitably to complete the drawing (orthographic views).

5.5.1 Object as an Assembly

Figure 5.11 shows the exploded view of object with its elementary solids and gluing (hatched) area.
The same figure shows the generated object and superimposed orthographic views.
76 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 5.11 Object as an assembly.

5.5.2 Object as a Single Piece

Figure 5.12 shows a material removal from a cuboid to form an object. The solid is considered to
be a single piece object. It is not considered as glue or as an assembly of three pieces: one cuboid,
one wedge and one square prism.

Fig. 5.12 Object as a single piece.

Figure 5.13 shows a material removal from a solid cylinder to form an object. First a solid cylinder
is made as a hollow cylinder and then 50% of the upper half of the hollow cylinder is removed to
form a final object. The same figure shows the orthographic view of the formed object.

Fig. 5.13 Concept of a single piece object.

 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 77

Figure 5.14(A) shows the exploded view of an object along with its assembly and orthographic views.
The other way to interpret the solid is as a single piece object. It is cut out from a block to obtain
the required shape [Fig. 5.14(B)].

Fig. 5.14 Assembly versus single piece object.

In an elementary course like Engineering Graphics, an object is considered as a single piece and
not an assembly. The reason is at the first year level of all engineering disciplines the objective of
the course is to generate an imagination skill. Assembly drawing is a part of the courses like
Machine Drawing and Structural Drawing, in specific disciplines.

5.6 Precedence of Lines

When orthographic views are prepared, it is required to draw one type of line over another. Drawing
convention has established a precedence of lines: a continuous (solid) line takes precedence over
a hidden line and a hidden line takes precedence over a centre line. Figure 5.15 shows a solid line
coinciding with a hidden line, which coincides with a centre line in the FV of a given object. By using
the convention, a solid line has taken precedence over the hidden line; subsequently the hidden line
has taken precedence over the centre line.

Fig. 5.15 Example of precedence of lines.

5.7 Selection of Views

The selection of views required to describe an object depends upon the complex nature of the
object. Every object has three principal dimensions: length L, depth D and height H. As we have
seen in Chapter 3, every view shows only two dimensions out of three in true size. The most
descriptive view should be selected as the FV. In case of curved objects, a FV direction should be
chosen perpendicular to the plane of curved surfaces.
78 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

5.8 Types of Drawing

In engineering drawing, minimum number of views are drawn to describe an object completely.
Based on this the drawings are classified as: one-view drawing, two-view drawing and three-view
drawing.

5.8.1 One-view Drawing

In general, one-view drawings are used for objects having regular features and symmetry, about two
axes or three axes. In a one-view drawing, thickness of a square plate can be mentioned by a note.
Figure 5.16 shows a rectangular plate with specified thickness. A sphere is symmetrical about three
axes. It is also described with the help of one-view drawing.

FV thickness 3 mm

Fig. 5.16 One-view drawing.

5.8.2 Two-view Drawing

In general, two-view drawings are used for objects having symmetry about one axis. The largest face
of an object having more visible details is selected as the front view. The second view is either TV
or SV. Figure 5.17(a) shows a 3-D view of a solid cylinder with three viewing directions top, front
and side. Figure 5.17(b) shows the TV, FV and RSV of the cylinder. The TV and FV shapes are
different; however, the shape of FV and any SV (LSV or RSV) is similar. There is a need to draw
either a TV or a SV along with the FV in this case.

T
TV

FV RSV
F S

(a) 3-D view of a solid cylinder (b) 2-D views of a solid cylinder

Fig. 5.17 Two-view drawing.

5.8.3 Three-view Drawing

Three-view drawings are used for objects having symmetry about no axes. The largest face of the
object having more visible details and least invisible lines is selected as the front view. Three-view
drawings are used to describe any object clearly and completely. Figure 5.18 shows (a) 3-D view
of a rectangular solid and Fig. 5.18 (b) shows 2-D view of the same. All three views are required
to describe the object.
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 79

TV

F FV RSV

(a) 3-D view of a rectangular solid (b) 2-D views of a rectangular solid

Fig. 5.18 Three-view drawing.

5.9 Principles of Multiview Drawing

The following principles should be studied carefully and understood thoroughly before any attempt
is made to prepare an orthographic drawing:
1. The front and top views are always vertically aligned.
2. The front and side views are horizontally aligned.
3. The length of the top view is same as the length of the front view.
4. The height of the side view is the same as the height of the front view.
5. The depth of the side view is same as the depth of the top view.

5.10 Steps to Draw Orthographic Views

5.10.1 Box Method

1. Find the maximum length L, maximum depth D and maximum height H from a given pictorial
view.
2. Accommodate a given object in a box of L ¥ D ¥ H with thin pencil on paper or with any colour
on AutoCAD screen. The surfaces of this box serve the purpose of principal planes.
3. Start drawing a front view (as it shows more details). This is optional.
4. While drawing any view, the principal surfaces (which show the true area) should be drawn
first. The inclined and skew surfaces cannot be drawn directly. Locate the corners of
non-principal surfaces and complete those surfaces by connecting the appropriate points.
5. Satisfy all visible surfaces in all three views.
6. Check for the hidden lines if any.

5.10.2 Centre Line Method

1. Locate the centres of the curved parts.
2. Join the centres by a thin line, which is referred here as a centre line.
3. This centre line serves the purpose to find the maximum length L, maximum depth D and
maximum height H from the pictorial view. While finding these dimensions move along the
centre line and gridlines perpendicular to the centre line.
4. Draw that view first in which circles or curves appear. With circles, it becomes easy to draw
other views.
5. Repeat the steps 4 to 6 in the Box Method.
80 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 5.1 Draw orthographic views (TV, FV and SV) in Fig. 5.19 of the given object with
respect to a FV direction indicated by an arrow.

Fig. 5.19

Solution The maximum length, depth and height required to accommodate the given object in box
are 6 ¥ 4 ¥ 3 grid spacing. There are six surfaces. Out of six surfaces, four are principal and two
are inclined surfaces.

EXAMPLE 5.2 Draw orthographic views (TV, FV and SV) in Fig. 5.20 of the given object with
respect to a FV direction indicated by an arrow.

Fig. 5.20

Solution The maximum length, depth and height required to accommodate the given object in box
are 6 x 4 x 3 grid spacing. There are six surfaces. Out of six surfaces, four are inclined and two are
principal surfaces.

EXAMPLE 5.3 Draw orthographic views (TV, FV and SV) in Fig. 5.21 of the given object with
respect to a FV direction indicated by an arrow.

Fig. 5.21

Solution The maximum length, depth and height required to accommodate the given object in box
are 6 ¥ 4 ¥ 3 grid spacing. There are nine surfaces. Out of nine surfaces, six are principal surfaces,
one is inclined and two are skew surfaces.
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 81

EXAMPLE 5.4 Draw orthographic views (TV, FV and SV) in Fig. 5.22 of the given object with
respect to a FV direction indicated by an arrow.

Fig. 5.22

Solution Draw a centre line by locating centres of visible semicircle as shown in the solution. The
length, height and depth of the object are 6 ¥ 6 ¥ 4 grid spacing. First draw FV in which there is
a circular portion. Now draw other two views with reference to projection lines drawn from FV.

EXAMPLE 5.5 Figure 5.23 shows a tetrahedron ABCO. Name the vertices for a tetrahedron
a-b-c-o. The FV direction is parallel to an edge ac.

Fig. 5.23

Solution In the FV, the triangular surface AOC and the triangular base ABC falls in a line view.
In TV, the triangular surface AOC and the triangular surface COB falls in a line view. In RSV, the
triangular surface BOC and the triangular base ABC falls in a line view. Triangular skew surface OAB
shows the apparent area view in all the three views.

Exercise
5.1 Match the isometric drawing with orthographic views in Plate 5.1–5.22 and draw the
orthographic views for the same.
5.2 Draw orthographic views for the isometric drawings given in Plate 5.23–5.39.
82 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.1

PLATE 5.2
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 83

PLATE 5.3

PLATE 5.4
84 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.5

PLATE 5.6
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 85

PLATE 5.7

PLATE 5.8
86 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.9

PLATE 5.10
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 87

PLATE 5.11

PLATE 5.12
88 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.13

PLATE 5.14
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 89

PLATE 5.15

PLATE 5.16
90 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.17

PLATE 5.18
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 91

PLATE 5.19

PLATE 5.20
92 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.21

PLATE 5.22
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 93

PLATE 5.23

PLATE 5.24
94 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.25

PLATE 5.26
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 95

PLATE 5.27

PLATE 5.28
96 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.29

PLATE 5.30
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 97

PLATE 5.31

PLATE 5.32
98 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.33

PLATE 5.34
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 99

PLATE 5.35

PLATE 5.36
100 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 5.37

PLATE 5.38
 CHAPTER 5: Orthographic Projections ® 101

PLATE 5.39
6
Isometric Drawing

Objectives
® Know the concepts of isometric projections.
® Learn the guidelines of drawing of isometric drawing.
® Practise various objects and generate an imagination skill to draw a 3-D object.
® Generate 3-D drawing skill to work in a team environment.

Introduction
An orthographic drawing of two or more views describes an object accurately in form and size.
Because each of the views shows only two dimensions, however, such a drawing can convey
information only to those who are trained in reading the engineering multiview drawings. For this
reason, multiview drawings are used mainly by engineers, designers and technologists.
Engineers and technologists often find that they must use pictorial 3-D drawings to convey
technical information to persons who do not possess the training necessary to construct an
object mentally from multiple views. To make such drawings, several specific schemes of
pictorial drawing have been devised that combine the pictorial effect of perspective with the
advantage of having the principal dimensions to scale.

102
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 103

6.1 Divisions of Pictorial Projection

Pictorial projection is classified in the following three general divisions:
1. Axonometric projection
2. Oblique projection
3. Perspective projection
Perspective methods produce the most realistic drawings, but the necessary construction is more
difficult and tedious than are oblique or axonometric. For this reason, engineers customarily use
some form of axonometric or oblique projection. Modified axonometric or oblique methods are often
used to produce the desired effects.

6.2 Divisions of Axonometric Projection

Axonometric projection is a form of orthographic projection. The distinguishing difference is that only
one projection plane (the axonometric plane) is used to display the drawing. This type of projection
is also called one plane projection. Axonometric projection is an orthographic projection, the only
difference is that the object is projected on an axonometric plane, which is inclined to HP, VP
and PP.
In multiview drawing, horizontal, vertical, and profile planes are used. The object is turned from
its customary position so that the three faces are displayed. Because an object can be placed in an
unlimited number of positions relative to the axonometric plane of projection, an infinite number of
axonometric views may be drawn. These views will vary in general proportions, lengths and sizes
of angles. For practical reasons, a few of these positions have been classified into the following
recognised divisions or axonometric projection:
1. Isometric
2. Dimetric
3. Trimetric

6.3 Theory of Isometric Projection

In an isometric projection, three dimensions of a solid are shown in one view. This is explained with
the help of projections of a cube resting on one corner.
Figure 6.1 shows a TV and FV of a cube placed on the ground with two of its faces (PSWT and
SRVW) equally inclined to VP in Stage-I. Corners S and W are nearest to the observer and corners
q and u are farthest from the observer. Corners p, t and v, r are at equal distance from the observer.
In Stage-II, it is tilted about one corner v on the ground such that the body-diagonal tr becomes
parallel to the ground and corresponding projections are drawn. In Stage-III, the object is further tilted
about the corner v such that the body-diagonal tr made perpendicular to vp, however, would remain
parallel to the ground. The body-diagonal tr becomes a point view in the FV of Stage-III. The
resulting FV is an isometric projection (view) of a cube.
Following are the observations from the FV of the Stage-III:
∑ The top square face of the cube appears to be a rhombus pqrs. Similarly, the remaining five
faces also appear as rhombuses.
∑ Three faces pqrs, qrvu and srvw are equally inclined to VP. These faces are called isometric
planes.
∑ The edges rs, rv and rq are equally inclined to VP and equally foreshortened. These lines
which make an angle of 120° with each other are called isometric axes. The lines which are
parallel to these axes are called isometric lines.
104 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 6.1 Theory of isometric projection.

6.4 Isometric View and Isometric Drawing

Figure 6.2 shows the rhombus PQRS. The angle <psr is equal to <pqr and equal to 60°. The same
figure shows the true view of top face PQRS as PqRs. The intersection of two face diagonals PR
and sq is marked as x. The sP is a true length whereas sp is an isometric length.

Fig. 6.2 Isometric projection of a cube.

In triangle psx,
sp cos 30 = sx (6.1)
In triangle Psx,
sP cos 45 = sx (6.2)
From Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2),
sp cos 30 = sP cos 45
sp cos 45
therefore, = = 0.815
sP cos 30
The true length is reduced by 81.5% in an isometric projection. Therefore, while drawing an isometric
projection, it is necessary to convert the true lengths into isometric lengths for measuring and
marking the sizes. This is conventionally done by constructing and making use of an isometric scale.
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 105

Objects are seldom drawn in true isometric projection, because the use of an isometric scale
(81.5%) is inconvenient and impractical. Instead, a conventional method is used in which all
foreshortening is ignored, and the actual true lengths are laid off along isometric axes and isometric
lines. To avoid confusion and to set this method apart from true isometric projection, it is called
isometric drawing. Figure 6.3 shows TV and FV of a rectangular block. Figure 6.3(a) shows isometric
projection of the same obtained by following the procedure shown in Fig. 6.1. Figure 6.3(b) shows
isometric drawing with true lengths laid off along isometric lines.

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.3 (a) Isometric projection (b) Isometric drawing.

6.5 Advantages of Isometric Projection

Isometric projection is the simplest of these because the principal axes make equal angles
(a = b = g ) with the plane of projection and are, therefore, foreshortened equally. Isometric projection
is widely used in the industry because of its ease of construction, the ability to measure and compare
the dimensions parallel to the isometric axes directly and the ability to combine isometrics from
different sources into composite projections.

6.6 Disadvantages of Pictorial Drawing

Pictorial drawings, despite certain advantages, however, have disadvantages that limit their use. A
few of these are as follows:
∑ Some pictorial drawings frequently have a distorted and unreal appearance that is
disagreeable.
∑ The time required for execution is, greater than for multiview drawings.
∑ Pictorial drawings are difficult to dimension.
∑ Some lines on a pictorial drawing cannot be directly measured.
∑ Hidden portion cannot be easily imagined unless an object is symmetric.
Even with these limitations, pictorial drawings are used extensively for technical publications, patent
office records, piping diagrams and furniture designs. Occasionally they are used, in one form or
another, to supplement and clarify machine and structural details that would be difficult to visualise
through multiview drawing.

6.7 Non-isometric Lines

The lines which are parallel to the isometric axes (x, y and z) are called isometric lines. Isometric
lines that are parallel to the isometric axes can be directly measured.
Those lines that are inclined and are not parallel to the isometric axes are called non-isometric
lines. A line of this type cannot be measured directly. Its position and projected length must be
106 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

established by locating its endpoints. The lines that are parallel on an object are parallel in the
pictorial view. Conversely, lines that are not parallel on the object are not parallel in the pictorial view.
Figure 6.4 shows the isometric and non-isometric lines in an object along with x-, y- and z-directions.

Fig. 6.4 Isometric and non-isometric lines.

6.8 How to Draw an Isometric Drawing?

The following sections discuss on setting of AutoCAD screen for isometric drawing, methods to
generate an isometric drawing and few examples.

6.8.1 Setting of AutoCAD Screen

First you have to set the AutoCAD screen suitable to draw isometric drawing. This can be done by
using a SNAP command.
Command: SNAP [Enter]
Snap spacing or ON/OFF/Rotate/Style <0.250>: S (for style) [Enter]
Standard/Isometric <S>: I (for Isometric) [Enter]
Vertical spacing <0.50>: 0.25 [Enter]
Figure 6.5 shows a suitable grid screen with grids running along the principal axes: length L is taken
along principal axis X, depth D is taken along principal axis Z, and height h is taken along principal
axis Y. The position of X and Z can be interchanged depending upon the FV direction. The normal
orthographic cursor mode is converted into an isometric cursor mode as shown in Fig. 6.6.

Fig. 6.5 Grid screen to draw an isometric drawing.

 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 107

Fig. 6.6 Three cursor mode for drawing on three isometric planes.

Figure 6.6 shows a box with three faces: left L, right R and top T, which are called isometric
planes. The isometric cursor has three orientations: left cursor mode, right cursor mode and top
cursor mode to work on respective planes and along the normal to that plane. This cursor mode can
be changed by pressing Ctrl and E keys at once.

6.8.2 Methods to Generate an Isometric Drawing

There are two methods to generate an isometric drawing:
(a) Block method and
(b) Coordinate axes method.
Basic requirement to generate an isometric drawing is a skill to read the orthographic views. Before
we discuss these methods, let us clear a ‘starting point’ concept. Figure 6.7 (a) shows: if RSV is
given then what should be a starting point and orientation of block and similarly Fig. 6.7(b) shows:

(a) RSV is given (b) LSV is given

Fig. 6.7 Starting point concept.
108 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

if LSV is given then what should be a starting point and orientation of block. The starting point S
is important to generate an isometric drawing. There are three visible faces (left, top and right) of
a block. If RSV is given then the right face is constructed with H ¥ D dimensions and left face is
constructed with L ¥ H dimensions. Similarly, if LSV is given then the left face is constructed with
H ¥ D dimensions and right face is constructed with L ¥ H dimensions.

Block method
In this method, a block is drawn with L ¥ D ¥ H by reading length L, depth D and height H from
orthographic views. The pictorial drawing of an irregular solid containing several non-isometric lines
may be conveniently constructed by the block method. The object is enclosed in a rectangular box
so that both isometric and non-isometric lines are located by points of contact with the block surfaces
and edges. Following are the general guidelines to generate an isometric drawing:
1. Draw a block by following a starting point concept and with L ¥ D ¥ H measured from
orthographic views.
2. Draw principal surfaces, which can be directly drawn on top, left and right surfaces of the
block.
3. Now, draw other principal surfaces, which are inside the block by locating them along a third
direction properly, e.g. a principal surface in FV has length L and height H dimensions. To
locate inside the block, its depth is required to be read. Similarly, a principal surface in TV
has length L and depth D dimensions. To locate inside the block, its height is required to be
read. Similarly, a principal surface in SV has height H and depth D dimensions. To locate
inside the block, its length is required to be read. This type of reading skill is required to be
generated.
4. The inclined surfaces and skew surfaces cannot be drawn directly. Draw the non-isometric
lines and connect them to draw inclined and skew surfaces.
(These guidelines generate 80% of isometric view).
5. While doing this make a partly drawn 3-D figure as a question and orthographic view as the
answer and satisfy the orthographic view simultaneously.
6. Check for: (a) satisfaction of all the surfaces and invisible line(s) if any and (b) at least three
lines must run through a visible point.
The students are advised to follow this method as it takes less time than the coordinate axes
method.

EXAMPLE 6.1 Figure 6.8(1) shows orthographic views of a general object. Draw an isometric
drawing.

Fig. 6.8
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 109

Solution
Steps: The following steps are correlated with the corresponding steps of Figs. 6.8 and 6.9,
simultaneously.

Fig. 6.9

1. Read length and height from FV and depth from RSV or TV. The dimensions L ¥ D ¥ H are
4 ¥ 3 ¥ 3 grid spacing. Draw a block of 4 ¥ 3 ¥ 3 grid spacing with proper starting point (i.e.,
the FV on left face of 4 ¥ 3 grid spacing and RSV on right face of 3 ¥ 3 grid spacing. This
is shown in Step (1), Fig. 6.9.
2. In the FV, there is an L-shape surface, which represents a line view in the TV and RSV. The
position of this principal surface is directly on the left-face of a block as shown in Step (2),
Fig. 6.9.
3. In the TV, there is an L-shape surface, which represents a line view in the FV and RSV. The
position of this principal surface is directly on the top-face of a block as shown in Step (3),
Fig. 6.9.
4. In the RSV, there is one odd shape surface, which represents a line view in the FV and TV.
The position of this principal surface is directly on the right-face of a block as shown in
Step (4), Fig. 6.9.
5. In the FV, there is a square surface, which represents a line view in the TV and RSV. The
line view is two-grid spacing along depth direction. Draw this principal surface as shown in
Step (5), Fig. 6.9.
6. In the FV, there is one more square surface, which represents a square surface in the TV
and an inclined line view in the RSV. Draw this inclined surface as shown in Step (6),
Fig. 6.9.
7. In the FV, there is a rectangular-shape surface, which represents a rectangular surface in the
TV and a line view in the RSV. Draw this inclined surface in a box as shown in Step (7),
Fig. 6.9.
8. In the RSV, there is a parallelogram-shape surface, which represents a line view in the TV
and FV. Draw this principal surface in a box as shown in Step (8), Fig. 6.9.
9. Now, a square surface is left in the TV and FV to incorporate in the block. To satisfy these
square surfaces in the TV and FV, three lines can be drawn as shown in Step (9a). However,
this object is not a valid object.
These two square surfaces represent a line view in the RSV, which is inclined. Therefore,
draw an inclined surface in the block as shown in Step (9b). The final object is shown in
Step (10), Fig. 6.9.
110 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Coordinate axes
In this method, heights at all key points of TV are raised, e.g. a classroom has four corners (key
points) on a floor (TV or plan). Raise the height (or erect four pillars) at four points. Join the top
points. It will form a classroom. In a complicated object, raising the heights at all key points of TV
will be a confusion because of the number of line pillars. Following are the general guidelines to
generate an isometric drawing:
Steps: (Refer to Figs. 6.10(a) and 6.10(b) simultaneously)

(a) Orthographic views

(b) Isometric drawing using a coordinate axes method

Fig. 6.10 Coordinate axes method.

 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 111

1. Draw a TV in correct orientation following a starting point concept.

2. Number the key points in TV.
3. First read the heights (in terms of grid spacing) at corner points as the corner points define
boundaries of an object. The height is decided by FV and SV. (If there are two possibilities
of heights at certain points then a vertical line results joining the two possible heights at the
same key points. The raised heights are joined by reading the numbered key points of
orthographic TV.
4. Now draw principal surfaces if any. This reduces raising the number of heights.
5. For the remaining points again read and raise the heights.
6. Follow steps (5) and (6) of the block method for final check and complete the isometric
drawing.
Figure 6.10(a) shows the orthographic views of an object. Figure 6.10(b) shows the generated
isometric drawing by following the steps given for coordinate axes method. Figure 6.10(b) is self-
explanatory, which explains the procedure given for the coordinate axes method. The method is
simple however laborious and takes more time to generate an isometric drawing.
The authors would like to mention here that the ‘Engineering Graphics’ is not only an engineering
and science but it is also an “art of imagination”. However, the engineering and science can be
taught in the class, the art of imagination cannot. The skill of imagination can be generated by
practising a number of problems.

6.8.3 Drawing of Rounded Surface in Isometric Drawing

A circle in isometric view appears as an ellipse, which is called an isocircle. Figure 6.11 shows
isocircles on left, right and top of isometric planes. The AutoCAD provides a special command for
drawing isocircles.
Command: ELLIPSE [Enter]
Arc/Centre/Isocircle/<Axis endpoint 1>: I (for Isocircle) [Enter]
Centre of circle: [select a proper centre]
<Circle radius>/Diameter: [drag the mouse and move along the principal axis to define a
radius by clicking the left button].

Fig. 6.11 Isocircles on left, right and top of isometric planes.

112 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Creation of rounded object

The AutoCAD procedure to create a rounded object is explained with the help of Fig. 6.12.
Figure 6.12(a) shows TV and FV of a cylindrical disc with the circle in the TV. The disc has diameter
equal to six grid spacing and height equal to two grid spacing. Figure 6.12(b) shows the stepwise
AutoCAD procedure to generate a rounded object.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.12 Construction of a rounded object.

1. In orthographic view the circle exists in TV, therefore, choose the top cursor mode in order
to draw an isocircle.
2. Draw an isocircle using ELLIPSE command with isocircle option.
3. This plane circular surface is required to be protruded in the third (height) direction. Copy the
isocircle and shift by two grid spacing with the centre as a base point.
4. Draw the tangents (using the tan option in LINE command) to define the last visible part of
the curved surface. While drawing tangents the view should be sufficiently zoomed out with
one cursor line along the direction of the tangent.
5. The invisible part of the object can be trimmed out with the help of the TRIM command.
Figure 6.13 shows similar steps followed to generate a semicircular disc and quarter portion of a
disc. For complicated object having rounded entities, block method is suggested to follow. The block
method restricts us from crossing the boundaries L ¥ D ¥ H. The method also helps in visualisation
ability because the reference planes are available. This is explained in EXAMPLE 6.2.

Fig. 6.13 Construction of a semicircular disc and quarter portion of the disc.

Understanding of a 3-D object

EXAMPLE 6.2 Figure 6.14 shows the orthographic views of a mechanical object. Draw an
isometric drawing.
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 113

Fig. 6.14 Orthographic views of a mechanical object.

Solution There are two ways to understand the object:

(a) If we think this object as an assembly point of view, then there are four components as shown
in Fig. 6.15(a):
1. One base-plate with one cylindrical hole at the centre and two half cylindrical cut portion
along two longer edges;
2. Hollow cylinder; and
3. Two triangular wedges

Fig. 6.15 Components of a mechanical object.

All these four components can be drawn separately and then can be positioned properly. After
proper positioning, the invisible part can be trimmed and/or erased. The final object is shown in
Fig. 6.15(c).
(b) If we think the object as a single piece, which is our usual practice then a material has been
taken out from a block having L ¥ D ¥ H as 16 ¥ 10 ¥ 7 grid spacing measured from orthographic
views (Fig. 6.14). This is shown in Fig. 6.15(b). The block method is shown in the following steps:
114 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

1. Read length and height from the FV and depth from the RSV or TV. The dimensions L ¥ D
¥ H are 16 ¥ 10 ¥ 7 grid spacing. Draw a block of 16 ¥ 10 ¥ 7 grid spacing with proper starting
point (i.e., the FV on right face of 16 ¥ 10 grid spacing and LSV on left face of 10 ¥ 7 grid
spacing. This is shown in Step (1), Fig. 6.16. Draw a base-plate with circular hole at the
centre and two half cylindrical cuts along the longer edges of the base-plate.
2. Draw a hollow cylinder with the axis of the cylinder passing through the centre of the base-
plate (Step (2), Fig. 6.16).
3. Draw two triangular wedges (Step (3), Fig. 6.16).
4. ERASE the invisible portion and show a clear object (Step (4), Fig. 6.16).

Fig. 6.16 Steps in the block method.

EXAMPLE 6.3 Figure 6.17 (a) shows the orthographic views of a mechanical object. Draw an
isometric drawing.
Solution Figure 6.17 (b) shows disassembly of the object. From the assembly point of view, there
are three components (base plate, vertical plate and extended cylindrical neck).
Steps: (Refer to Fig. 6.18)
1. Read the length and height from the FV and depth from the RSV or TV. L ¥ D ¥ H are 10
¥ 5 ¥ 10 grid spacing. Draw a block of 10 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 grid spacing with proper starting point,
(i.e., the FV on left face of 10 ¥ 10 grid spacing and RSV on right face of 5 ¥ 10 grid spacing.
2. Draw a base plate of 10 ¥ 5 ¥ 2 grid spacing.
3. Draw an isocircle of 2 grid spacing radius with ELLIPSE command and ISO option on the left
face. The location of the centre is read from orthographic views.
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 115

Fig. 6.17 Disassembly of the object.

4. MOVE this isocircle with the centre as a base point by two grid spacing along the depth
direction.
5. Copy the same isocircle and move it with the centre as a base point by three grid spacing
along the depth direction.
6. Draw a tangent to two isocircles along the depth direction. Draw a line from a base-plate
corner, tangent to the copied isocircle in Step (5).

Fig. 6.18 (Contd.)

116 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

7. COPY the recently drawn tangent line in Step (6), with the base-plate corner point as a base
point and MOVE it by two grid spacing as shown.
8. Draw a symmetric tangent line on the left side, joining a base-plate corner and tangent to
isocircle, similar to Step (6).
9. MOVE the line drawn in Step (8) by two grid spacing with base-plate corner point as a base
point along the depth direction.
10. ERASE the original tangent line drawn in Step (8) and TRIM a portion of copied line which
was drawn in Step (9).
11. Draw a line connecting the endpoints of the tangent lines on the top of the base-plate.
12. Draw an isocircle of one grid spacing radius with centre at centre of the front isocircle to
represent the hollow cylinder.

Fig. 6.18 (Contd.)

13. COPY the front-most isocircle (2 grid spacing radius) with centre as a base point and move
along the depth direction by one grid spacing.
14. Draw a tangent line connecting the front most and middle isocircle along the depth direction
as shown. (Zoom the required portion to draw the tangent).
15. TRIM the major part of the middle isocircle to retain a curve of intersection of a hollow cylinder
and a vertical surface.
16. TRIM the major part of the backmost isocircle, which is not visible.
17. Draw two isocircles of one grid spacing to generate the curved surface of the base-plate.
18. TRIM the 3/4th part of these isocircles. COPY the remaining 1/4th part and move along the
height direction by two grid spacing.
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 117

Fig. 6.18 (Contd.)

19. Draw a tangent line along the height direction connecting two 1/4th segments of isocircles to
show the last visible part of curved surface.
20. TRIM the part of the base-edges, edges associated with this 1/4th segment. Draw an isocircle
of 1/2 grid spacing radius to represent a hole.
21. ERASE the block lines and show a clean object.

Fig. 6.18 (Contd.)

118 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 6.5 Figure 6.19 shows the orthographic views of a general object. Draw an isometric
drawing.

Fig. 6.19 Orthographic views of a general object.

Solution It is observed from all the three views that there is a cube, and on all the faces of the
cube there is a square pyramid, with base-edge of pyramid equal to the face-edge of the cube and
height 2 grid spacing. This is shown in Fig. 6.20 as an assembly point of view.

Fig. 6.20

Steps: (Refer to Fig. 6.21)

1. Read length and height from the FV and depth from the RSV or TV. L ¥ D ¥ H are
8 ¥ 8 ¥ 8 grid spacing. Draw a block of 8 ¥ 8 ¥ 8 grid spacing with proper starting point.
2. Draw a square of size of 3 grid spacing on the left face, right face and top face as shown
in Step (2).
3. MOVE the square drawn on the left face by two grid spacing along the depth direction.
Similarly, MOVE the square drawn on the right face by two grid spacing along the length
direction and the square drawn on the top face by two grid spacing along the height direction.
A cube is formed, which has its centre coinciding with the centre of the block.
4. Draw a square pyramid (apex O1) with base-edge 4 grid spacing, height 2 grid spacing and
base aligned with left face. Two slant faces of this pyramid are visible.
5. Draw a square pyramid (apex O3) with base-edge 4 grid spacing, height 2 grid spacing and
base aligned with top face. Two slant faces of this pyramid are visible.
6. Draw a square pyramid (apex O5) with base-edge 4 grid spacing, height 2 grid spacing and
base aligned with right face. Two slant faces of this pyramid are visible.
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 119

7. Erase the block lines and show a clear object. Object is a cube with six pyramids. The base
of the square pyramid is aligned with the face of the cube.

Fig. 6.21

EXAMPLE 6.4 Figure 6.22 shows the orthographic views of a general object. Draw an isometric
drawing.

Fig. 6.22
120 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Solution It is observed from all the three views that there is a cube with cylindrical hole along the
length, depth and height directions. This is shown in Fig. 6.23 as an assembly point of view.

Fig. 6.23 Assembly point of view.

Exercise

6.1 Plate 6.1 shows the orthographic views of isometric objects. Read the given step-by-step
solutions for the isometric objects in isometric views, shown in the same plate. Generate an
imagination skill with the help of simple objects. This activity helps you to generate
imagination skill and create a 3-D object using the box method. The box method is also useful
for students who are using drafter as a tool for drawing.
Model solution for the 4th object shows one possibility at step 4, however, such object
would not be possible as we cannot draw a line on the surface.
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 121

PLATE 6.1

6.2 Plate 6.2 shows the orthographic views of isometric objects. The same plate shows the
solution in isometric views. Practise for isometric views and generate an imagination skill with
the help of these simple objects.
122 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 6.2

6.3 Plate 6.3 to 6.21 shows orthographic views of 3-D objects. Generate an isometric drawing by
choosing an appropriate starting point.

PLATE 6.3
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 123

PLATE 6.4

PLATE 6.5
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PLATE 6.6

PLATE 6.7
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 125

PLATE 6.8

PLATE 6.9
126 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 6.10

PLATE 6.11
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 127

PLATE 6.12

PLATE 6.13
128 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 6.14

PLATE 6.15
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 129

PLATE 6.16

PLATE 6.17
130 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 6.18

PLATE 6.19
 CHAPTER 6: Isometric Drawing ® 131

PLATE 6.20

PLATE 6.21
7
Interpretation of Given Views

Objectives
® Learn and bring perfection in orthographic reading.
® Observe the interpretation of the given views by generating an isometric drawing.

Introduction
Orthographic reading is the ability to visualise the shape of an object from its orthographic
views. Every engineer or technician is required to possess this ability. Without this, it would be
difficult for him to execute independently any work according to a given drawing.
An engineering drawing is not read aloud. It is read mentally. The whole drawing cannot be
read or interpreted at a glance. It should be read systematically and patiently. The easiest way
to learn the reading is to learn how to prepare one. However, it is not impossible to know how
to read it without learning how to draw. In either case, a sound knowledge of the principles of
orthographic projection is quite essential for reading the drawing without hesitation. The goal
behind this chapter is to train the students in the reading ability of the orthographic views.

132
 CHAPTER 7: Interpretation of Given Views ® 133

7.1 Visualisation of an Object with Partial Information

Most students in elementary graphics courses find it difficult to imagine an object from partial
information of views. In this textbook, an attempt is made to create the reading ability and generate
a 3-D imagination skill in students with the help of a number of simple 3-D objects and a number
of simple orthographic views discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively. In this Chapter, with the
help of partial information, a student is asked to generate a 3-D object and, thereby, complete the
given partial information. The given partial information could be of the following two types.

(a) Missing line(s)

All three views are given. At least one out of three views is complete. However, out of the remaining
two views, either one view is a missing line(s) or both the views are missing line(s).

(b) Missing view

Two views are given. Both the views are complete. The third view is missing and is required to be
completed.
In both the cases, we have to draw the missing view by creating a 3-D object, i.e., an isometric
drawing. Instead of guessing a missing line or a missing view, one should start generating an
isometric drawing from the given partial information. This approach is followed in this chapter. With
this approach, both, orthographic reading ability and 3-D imagination skill can be achieved together.
Creation of an isometric drawing from the given partial information is discussed in the following
sections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2.
The block method (L ¥ D ¥ H) is used to create an isometric drawing. This method is already
described in Chapter 6.

7.1.1 Correlation of Surfaces

From a given partial information, surfaces are correlated with each other and the views are
completed without the creation of a 3-D object. Figure 7.1(a) shows TV and FV of a 3-D object. We
are asked to complete an RSV. The projection lines are drawn from TV and FV to complete the RSV
as shown in (a). Both the views (TV and FV) have got two rectangles, one smaller and one bigger.
Bigger rectangle of TV corresponds to bigger rectangle in FV. Within the limits of its projection lines
a rectangle is drawn as shown in (b). Similarly, smaller rectangle of TV corresponds to smaller
rectangle in FV. Within the limits of its projection lines a square is drawn as shown in (c). The
missing view (RSV) is completed without drawing an isometric drawing, which is shown in (d).

Fig. 7.1
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7.1.2 3-D Object Imagination with Assembly or Disassembly Approach

The assembly or disassembly is another approach proposed to complete the given partial
information. All objects may be considered as composed of elementary geometrical solids
(primitives) such as cube, rectangular cuboid, prisms, pyramids, cylinders, cones and spheres or
parts of such forms. Primitives may be either positive in the form of solid parts or negative in the
form of cavities or holes. The information is discussed in details in Section 5.5.1.

7.2 Missing Lines

Sometimes, we come across one view or two views, which miss a line(s). If all three views out of
three views miss lines then it may mislead to different object(s) or may waste our time in thinking
process. By this time a reading knowledge has been developed through a practice of drawing an
orthographic views and isometric drawing in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively. One should be able to
correlate the surfaces and lines in the given views. This correlation is to decide whether a particular
line is a principal surface or an inclined surface. It could be a skew surface if there are three area
views. The examples are set in such a fashion that, either one or two views out of three, however,
may miss a line but not all three.
This problem is as good as creating an isometric drawing from the given three views. In order
to catch a missing line, drawing an isometric view will make us to think over for a complicated
3-D object.

7.3 Missing View

In Chapter 5, we have studied that one-view drawing shows only two dimensions of a 3-D object.
Hence, it is impossible to visualise the shape of the object from a single view. The second view
shows the third dimension. Thus, at least two views are necessary to determine its shape. However,
in some cases, all three views are required to define a 3-D object.
There is a possibility of multiple objects from the given two views. Figure 7.2 (a) shows TV and
FV of a 3-D object. The third view is required to be drawn. The possible object which will not destroy
the given partial information is a cube (b). There could be other possibility of having a wedge as
shown in (c). Accordingly, the missing RSV is shown in (b¢) and (c¢), respectively. The object
definition would not be complete unless the RSV (or LSV) is drawn.

Fig. 7.2

Figure 7.3 shows a single FV drawing which satisfies a number of 3-D objects. The FV is same
for all 3-D objects (a) to (f). Therefore, for the same FV, there could be a number of possible TVs.
The possible TVs are shown for the respective 3-D object. In this case, object definition would be
complete with the help of TV and FV. If required, RSV or LSV can be drawn from TV and FV
information.
 CHAPTER 7: Interpretation of Given Views ® 135

Fig. 7.3 Multiple possibilities of object from single FV.

7.4 Direction of the Observer for the Precedence of Entities

In interpretation of given views, with partial information, it is essential to understand the precedence
of entities (lines or surfaces). Figure 7.4 shows TV, FV, LSV and RSV of a rectangular cuboid. The
direction of the observer is shown with the help of an arrow to draw one view from the other two.

Fig. 7.4 Direction of the observer for precedence of entities.

136 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

In order to draw an FV from TV and SV an F arrow is referred. To draw a TV from FV and SV,
a T arrow is referred. Similarly, to draw an SV from TV and FV an S arrow is referred. The direction
of the arrow gives us a guideline which surface comes first, which is next and which is last.

7.5 General Guidelines

The graphic language is similar to any written language and no language can be read at a glance.
A drawing must be read patiently by referring systematically, back and forth, from one view to
another. At the same time, the reader must imagine a 3-D object. There are no fixed sets of rules
which will help to get the missing line(s) or missing view rapidly. However, the following guidelines
should be helpful while solving the problems:
(i)
A “point” in projection may represent a corner or an edge of an object.
(ii)
A “line” in projection may represent an edge or a surface of an object.
(iii)
Area enclosed by one boundary in projection represents either a flat or a curved surface.
(iv)
For the given two views, it may be possible to imagine a different third view i.e., different
possible objects as discussed in Section 7.3.
(v) Project the major dimension of two given views to obtain the limiting boundary of the third
view.
(vi) Addition of surfaces/lines should not destroy the given partial information.
(vii) Object should be valid, complete and unambiguous.

7.6 Validity of an Object

The 3-D object should be valid, complete and unambiguous. A valid solid is one that does not have
dangling edge or dangling surface as shown in Fig. 7.5(a). The solid shown in Fig. 7.5(b) is
incomplete and appears to be ambiguous. The reason is that the slot feature is not complete and
clear. The line on a surface has no meaning as shown in Fig. 7.5(c).

Fig. 7.5 Validity of an object.

EXAMPLE 7.1 Figure 7.6(a) shows three views of an object. Out of three views, one view is
complete. Add missing line(s) in other view(s).
Solution
1. Project the TV, FV and RSV as shown in (a).
2. In TV and FV there is one projection line which is not covered. Therefore, both the views are
missing lines.
3. With the help of major dimensions, (L ¥ D ¥ H) draw a box.
4. Add a key feature of RSV and imagine the 3-D object, simultaneously, as shown in (b).
 CHAPTER 7: Interpretation of Given Views ® 137

Fig. 7.6

5. Add rectangular surfaces associated with every smaller edge of the key feature in a box. This
is shown in (c).
6. Make the generated 3-D object (c) as a question and the given partial information
(orthographic views) as the answer. With this, one can check that the addition of imagined
surfaces has not destroyed the given partial information.
7. Add missing line in TV and FV as shown in (d).
8. Check finally, for the 3-D object and the solution you proposed.

EXAMPLE 7.2 Figure 7.7(a) shows three views of an object. Out of three views, one view is
complete. Add the missing line(s) in the other view(s).
Solution
1. Project the TV, FV and RSV as shown in (a).
2. FV has one projection line which is not covered. Therefore, FV view is a missing line.
3. With the help of major dimensions, (L ¥ D ¥ H) draw a box.
4. Add a key feature of RSV on the right face of a box and imagine the 3-D object,
simultaneously. This is shown in (b).
5. Add rectangular surfaces associated with every edge of the key feature in a box as shown
in (c).
6. Make the generated 3-D object (c) as a question and the given partial information
(orthographic views) as answer. With this, one can check that the addition of imagined
surfaces has not destroyed the given partial information.
7. Add a missing line, which is a hidden line in FV as shown in (d). This hidden line represents
an invisible surface from the front (F) direction.
8. Check finally, for the 3-D object and the solution you proposed.

Fig. 7.7
138 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 7.3 Figure 7.8(a) shows three views of an object. Out of three views, one view is
complete. Add the missing line(s) in the other view(s).
Solution
1. Draw projection lines for all three views. It is observed that two projection lines, one in FV
and one in RSV is not covered. The TV appears to be complete.
2. With the help of major dimensions, (L ¥ D ¥ H) draw a box.
3. Draw two rectangular surfaces one on left face (shown in FV) and another on the right face
(shown in RSV) of FV and RSV, respectively. This forms a base plate as shown in (b). Draw
a square surface on the top face of the box as shown in (b).
4. Draw two rectangular slant surfaces connecting square surface with base plate as shown in
the TV. This is shown in (e).
5. Make the generated 3-D object (c) as a question and the partial information as the answer.
With this, one can check that the addition of imagined surfaces has not destroyed the given
partial information. However, the object is not complete.
6. As shown in (d), we can draw a line on a base plate connecting two slant rectangular
surfaces. The generated object is valid, complete. However, it will destroy the given partial
TV (which is complete).
7. In order to satisfy the uncovered projection lines, two vertical triangular surfaces are
constructed by drawing three lines.
8. Draw missing lines in TV and FV as shown in (f).
9. Check finally, for the 3-D object validity and the solution you proposed.

Fig. 7.8

EXAMPLE 7.4 Figure 7.9(a) shows TV and RSV of an object. Imagine the possible front view and
draw the same.
 CHAPTER 7: Interpretation of Given Views ® 139

Fig. 7.9

Solution Figure (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (f) show possible 3-D objects which can satisfy the given
two views. Accordingly, the FVs are drawn for all six possibilities as shown in the figure.

EXAMPLE 7.5 Figure 7.10(a) shows TV and FV of an object. Imagine the possible right side view
and draw the same.

Fig. 7.10

Solution
1. With the help of major dimensions, (L ¥ D ¥ H) draw a box.
2. Draw two rectangular surfaces of TV and FV at appropriate location in the box as shown in
(b).
140 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

3. Draw two lines joining the appropriate points as shown in (c) to represent the triangle of TV.
This addition also satisfies one triangle in FV.
4. Draw four lines joining the appropriate points and covering the two triangles of FV as shown
in (d).
5. Draw two lines joining the appropriate points which will satisfy the two triangles of TV as
shown in (e).
6. Complete the surface on the right most face of the box by addition of two lines as shown
in (f).
7. Make the generated 3-D object (f) as a question and the partial information as the answer.
With this, one can check that the addition of imagined surfaces has not destroyed the given
partial information. The resultant 3-D object is a valid one.
8. Draw a missing view as shown in (g).

EXAMPLE 7.6 Figure 7.11(a) shows TV and FV of an object in a third-angle method of projection.
Imagine the possible side views and draw the same.

Fig. 7.11

Solution
1. With the help of major dimensions, (L ¥ D ¥ H) draw a box.
2. Draw a key feature of FV as shown in (b).
3. Draw a key feature of FV as shown in (c).
4. Draw a square surface of TV on the top face of the box with appropriate location as shown
in (d).
5. Add square surface of FV on the left face of the box with appropriate location as shown
in (d).
6. This results in a 3-D object as shown in (d). However, this is an invalid object as lines are
drawn on the surface.
7. In order to satisfy the square in TV and FV, another option is a cubical cavity inside the object
as shown in (e). This is a valid 3-D object.
8. Draw a missing view as shown in (f).

Exercise A (Missing Lines)

7.1 Copy the given views and add the missing LINE(S) or VIEW(S) for the problems given in
Plate Nos. 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8. Change the colour of the missing line.
 CHAPTER 7: Interpretation of Given Views ® 141

PLATE 7.1

PLATE 7.2
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PLATE 7.3

PLATE 7.4
 CHAPTER 7: Interpretation of Given Views ® 143

PLATE 7.5

PLATE 7.6
144 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 7.7

PLATE 7.8
 CHAPTER 7: Interpretation of Given Views ® 145

Exercise B (Missing Views)

7.2 Copy the given views and add the missing VIEW(S) for the problems given in Plate Nos. 7.9,
7.10 and 7.11 and draw an isometric view.

PLATE 7.9

PLATE 7.10
146 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

PLATE 7.11
8
Auxiliary Projections

Objectives
® Studying auxiliary projection planes.
® Learning AutoCAD technique to obtain the true shape and desired features of an inclined surface
in an object using an auxiliary view.
® Knowing AutoCAD technique to obtain the true shape and desired features of an oblique surface
in an object using auxiliary views.

Introduction
When the surface of an object are at right angles to one another and parallel or perpendicular
to either of the three principal planes (HP, VP and PP), regular views (TV, FV and SV) are
adequate for their representation. However, if there is an inclined or an oblique surface, the
regular views will not show the true shape of the inclined or oblique surface. To show the true
shape, an auxiliary (additional) view is used. The additional view obtained on an auxiliary
projection plane is called an auxiliary view.

147
148 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

8.1 Need of Auxiliary Views

The theories underlying the principal views apply to the auxiliary views as well. In other words, an
auxiliary view shows the object as it would appear to an observer stationed at an infinite distance
away.
In commercial drafting, an auxiliary view is usually a partial view showing only the desired
information. The reason for this is that a projection showing the entire object adds very little to the
description of the shape. Showing the entire object in the auxiliary view is likely to defeat the
intended purpose of the view. For example, a complete drawing must include an auxiliary view of
the inclined surface to show the true shape of the surface, profile and the location of the holes.
Figure 8.1 shows an object with an inclined surface. A square hole is cut through the object,
which is perpendicular to the inclined surface as shown in the figure.

(a) Object (b) Views

(c) Use of auxiliary plane to obtain the true shape with an auxiliary view

Fig. 8.1 Inclined surface.

Figure 8.1(b) shows three views TV, FV and LSV. In all three primary views, the details of the
holes are not clear because the surface is inclined and the hole is perpendicular to the inclined
surface. In order to view a true shape of the inclined surface and true shape of the hole-profile, either
the object or the observer should be adjusted in such a way that the visual rays are perpendicular
to the inclined surface and parallel to the interior hole surface.
 CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Projections ® 149

Figure 8.1(c) shows an additional (auxiliary) view with the help of an additional (auxiliary)
projection plane (x1 – y1) parallel to the inclined surface. This view shows a true shape of the inclined
surface, the true shape of a square hole as well as location of square hole with respect to the
inclined surface.
Therefore, a partial auxiliary view is often needed to complete the description of a foreshortened
feature in a principal view. Another important function of auxiliary view is to complete a principal
view.

8.2 Types of Auxiliary Projection Planes

Auxiliary projection planes may have an infinite number of positions in relation to the three principal
planes of projections (HP, VP and PP). Based on the orientation of the projection plane relative to
the three principal planes, the auxiliary planes are classified.

Projection plane perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP and PP

In addition to the three primary projection planes, an additional projection plane which is
perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP and PP is used to obtain a true shape of an inclined surface
which is also perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP and PP. This plane of projection is called
auxiliary vertical plane (AVP). Figure 8.2 shows the orientation of AVP with reference to the primary
projection planes.

Fig. 8.2 Auxiliary plane perpendicular to HP.

Projection plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP and PP

In addition to the three primary projection planes, an additional projection plane which is
perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP and PP is used to obtain a true shape of an inclined surface
which is also perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP and PP. This plane of projection is called
auxiliary inclined plane (AIP). Figure 8.3 shows orientation AIP with reference to the primary
projection planes. This AIP is perpendicular to VP.
150 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 8.3 Auxiliary plane perpendicular to VP.

Projection plane perpendicular to PP and inclined to HP and VP

In addition to the three primary projection planes, an additional projection plane which is
perpendicular to PP and inclined to HP and VP is used to obtain a true shape of an inclined surface
which is also perpendicular to the PP and inclined to HP and VP. This plane of projection is also
called auxiliary inclined plane (AIP). Figure 8.4 shows orientation of AIP with reference to the primary
projection planes. This AIP is perpendicular to PP.

Fig. 8.4 Auxiliary plane perpendicular to PP.

Projection plane inclined to HP, VP and PP

In addition to the three primary projection planes, an additional projection plane which is inclined to
HP, VP and PP is used to obtain a true shape of an inclined surface which is also inclined to HP,
VP and PP. This plane of projection is called auxiliary oblique plane (AOP). Figure 8.5 shows
orientation of AOP with reference to the primary projection planes.
 CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Projections ® 151

Fig. 8.5 Auxiliary plane inclined to HP, VP and PP.

8.3 Techniques to Obtain Auxiliary Views

There are two techniques to obtain the true shape of the surface ABCD.
(a) Traditional drafting technique
(b) AutoCAD drafting technique
In order to understand the use of four types of auxiliary projection planes four cases are discussed.
First three cases are to obtain the true shape of an inclined surface. The fourth case is to obtain
the true shape of an oblique surface.
Case I: Surface is perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP and PP
Figure 8.6 shows an object with shaded surface ABCD perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP and
PP. On left side, projections are drawn to show the TV and FV of the object. The FV shows an
apparent shape (AS) of the surface. The TV shows a line view for the inclined surface. Therefore,
we require an AVP parallel to the surface ABCD to obtain a true shape of the surface ABCD.

Fig. 8.6 Inclined surface perpendicular to HP.

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8.3.1 Traditional Drafting Technique

In this technique, additional plane AVP (x1y1) is arranged parallel to the surface ABCD to obtain a
true shape of the surface.

Drafting procedure (Refer to Fig. 8.7)

1. Draw a x1y1 line parallel to the line view a,d-b,c of surface ABCD in the TV region. Line x1y1
is a line view of AVP sufficiently closure to the line view of the inclined surface (a,d-b,c).
2. Draw perpendicular lines (projectors) from a,d and b,c intersecting x1y1 line and projecting
further.
3. Measure the distance of a, b, c and d in FV from xy line.
4. Plot them on respective projector line through a,d and b,c from the x1y1 line. Name these as
A, B, C and D.
5. Join these plotted points A, B, C and D. ABCD represents the true shape of the surface.
The traditional drafting technique is laborious in relation to measuring and plotting the distances
to get the key points for the true shape.

Fig. 8.7 Traditional drafting technique to obtain a true shape.

8.3.2 AutoCAD Drafting Technique

In this technique, the object position is changed so that the inclined surface becomes either parallel
to HP or VP or PP. Accordingly, one can obtain the true shape on TV, FV or SV, respectively. This
3-D imagination is easily produced on a 2-D drawing using AutoCAD technique.
The TV of Fig. 8.6 shows a line view of surface ABCD. The FV shows an apparent shape of the
surface ABCD. In order to obtain the true shape of the inclined surface, the object in Fig. 8.6, is
rotated about AD (or BC) till the surface ABCD becomes parallel to VP and perpendicular to visual
rays of the observer viewing in FV direction (F arrow).

Drafting procedure (Refer to Fig. 8.8)

The TV shows a line view of surface ABCD. The FV shows an apparent shape of the same.
1. COPY the TV and place it adjacent to itself.
2. ROTATE the copied TV with respect to ‘a, d’ till the line view (a,d-b,c) becomes parallel to
the xy line.
 CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Projections ® 153

3. Project the marked cross points from the second stage TV and the first stage FV. Intersection
of projection lines give us the key points to draw a true shape (TS) of the inclined surface
ABCD.

Fig. 8.8 AutoCAD drafting technique to obtain a true shape.

Case II: Surface is perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP and PP

Figure 8.9 shows an object with shaded surface ABCD perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP and
PP. On the left side, projections are drawn to show the TV and FV of the object. The TV shows an
apparent shape (AS) of the surface. The FV shows a line view for the inclined surface. Therefore,
we require an AIP parallel to the surface ABCD to obtain a true shape of the surface. This AIP would
be perpendicular to VP.

Fig. 8.9 Inclined surface perpendicular to VP.

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8.3.3 Traditional Drafting Technique

In this technique, additional plane AIP (x1y1) is arranged parallel to the surface ABCD to obtain a
true shape of the surface.

Drafting procedure (Refer to Fig. 8.10)

1. Draw a x1y1 line parallel to the line view (a,b-c,d) of surface ABCD in the FV region. Line x1y1
is a line view of AIP sufficiently closer to the line view of the inclined surface (a,b-c,d).
2. Draw perpendicular lines (projectors) from a,b and c,d intersecting x1y1 line and projecting
further.
3. Measure the distance of a, b, c and d in TV from xy line.
4. Plot them on respective projector line through a,b and c,d from the x1y1 line. Name these as
A, B, C and D.
5. Join these plotted points A, B C and D. ABCD represents the true shape of the surface.

Fig. 8.10 Traditional drafting technique to obtain a true shape.

8.3.4 AutoCAD Drafting Technique

The FV of Fig. 8.9 shows a line view of surface ABCD. The TV shows an apparent shape of the
surface ABCD. In order to obtain the true shape of the inclined surface, the object in Fig. 8.9, is
rotated about AB (or CD) till the surface ABCD becomes parallel to PP and perpendicular to visual
rays of the observer viewing in RSV direction (RSV arrow).

Drafting procedure (Refer to Fig. 8.11)

The FV shows a line view of surface ABCD. The TV shows an apparent shape of the same.
1. COPY the FV and place it adjacent to itself.
2. ROTATE the copied FV with respect to ‘a, b’ till the line view (a,b-c,d) becomes parallel to
the xy line.
3. Project the marked cross points from the second stage FV and the first stage TV. Intersection
of projection lines give us the key points to draw a true shape (TS) of the inclined surface
ABCD.
 CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Projections ® 155

Fig. 8.11 AutoCAD drafting technique to obtain a true shape.

In all three cases, one auxiliary projection plane is required to obtain the true shape of the
inclined surface, therefore, it is also called single auxiliary projection and the obtained true shape,
single auxiliary view.
Case III: Surface is perpendicular to PP and inclined to HP and VP
Figure 8.12 shows an object with shaded surface ABCD perpendicular to the PP and inclined to HP
and VP. On left side, projections are drawn to show TV, FV and SV of the object. The TV and FV
show an apparent shape of the surface. The RSV shows a line view (a,b-c,d) of the inclined surface.
Therefore, we require an AIP parallel to the surface ABCD to obtain a true shape of the surface
ABCD. The AIP would be perpendicular to PP. The traditional drafting technique is not discussed
for this case.

Fig. 8.12 Inclined surface perpendicular to PP.

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8.3.5 AutoCAD Drafting Technique

In order to obtain the true shape of the inclined surface, the object in Fig. 8.12, is rotated about CD
(or AB) till the surface ABCD becomes parallel to VP and perpendicular to visual rays of observer
viewing in FV direction (F arrow).

Drafting procedure (Refer to Fig. 8.13)

The RSV shows a line view of surface ABCD. The FV shows an apparent shape of the same.
1. COPY the RSV and place it (as shown by arrow) on the top of itself.
2. ROTATE the copied RSV with respect to ‘c, d’ till the line view (c,d-a,b) becomes parallel to
the YY line.
3. Project the marked cross points from the second stage RSV and the first stage FV.
Intersection of projection lines give us the key points to draw a true shape (TS) of the inclined
surface ABCD.

Fig. 8.13 AutoCAD drafting technique to obtain a true shape.

Case IV Surface is inclined to HP, VP and PP (an oblique surface)

Figure 8.14 shows an object with shaded surface ABC inclined to HP, VP and PP. On left side,
projections are drawn to show the TV and FV of the object. The TV and FV show an apparent shape
of the surface. Therefore, we require an AOP (auxiliary oblique plane) parallel to the surface ABC
to obtain a true shape of the surface ABC.
In obtaining the true view of the inclined surface by single auxiliary projection it is necessary to
locate a line view of the inclined surface. However, a skew surface does not appear in its line view
in any of the primary views (TV, FV and SV). It is necessary to first obtain a line view of skew surface
by first auxiliary projection before its true shape can be drawn by second auxiliary projection. Hence,
the procedure for obtaining the true shape of skew surfaces is termed double auxiliary projection and
the obtained true shape as double auxiliary view.
 CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Projections ® 157

Fig. 8.14 AutoCAD drafting technique to obtain a true shape.

8.3.6 AutoCAD Drafting Technique

In order to obtain a line view of skew surface, first an auxiliary plane is required which is
perpendicular to one of the edges of the skew surface. This is shown in Fig. 8.15. The edge AB,
being perpendicular to the projection plane, falls into a point view (a,b). Therefore, the skew surface
ABC falls into a line view (a,b-c).

Fig. 8.15 Projection plane to obtain a line view of skew surface.

Drafting procedure
The TV and FV of Fig. 8.16 shows an apparent shape of the skew surface ABC.
1. Locate a true length.
158 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 8.16 AutoCAD drafting technique to obtain a true shape.

How to locate a true length?

This is discussed in Chapter 9 “Projections of Straight Lines”. However, one simple clue is given
over here. Any inclined line for which the other view is parallel to the xy line, represents a true length
for the same. In this example, in the TV, ab is inclined. In the FV, ab is parallel to the xy line.
Therefore, ab shows a true length. (Similarly, ac in the FV, also represents a true length as ac in
the TV is parallel to the xy line.)
2. COPY the surface a-b-c in the TV, in which we have ab as a true length and place it adjacent
to itself.
3. ROTATE the copied surface a-b-c with respect to ‘a’ such that the true length ab becomes
perpendicular to the xy line.
4. Project the marked cross points from the second stage TV and first stage FV. Intersection of
projection lines gives us a line view (a,b-c) of the skew surface a-b-c. The second stage is
a problem of an inclined surface, (i.e., a line view and an apparent shape).
5. COPY the line view a-b-c and place it adjacent to itself.
6. ROTATE the copied line view in the third stage with respect to a,b point till it becomes parallel
to the xy line.
7. Project the cross points of the third stage FV and second stage TV to get the key points to
draw a true shape (TS) of the skew surface.

EXAMPLE 8.1 The TV of Fig. 8.17(a) shows a line view of an inclined surface. The FV of
Fig. 8.17(a) shows an apparent shape (AS) of the inclined surface. Obtain the true shape of the
inclined surface.

Fig. 8.17
 CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Projections ® 159

Solution
1. COPY the TV and place it adjacent to itself.
2. ROTATE the copied TV with respect to ‘O’ till the line view becomes parallel to the x-y line
as shown in (b).
3. Project the marked cross points from the second stage TV and the first stage FV. Intersection
of projection lines give us the key points to draw a true shape (TS) of the inclined surface.
This is shown in (b).

EXAMPLE 8.2 The FV of Fig. 8.18(a) shows a line view of an inclined surface. The TV of
Fig. 8.18(a) shows an apparent shape (AS) of the inclined surface. Obtain the true shape of the
inclined surface.

Fig. 8.18

Solution
1. COPY the FV and place it adjacent to itself.
2. ROTATE the copied FV with respect to ‘O’ till the line view becomes parallel to the x-y line
as shown in (b).
3. Project the marked cross points from the second stage FV and the first stage TV. Intersection
of projection lines give us the key points to draw a true shape (TS) of the inclined surface.
This is shown in (b).

EXAMPLE 8.3 Figure 8.19 (a) shows projections (TV and FV) of a skew surface. Both the views
show an apparent shape (AS) of the skew surface. Obtain the true shape of the skew surface.

Fig. 8.19
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Solution
1. Mark and number the corresponding corner points on the skew surface in both the views.
2. Locate a true length in either of the given views. (In this case, 1-5 in the FV can be taken
as a true length. One can choose 1-2 or 4-5 as true lengths in the TV. One can also choose
2-3 as a true length in the FV.)
3. COPY the surface 1-2-3-4-5 in the FV, in which we have one true length (1-5) and place it
adjacent to itself.
4. ROTATE the surface 1-2-3-4-5 with respect to ‘1’ such that the true length, 1-5, becomes
perpendicular to the xy line.
5. Project the marked cross points from the second stage FV and first stage TV. Intersection of
projection lines gives us a line view (1,5-4-2,3) of the skew surface 1-2-3-4-5. The second
stage is a problem of an inclined surface (i.e., a line view and an apparent shape).
6. COPY the line view 1,5-4-2,3 and place it adjacent to itself.
7. ROTATE the copied line view in the third stage with respect to 1,5 point till it becomes parallel
to the xy line.
8. Project the cross points of the third stage TV and second stage FV to get the key points to
draw a true shape (TS) of the skew surface.

EXAMPLE 8.4 Figure 8.20 (a) shows projection (TV and FV) of a skew surface. Both the views
show an apparent shape (AS) of the skew surface. Obtain the true shape of the skew surface.

Fig. 8.20

Solution (a)
1. Mark and number the corresponding corner points on the skew surface in both the views.
2. Locate a true length in either of the given views. (No true length is available in both the views
as none of the edges in both the views is parallel to the xy line. Now, need has arised to
obtain a true length).
3. COPY the TV of first stage and place adjacent to itself.
4. ROTATE the copied TV about point ‘a’ till the edge ‘a-c’ becomes parallel to xy.
5. Project the second stage TV and first stage FV and obtain a second stage FV. (Now, we have
one edge ac which has one view parallel to xy line and another view inclined to the xy line.
The inclined line ‘a-c’ has a true length).
6. COPY the surface a-b-c of second stage FV, in which we have one true length and place it
adjacent to itself.
7. ROTATE the copied surface a-b-c with respect to ‘a’ such that the true length a-c becomes
perpendicular to the xy line.
 CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Projections ® 161

8. Project the marked cross points from the third stage FV and second stage TV. Intersection
of the projection lines give us a line view (a,c-b) of the skew surface a-b-c. (The third stage
is a problem of an inclined surface i.e., a line view and an apparent shape).
9. COPY the line view a,c-b and place it adjacent to itself.
10. ROTATE the line view in the fourth stage with respect to a,c point till it becomes parallel to
the xy line.
11. Project the cross points of the fourth stage TV and third stage FV to get the key points to draw
a true shape (TS) of the skew surface.
Solution (b) [Alternate solution for EXAMPLE 8.4; (Refer to Fig. 8.21)]
1. Mark and name the corresponding corner points on the skew surface in both the views.
2. Draw a guest LINE from ‘a’ parallel to the xy line intersecting bc at d.
3. Project point ‘d’ to the FV on bc and join with ‘a’. Line ‘ad’ represents a true length as the
TV for the same is parallel to the xy line.
4. COPY the surface a-b-d-c of first stage FV, in which we have one true length and place it
adjacent to itself.
5. ROTATE the surface a-b-d-c with respect to ‘a’ such that the true length a-d becomes
perpendicular to the xy line.
6. Project the marked cross points from the second stage FV and first stage TV. Intersection of
projection lines gives us a line view (c-a,d-b) of the skew surface c-d-b-a. (The second stage
is a problem of an inclined surface i.e., a line view and apparent shape).
7. COPY the line view c-a,d-b and place it adjacent to itself.
8. ROTATE the copied line view in the third stage with respect to c till it becomes parallel to
the xy line.
9. Project the cross points of the third stage TV and second stage FV to get the key points to
draw a true shape (TS) of the skew surface.

Fig. 8.21

Exercise A (Single Auxiliary View)

8.1 (a) P1 and P2 of Plate 8.1 show a single auxiliary technique to obtain a true shape of the
inclined surface from a line view. Use the same technique to solve P3, P4, P5, P6, P7
and P8 to obtain their respective true shapes.
(b) Copy two necessary views in P1 to P12 problems of Plate 8.2 and obtain the true shape
of the inclined surface. The projections are drawn in the III-quadrant.
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PLATE 8.1

PLATE 8.2

Exercise B (Double Auxiliary View)

8.1 (a) P1 of Plate 8.3 shows a double auxiliary technique to obtain a true shape of an oblique
surface from a line view. Use the same technique to solve P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7 and
P8 to obtain their respective true shapes.
 CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Projections ® 163

PLATE 8.3

(b) Copy two necessary views in Plate 8.4 and 8.5 problems and obtain the true shape of the
inclined or skew surface.

PLATE 8.4
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PLATE 8.5
PART III
Descriptive Geometry
9
Projection of Straight Lines

Objectives
® Learn the description of quadrant on a plane of paper.
® Observe the projection of point.
® Study the projection of straight lines in a 3-D space.
® Know the projection of intersection of planes and straight lines.

Introduction
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. Hence, the projections of a straight
line may be drawn by joining the respective projections of its ends which are points. The
knowledge of projection of straight lines is very useful in the field of underground pipelines and
air conditioning ducts in order to find out the shortest distance, inclinations as well as location
of their intersection point with walls and ground. The knowledge of projection of straight lines
is also useful for the management of air traffic.
Before we look into the projection of straight lines, it is necessary to understand the
description of quadrant on a plane of paper with respect to the principal planes and projection
of points.

167
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9.1 Object in Four Quadrant

With the help of the principal planes (HP, VP) four quadrants can be formed as shown in Fig. 9.1.
The object is located in any one of the quadrant and the position of the object is described with
reference to the principal planes (HP and VP). The object (entity) can be a point, a straight line, a
plane or a solid. The position of any object with reference to a particular quadrant can be described
as:
1. Above HP and in front of VP, if it is in I-quadrant.
2. Above HP and behind VP, if it is in II-quadrant.
3. Below HP and behind VP, if it is in III-quadrant.
4. Below HP and in front of VP, if it is in IV-quadrant.

Fig. 9.1 Four quadrants.

Figure 9.2 shows point as an object and its position is described with the help of the principal planes
HP and VP. Point ‘A’ is above HP and in front of VP in I-quadrant. Point ‘B’ is above HP and behind
VP in II-quadrant. Point ‘C’ is below HP and behind VP in III-quadrant. Point ‘D’ is below HP and
in front of VP in IV-quadrant.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 169

Fig. 9.2 Projection of points in I, II, III and IV-quadrant (3-D view).

9.2 2-D Description of Quadrants

In order to communicate the design and drawing ideas it is always necessary to know the 2-D
description of a quadrant on a plane of paper. The knowledge of 2-D description helps to avoid the
imagination of the team members involved in the discussion of design and development of the
product. This knowledge will be useful to understand the projection of straight lines, planes, solids,
section of solids, development of surfaces of solids and intersection of surfaces of solids. The
following topic focusses on the 2-D description of an individual quadrant with reference to a point
as an object.

9.3 Projections of Point

In order to understand the 2-D description of a quadrant, individual quadrants are considered and
a point is chosen as an entity. The reason to choose a point as an entity, is solid, surface and
straight line all represent a set of points. While discussing the description of a quadrant on a plane
of paper, few important observations are summarised below:
∑ The xy line represents a FV of HP and TV of VP for the given position of the observer.
∑ Distance measured with respect to HP gives the FV location of a point and distance
measured with respect to VP gives the TV location of a point.
∑ In order to show the projection on a drawing sheet, the HP is rotated through 90° towards
the feet of the observer.
Case 1: Point ‘A’ in the I-Quadrant
Point ‘A’ is located 75 mm above HP and 125 mm in front of VP. Its TV (a) appears on the HP and
the FV (a¢) appears on the VP. Orthographic view shows the FV above xy line and the TV below
xy line after the rotation of HP through 90°.
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Case 2: Point ‘B’ in the II-Quadrant

Point ‘B’ is located 50 mm above HP and 150 mm behind VP. Its TV (b) appears on the HP and
the FV (b¢) appears on the VP. Orthographic view shows that the FV as well as the TV are above
xy line after the rotation of HP through 90°.

Case 3: Point ‘C’ in the III-Quadrant

Point ‘C’ is located 100 mm below HP and 100 mm behind VP. Its TV (c) appears on the HP and
the FV (c¢) appears on the VP. Orthographic view shows the TV above xy line and the FV below
xy line after the rotation of HP through 90°.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 171

Case 4: Point ‘D’ in the IV-Quadrant

Point ‘D’ is located 125 mm below HP and 75 mm in front of VP. Its TV (d) appears on the HP and
the FV (d¢) appears on the VP. Orthographic view shows that the FV as well as the TV are below
xy line after the rotation of HP through 90°.

Figure 9.3(a) shows the 2-D description of I- and III-quadrants together for immediate comparison.
This information is very useful for the projection of points, straight lines, plane surfaces and solids.

Fig. 9.3(a) 2-D description for I and III quadrant (comparison).

Fig. 9.3(b) 2-D description for II- and IV-quadrant (comparison).

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Figure 9.3(b) shows the 2-D description of II- and IV-quadrants together for immediate
comparison. This information is very useful for the projection of points, and straight lines. Straight
line problems are required to be solved in any quadrant. In some cases of straight lines, one end
point is in one quadrant and another endpoint is in the other quadrant. From the application point
of view, the pipelines in a complicated building structure runs from one room to another room either
for water flow or conditioned air flow.

9.4 Projection of Lines

Figure 9.4(a) shows projection of straight lines which are parallel to both HP and VP with various
orientations. The line which is parallel to any two principal planes is called a principal line. The
following five cases of principal lines are discussed with reference to Fig. 9.4.
1. Line is parallel to both HP and VP: Both TV (ab) and FV (a¢b¢) show true length.
2. Line is in HP and parallel to VP: The FV (a¢b¢) lies on xy line. The line (AB) itself becomes
a TV. Both the views show the true length.
3. Line is in VP and parallel to HP: The TV (ab) lies on xy line. The line (AB) itself becomes
an FV. Therefore, both the views show true length.
4. Line is perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP: FV is a point view (a¢,b¢) and TV (ab)
shows a true length.
5. Line is perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP: TV is a point view (a,b) and FV (a¢b¢)
shows a true length.
The straight line in all these five cases is called a principal line.
6. Line inclined q ° to HP and f° to VP (with q + f = 90°): The top view and front view show
an apparent length. The true length can be obtained from the side view.

(a)
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 173

(b)

(c)
Fig. 9.4 Various positions of straight lines with respect to principal planes.
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7. Line inclined f° to VP and parallel to HP: TV (ab) shows a true length and FV (a¢b¢)
shows an apparent length.
8. Line inclined q ° to HP and parallel to VP: FV (a¢b¢) shows a true length and TV (ab)
shows an apparent length.
The straight line in the cases: 6, 7 and 8, is called as inclined line.
9. Line inclined to q ° HP and f° to VP: TV (ab) and FV (a¢b¢) both show an apparent length.
The straight line in this case is called a skew line.

9.5 Inclined Lines

We have seen in Section 9.4 that principal lines show true lengths in two views, inclined lines show
true length in one view and apparent length in another view. Following EXAMPLES 9.1 and 9.2
discuss how to draw the projections of inclined line if endpoint locations are given.

EXAMPLE 9.1 Line AB 200 mm long has its end A 75 mm above HP and 50 mm in front of VP.
Endpoint B is in I-quadrant. The line is parallel to VP and makes an inclination of 30° to HP. Draw
projections of the straight line AB.
Solution:
Stage I
1. Draw xy line, which represents FV of HP for FV region and TV of VP in TV region.
2. Locate FV a¢ 75 mm above xy line as point A is 75 mm above HP.
3. Locate TV a 50 mm below xy line as point A is 50 mm in front of VP.
4. Draw a line of 200 mm length parallel to HP and VP. Both the views show true lengths.
Therefore, a¢b¢ coincides with A¢B¢ and ab coincides with AB.
Stage II
5. Rotate the TL in FV to make an inclination of 30° to HP.
6. Project B¢ to obtain the TV of B as b. ab represents an apparent length (AL).

EXAMPLE 9.2 Line AB 200 mm long has its end A 75 mm above HP and 50 mm in front of VP.
Endpoint B is in I-quadrant. The line is parallel to HP and makes an inclination of 40° to VP. Draw
projections of the straight line AB.
Solution:
Stage-I
1. Draw xy line, which represents FV of HP for FV region and TV of VP in TV region.
2. Locate FV a¢ 75 mm above xy line as point A is 75 mm above HP.
3. Locate TV a 50 mm below xy line as point A is 50 mm in front of VP.
4. Draw a line of 200 mm length parallel to HP and VP. Both the views show true lengths.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 175

Stage-II
5. Rotate the TL in TV to make an inclination of 40° to VP.
6. Project B to obtain the FV of B as b¢. a¢b¢ represents an apparent length (AL).

9.6 Projection of a Skew Line

If a line is inclined q ° to HP and parallel to VP, its TV length is shorter than its true length (refer
to EXAMPLE 9.1). Similarly, if a line is inclined f° to VP and parallel to HP, its FV length is shorter
than its true length (refer to EXAMPLE 9.2). Line inclined to both the principal planes, i.e., q ° to HP
and f° to VP, is called a skew line. If a line is inclined to both the principal planes, then its TV and
FV lengths are shorter than its true length. These shorter lengths are called apparent lengths and
will be inclined at apparent angles to the xy line in their orthographic view.
The problem of projection of skew line is formulated in two types. The order of solution is just
the reverse for the two types: Type (A) and Type (B).
Type (A): The true lengths and true inclinations are given. Find out the apparent lengths and
apparent inclinations.
Type (B): The apparent lengths and apparent inclinations are given. Find out the true lengths and
true inclinations.
Before we look into the solution for both the types of problem, notations are defined for true lengths
TL, true inclinations TI, apparent lengths AL and apparent inclinations AI. These notations are shown
for a line AB in the following table:

Lengths TL AL Angles TI AI
TV AB ab HP q a
FV A¢B¢ a¢b¢ VP f b

Type (A)
True lengths (AB and A¢B¢) and true inclinations (q, f) are seen in Fig. 9.5 (a). We are required to
find out the apparent lengths (ab, a¢b¢) and apparent inclinations (a, b ). The endpoints A and B are
located in the I-quadrant. The solution is obtained in two stages:
Stage I: Assume the line is inclined q ° to HP and parallel to VP. Draw its projections. (Refer to
Fig. 9.5)
(a) Fix the endpoint ‘A’ so that point A and a coincides in TV and point A¢ and a¢ coincides
in FV.
(b) Assume the line is inclined q ° to HP and parallel to VP. Project B¢ on the locus line passing
through a. ab1 represents an apparent length [Fig. 9.5 (b)].
(c) Draw a locus line for TV of B i.e., b passing through point B. Draw an arc with a, A as centre
and ab1 as radius cutting locus line passing through B. The intersection of locus line and
arc gives b. The apparent length ab makes inclination b ° with VP [Fig. 9.5 (c)].
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Fig. 9.5 Obtaining projections of a skew line.

Stage II: Assume the line is inclined f° to VP and parallel to HP. Draw its projections. (Refer to
Fig. 9.6).
(d) Assume the line is inclined f° to VP and parallel to HP. Project B on the locus line passing
through a¢. a¢b¢1 represents an apparent length [Fig. 9.6 (d)].
(e) Draw a locus line for FV of B i.e., b¢ passing through point B¢. Draw an arc with a¢, A¢ as
centre and a¢b¢1 as radius cutting the locus line passing through B¢. The intersection of locus
line and arc gives b¢. The apparent length a¢b¢ makes inclination a ° with HP [Fig. 9.6 (e)].

Fig. 9.6 Obtaining projections of a skew line.

Figure 9.7 shows a solution combining Stage I and Stage II. In this example, both the endpoints are
in the same quadrant. In some cases, one endpoint is located in one quadrant and another end point
is located in another quadrant. Some observations are summarised in order to solve such
complicated problems.

Observations: (Refer to Fig. 9.7)

1. The projections (apparent lengths: ab and a¢b¢) have got common end projectors a¢-a and
b¢-b.
2. The apparent angles are greater than the true angles, i.e., a > q and b > f.
3. The path to obtain TV of B, i.e., b is:
{B¢–[Projection up to a locus line passing through a]–b1–[Rotation]–b}
4. The path to obtain FV of B, i.e., b¢ is
{B–[Projection up to a locus line passing through a¢]–b¢1–[Rotation]–b¢}
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 177

TL TI AL AI
TV AB q ab a
FV A¢B¢ f a¢b¢ b

Fig. 9.7 Combining Stage I and Stage II.

Type (B)
Follow a reverse order of solution given for Type (A). In this type, we know b and b¢ and we are
required to find B and B¢. The path to obtain B¢ is
{b–[Rotation]–b1–[Projection up to a locus line passing through b¢]–B¢}. The path to obtain B is
{b'–[Rotation]–b¢1–[Projection up to a locus line passing through b]–B}.

EXAMPLE 9.3 Line AB 200 mm long has its end A 75 mm above HP and 50 mm in front of VP.
Endpoint B is in I-quadrant. The line makes an angle of 30° to HP and 40° to VP. Draw the
projections of the straight line AB and find the apparent inclinations.
Solution In EXAMPLE 9.1, the line is inclined 30° to HP and in EXAMPLE 9.2, the line is inclined
40° to VP. In this problem, the line is inclined 30° to HP and 40° to VP. The solution for this problem
is a combination of the solutions of EXAMPLES 9.1 and 9.2.
1. Draw xy line, which represents FV of HP for FV region and TV of VP for TV region.
2. Locate a¢ 75 mm above xy line, as point A is 75 mm above HP.
3. Locate a 50 mm below xy line, as point A is 50 mm in front of VP.
4. Fix the endpoint A so that a will coincide with A¢ and a¢ will coincide with A¢.
Stage I Line is q ° to HP and parallel to VP
5. Draw a line A¢B¢ of 200 mm length and at inclination 30° to the xy line.
6. Draw a locus for point b1 passing through point a and parallel to the xy line.
7. Project B¢ on this locus to obtain the TV of B as b1. However, b1 is a guest TV of point B
and not the final one.
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Stage II Line is f° to VP and parallel to HP

8. Draw a line AB of 200 mm length and at inclination 40° to the xy line.
9. Draw a locus for point b¢1 passing through point a¢ and parallel to the xy line.
10. Project point B on this locus to obtain the FV of B as b¢1. However, b¢1 is a guest FV of point
B and not the final one.

Now, two solutions are combined and shown below.

Stage III Line is q ° to HP and f° to VP

Now the target is to obtain projections of point B (b and b¢) and apparent inclinations, which ab
makes with VP as b and a¢b¢ makes with HP as a.
11. Draw an arc with centre a¢ and radius a¢b¢1 till it cuts the locus of FV of point B and obtain
point view b¢.
12. Join a¢b¢ and determine inclination a° to HP, (a =39°).
13. Draw an arc with centre a and radius ab1 till it cuts the locus of TV of point B and obtain the
point view b.
14. Join ab and determine the inclination b ° to VP, (b = 45°).
At this stage, a student is required to imagine and follow the procedure given below in order to
understand the solution.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 179

First imagine the line is q ° to HP and parallel to VP (Fig. 9.8)

Fix the endpoint A and move the end point B in a horizontal plane so that the inclination q ° to HP
will be maintained. Move the point B in the horizontal plane till the line AB makes an inclination f°
to VP. The movement in the horizontal plane appears along a horizontal line in the FV, which is
referred as locus of FV of B to obtain point b¢. At this stage, the line is a skew line because it is
inclined q ° to HP and f° to VP.

Fig. 9.8

Now imagine the line is f° to VP and parallel to HP (Fig. 9.9)

Fix the endpoint A and move the endpoint B in a vertical plane so that the inclination f° to VP will
be maintained. Move the point B in the vertical plane till the line AB makes an inclination q ° to HP.
The movement in the vertical plane appears along a horizontal line in the TV, which is referred as
the locus of TV of B to obtain point b. At this stage, the line is a skew line because it is inclined
f° to VP and q ° to HP.
180 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 9.9

EXAMPLE 9.4 Line AB has its end A 75 mm above HP and 50 mm in front of VP. The other end
B is 175 mm above HP and 175 mm in front of VP. The projector distance is 275 mm. Draw
projections of line AB. Obtain the true length and true inclinations.
Solution Both the endpoints (A and B) are above HP and in front of VP, therefore, the line AB is
in the I-quadrant.
Stage I (Projection of EndPoints)
1. Locate a¢ 75 mm above xy line, as point A is 75 mm above HP.
2. Locate a 50 mm below xy line, as point A is 50 mm in front of VP.
3. Fix the endpoint A so that a will coincide with A and a¢ will coincide with A¢.
4. Locate a projector grid line for point views b and b¢, which is 275 mm away from a projector
grid line passing through point views a and a¢.
5. Locate b¢ 175 mm above xy line, as point B is 175 mm above HP.
6. Locate b 175 mm below xy line, as point B is 175 mm in front of VP.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 181

Stage II Obtaining the True Length and True Inclination in the TV

7. Rotate the apparent length a¢b¢ with centre a¢ and radius a¢b¢ till it becomes parallel to xy line
and obtain point b¢1.
8. Now project point b¢1 to cut locus of TV of point B and obtain point B.
9. Join points A and B to obtain true length in the TV.
10. Measure inclination of line AB w.r.t. VP (f°).

Stage III Obtaining the True Length and True Inclination in the FV
11. Rotate another apparent length ab with centre a and radius ab till it becomes parallel to
xy line and obtain point b1.
12. Now project point b1 to cut the locus of FV of point B and obtain point B¢.
13. Join points A¢ and B¢ to obtain the true length in the FV.
14. Measure the inclination of line A¢B¢ w.r.t. HP as (q °).
15. The final solution is shown below combining Stage II and Stage III.
182 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Note: Students are required to draw the solution in one stage as shown below.

EXAMPLE 9.5 Line AB has its end A 75 mm above HP and 50 mm in front of VP. The other end
B is 175 mm behind VP and 125 mm below HP. The projector distance is 275 mm. Draw projections
of line AB. Obtain the true length and true inclinations.
Solution The point A is above HP and in front of VP, therefore, it is in the I-quadrant and the point
B is behind VP and below HP, therefore, it is in the III-quadrant. For point A, the quadrant description
is written to the left side. Therefore, for point A, the FV region is above xy line and TV region is below
xy line. Similarly, for point B, the quadrant description is written to the right side. Therefore, for point
B, the TV region is above xy line and FV region is below xy line.
Stage I (Projection of End Points)
1. Locate a¢ 75 mm above xy line, as point A is 75 mm above HP.
2. Locate a 50 mm below xy line, as point A is 50 mm in front of VP.
3. Fix the endpoint A so that a will coincide with A and a¢ will coincide with A¢.
4. Locate a projector line for point views b and b¢, which is 275 mm away from a projector line
passing through point views a and a¢.
5. Locate b 175 mm above xy line, as point A is 175 mm behind VP.
6. Locate b¢ 125 mm below xy line, as point B is 125 mm below HP.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 183

Stage II Obtaining the true length and true inclination in the FV

7. Rotate apparent length ab with centre a and radius ab till it becomes parallel to the xy line
and obtain projection b1.
8. Now project b1 to cut locus of FV of point B and obtain B¢.
9. Join points A¢ and B¢ to obtain the true length in the FV.
10. Measure inclination of A¢B¢ w.r.t. HP as q referring to the right side description of quadrant.
(FV makes an angle with HP, q = 29°).

Stage III (Obtaining the true length and true inclination in the TV region)
11. Rotate another apparent length a¢b¢ with centre a¢ and radius a¢b¢ till it becomes parallel to
xy line and obtain projection b¢1.
12. Now project b¢1 to cut locus of TV of point B and obtain B.
13. Join points A and B to obtain the true length in the TV.
14. Measure inclination of line AB w.r.t. VP as f referring to the right side description of quadrant.
(TV makes an angle with VP, f = 33°).
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15. The final solution is shown below, in which, Stage I, Stage II and Stage III are combined.

9.7 Line Parallel to PP

Figure 9.10 shows line AB is inclined q ° to HP, f° to VP and parallel to a profile plane (PP). As
the HP and VP are at right angles to each other, the sum of the inclinations of a line with the HP
and VP is equal to 90°.

Fig. 9.10 Line inclined to HP and VP and parallel to PP.

In this case, the true length can be obtained by two methods: general method and offset method.

Projections of points and straight lines [Fig. 9.10(a)]

1. Draw the TV and FV as per the given positions of endpoints ‘A’ and ‘B’.
2. Join these projected points and obtain a¢b¢ and ab.

General method [Fig. 9.10(b)]

This method is similar to the solution shown in EXAMPLE 9.3.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 185

Offset method [Fig. 9.10(c)]

In this method, with reference to a 3-D representation shown in Fig. 9.10, offset distances are plotted
to obtain true length in FV and TV region. This is shown in Fig. 9.10 (c). Referring to a 3-D
representation, the distance of A from a¢ is oa, the distance of B from b¢ is ob, the distance of A from
a is oa¢, the distance of B from b is ob¢. The AB represents the true length in TV and A¢B¢ represents
the true length in FV.

9.8 Traces of Line

When a line is inclined to a plane, it will meet that plane, produced if necessary. The point in which
the line or extension of the line meets the plane is an intersection point of the line and the plane
and is called trace. The point of intersection of the line with the HP is called horizontal trace (HT).
The point of intersection of the line with the VP is called vertical trace (VT). Principal lines do not
have any traces.

Case 1: Line is parallel to HP and inclined f° to VP [Fig. 9.11(a) and (b)]

Line AB, if extetnded meets, VP. The point of meeting or point of intersection is a VT. The VT itself
is a point and has projections: v and v¢. v¢ coincides with VT and v lies on xy line.

Fig. 9.11 Obtaining vertical trace (VT).

Refer to Fig. 9.11(b) to learn how to obtain vertical trace and its projections. Figure 9.11(b)
shows the projections of straight line AB.
1. Extend the TV ab to meet xy line. The xy line represents TV of VP. The meeting point is v.
2. Draw a projector line passing through v in order to obtain v¢.
3. Extend a¢b¢ to intersect projector line to obtain v¢. v¢ represents VT.

Case 2: Line is parallel to VP and inclined q° to HP [Fig. 9.12(a) and (b)]

Line AB, if extended, meets HP. The point of meeting or point of intersection is a HT. The HT itself
is a point and has projections: h and h¢. h coincides with HT and h¢ lies on xy line.
Refer to Fig. 9.12(b) to learn how to obtain the horizontal trace and its projections. Figure 9.12(b)
shows the projections of straight line AB.
1. Extend the FV a¢b¢ to meet xy line. The xy line represents FV of HP. The meeting point is
h¢.
2. Draw a projector line passing through h¢ in order to obtain h.
3. Extend ab to intersect the projector line to obtain h. h represents HT.
186 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 9.12 Obtaining horizontal trace (HT).

Case 3: Line is inclined q° to HP and f° to VP [Fig. 9.13(a) and (b)]

Refer to Fig. 9.13(b) to learn how to obtain vertical trace and its projections. Figure 9.13(b) shows
the projections of straight line AB.
1. Extend the TV ab to meet xy line. The xy line represents TV of VP. The meeting point is v.
2. Draw a projector line passing through v in order to obtain v¢.
3. Extend FV a¢b¢ to intersect the projector line to obtain v¢. v¢ represents VT.
4. Extend the FV a¢b¢ to meet xy line. The xy line represents FV of HP. The meeting point is
h¢.
5. Draw a projector line passing through h¢ in order to obtain h.
6. Extend ab to intersect the projector line to obtain h. h represents HT.

Fig. 9.13 Obtaining HT and VT for a skew line.

EXAMPLES 9.1, 9.2 and 9.4 are taken to learn how to obtain the traces of lines: (a) when the
line is q ° to HP, (b) when the line is f° to VP and (c) when the line is f° to HP and to f° VP,
respectively.

EXAMPLE 9.6 Line AB 200 mm long has its end A 75 mm above HP and 50 mm in front of VP.
Endpoint B is in I-quadrant. The line is parallel to VP and makes an inclination of 30° to HP. Draw
the projections of straight line AB. Obtain HT and VT.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 187

Solution This exercise is similar to EXAMPLE 9.1 to draw the projections of line. The procedure
to obtain HT and VT is explained here.
1. EXTEND the FV a¢b¢ to meet xy line. (FV of line intersects the HP).
2. Note the intersection point of extended line and xy line as h¢ as h¢ lies on xy line.
3. Draw a projector line passing through point h¢.
4. EXTEND the TV ab to meet the projector line passing through h¢.
5. Note the intersection point of extended line and projector line as HT (or h).
6. There is no VT as the line is parallel to VP.

EXAMPLE 9.7 Line AB 200 mm long has its end A 75 mm above HP and 50 mm in front of VP.
Endpoint B is in I-quadrant. The line is parallel to HP and makes an inclination of 40° to VP. Draw
the projections of straight line AB. Obtain HT and VT.
Solution This exercise is similar to EXAMPLE 8.2 to draw the projections of line. The procedure
to obtain HT and VT is explained here.
1. Extend the TV of line AB to meet xy line. (TV of line intersects the VP).
2. Note the intersection point of extended line and xy line as v as v lies on xy line.
3. Draw a projector line passing through point v.
4. Extend the FV of line AB (a¢b¢) to meet the projector line passing through v.
5. Note the intersection point of extended line and projector line as VT (or v¢).
6. There is no HT as the line is parallel to HP.
188 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 9.8 Line AB has its end A 75 mm above HP and 50 mm in front of VP. The other end
B is 175 mm above HP and 175 mm in front of VP. The projector distance is 275 mm. Draw
projections of line AB. Obtain HT and VT.
Solution This exercise is similar to EXAMPLE 9.4 to draw the projections of line. The procedure
to obtain HT and VT is explained here.
Obtaining HT
1. EXTEND the FV a¢b¢ to meet xy line. (FV of line intersects the HP).
2. Note the intersection point of extended line and xy line as h¢ as h¢ lies on xy line.
3. Draw a projector line passing through point h¢.
4. EXTEND the TV ab to meet the projector line passing through h¢.
5. Note the intersection point of extended line and projector line as HT (or h).
Obtaining VT
6. EXTEND the TV of line AB to meet xy line. (TV of line intersects the VP).
7. Note the intersection point of extended line and xy line as v as v lies on xy line.
8. Draw a projector line passing through point v.
9. EXTEND the a¢b¢ to meet the projector line passing through v.
10. Note the intersection point of extended line and projector line as VT (or v¢).

HT and VT for a line contained by a plane perpendicular to HP and VP

Figure 9.14 shows line AB is inclined q ° to HP, f° to VP and parallel to a profile plane (PP).
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 189

Fig. 9.14 Obtaining HT and VT for a line parallel to PP.

The steps to determine the true lengths in TV and FV are already discussed in Section 9.7. In this
case, if we follow a procedure mentioned in EXAMPLES 9.6, 9.7 and 9.8 to obtain HT and VT, we
will not be able to get HT and VT. The reason is TV, FV, HT and VT lie on a single projection line.
In order to obtain HT and VT a specific procedure is mentioned below with reference to Fig. 9.14
(b). VT is a FV and HT is a TV. HT and VT lie on the same projector line.
Obtaining VT
In FV region, xy line represents FV of HP. Therefore, any line perpendicular to xy line (HP)
represents a VP. Therefore, single projection line on which FV is lying represents VP for FV region.
EXTEND the true length A¢B¢. The point at which the extended line intersects the projection line is
VT.
Obtaining HT
In TV region, xy line represents TV of VP. Therefore, any line perpendicular to xy line (VP)
represents a HP. Therefore, single projection line on which TV is lying represents HP for TV region.
EXTEND the true length AB. The point at which the extended line intersects the projection line is
HT.

Exercise A (Projection of Straight Lines)

Instructions for solving the problems
1. PDMODE : 3
2. PDSIZE : 0.25
3. Text Size : 0.2
4. Unit : 4 grid spacing = 100 mm.
5. Use EXTEND command and perpendicular (perp) option wherever necessary.
6. Change colour of projection line to red.

9.1 Line AB has its end A 25 mm below the HP and 50 mm behind the VP. The end B is
100 mm below the HP and 100 mm behind the VP. The projector distance between these
ends is equal to 150 mm. Draw the projections of AB and show its true length, angle with
the HP and VP.
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9.2 Line PQ 150 mm long is inclined at 45° to the HP and 30° to the VP. Its end P is in the HP
and 50 mm behind the VP. Endpoint Q is in III-quadrant. Draw its projections and determine
the apparent inclinations.
9.3 Line RS 200 mm long and inclined 30° to the VP has its end R 25 mm behind the VP and
50 mm below the HP. Endpoint S is in III-quadrant. The projector distance is 100 mm. Draw
its projections and find the angle with the HP.
9.4 Line ST 200 mm long, inclined 40° to the HP and 50° to the VP has its end S 25 mm behind
the VP and is in the HP. Endpoint T is in III-quadrant. Draw its projections and find apparent
inclinations.
9.5 Line CD inclined 30° to the VP has its end C 25 mm behind the VP and 25 mm below the
HP. The distance between the end projectors is 150 mm with the end D 150 mm below the
HP and is behind the VP. Draw its projections and find the true length.
9.6 The FV of a line JK measures 100 mm long and makes 30° to the xy line. The point J is in
the HP and 50 mm in front of the VP. Endpoint K is in I-quadrant. The line is inclined 40°
to the VP. Draw its projections and find the true length and true inclination with the HP.
9.7 Line DG has the point D 25 mm behind the VP and 50 mm below the HP and the point G
100 mm above the HP and 75 mm in front of the VP. The end projector distance is 125 mm.
Draw its projections and find the true length and true inclinations.
9.8 Line AC has its TV and FV on the single projector line with the FV 100 mm long and
TV 75 mm long. Endpoint A is 25 mm behind the VP and 50 mm below the HP. Draw its
projections and find the true length and true inclinations. (Consider the line in III-quadrant).
9.9 Two fan motors P and Q are hung from a ceiling of a hall 12 m length L ¥ 5 m depth D ¥
8 m height H at a height of 4 m and 6 m, respectively from the floor. The motors are 5 m
and 9 m from the left end wall, 3 m and 4 m from the front wall, respectively. (a) Draw the
projections of these fan motors with reference to their location from the end wall and front
wall. (b) Determine graphically, the distance between the two motors. [Solve using the
III-quadrant. Scale: 0.25 AutoCAD unit (1 grid spacing) = 1 m].
9.10 Two mangoes A and B are on a tree, 2 m and 4 m above the ground, respectively. P and
Q are two compound walls at right angles with Q at the front and P at the left. Mango ‘A’ is
1 m from the wall P and 3 m from the wall Q. Mango ‘B’ is 6 m from the wall P and 7 m from
the wall Q. Find out the true distance between the two mangoes. [Solve using the
III-quadrant. Scale: 0.25 AutoCAD unit (1 grid spacing) = 1 m].
9.11 Three vertical poles: AA (4 m), BB (6 m) and CC (5 m) are placed at the corners of an
equilateral triangle ABC (side = 5 m) lying on the ground with the AC perpendicular to the
direction of the observer. The top ends of poles AA and CC are required to be joined to point
‘O’, centre of the equilateral triangle ABC, which is on the ground. Draw the projections of
these poles. Determine the true lengths of the lines joining centre point O and top of AA and
CC. [Solve using the III-quadrant. Scale: 0.25 AutoCAD unit (1 grid spacing) = 1 m].
9.12 Three vertical poles: AA (4 m), BB (6 m) and CC (5 m) are placed at the corners of an
isosceles triangle ABC (with base: AC = 5 m and height 5 m) lying on the ground with the
AC perpendicular to the direction of the observer. One rope connects the top of AA and BB
and the other rope connects the top of CC and BB. Find out the true lengths of these two
ropes. [Solve using the III-quadrant. Scale: 0.25 AutoCAD unit (1 grid spacing) = 1 m].
9.13 A bulb is located at the centre of a ceiling of a hall of 8 m length (along x-direction), 6 m depth
(along z-direction) and height (along y-direction). A switch is located on either of the two
shorter walls at a height of 2 m from the floor and at a depth of 5 m from either of the two
bigger walls. The shortest distance between the bulb and the switch is 5.4 m.
 CHAPTER 9: Projection of Straight Lines ® 191

Using the III-quadrant, draw the projections of the room with shorter walls at left and right
hand sides of the observer. Locate the bulb and switch in projections. Find the height of the
ceiling. Find the angle which the line joining the bulb and the switch makes with the floor.
(Unit: 1 grid spacing = 1 m).
9.14 A picture frame ABCD (length, AB = 8 m and height, BC = 6 m) is to be fixed on a wall. The
frame is railing about its bottom edge CD on a wall with the help of two straight chains
attached to the top corners A and B of the frame. The other ends of the two chains are to
be fixed to a hook H on the wall along the centre line of length of the frame and 7 m above
the railing edge CD. The frame is to make an angle of 45° with the wall and chains. Using
I-quadrant, draw the projections of the frame along with the chains and hook. Find the true
length of the chains. Find the true inclinations in between the two chains. [Scale: 0.25
AutoCAD unit (1 grid spacing) = 1 m].
9.15 Two wire ropes are attached to the top corner C of a 6 m high wall. The other end is attached
to the top of a vertical pole A, 4 m high. Similarly, the other end of the second wire rope is
attached to the top of a vertical pole B, 3 m high. These two poles are 4 m apart and aligned
in a straight line parallel to and at a distance of 5 m from the wall. The bottom ends of these
two poles are at equidistance from the corner C. Using III-quadrant draw the projections of
the two wire ropes and poles w.r.t. corner C. Find the required length of the two wire-ropes.
Find the true inclination made by the two wire-ropes with each other. [Scale: 0.25 AutoCAD
unit (1 grid spacing) = 1 m].
9.16 Determine graphically, the length of a body diagonal of a cube having edge length 100 mm.
9.17 Determine graphically, the height of a triangular pyramid having length of the base edges
equal to the length of the slant edges, which is equal to 150 mm.
9.18 Two square pyramids having equal dimensions are meeting at their bases with base edges
perfectly aligned. The combined solid is standing on one of the apexes on the ground with
common axis of both the pyramids perpendicular to the ground and two base edges
perpendicular to the VP. Determine the distance between the two apexes. (Base edge = slant
edge = 150 mm).

Exercise B (Traces of Straight Lines)

Instructions:

Mark the traces by encircling the point along with a text adjacent to it (e.g. O).
9.1 Line AB makes an inclination 30° with the HP and parallel to the VP. The TV measures
150 mm. Its endpoint A is at an equidistance, 50 mm from the reference planes and both the
endpoints are in I-quadrant. Draw the projections and find the traces (if any). (Use entry III-
quadrant method).
9.2 Line AB 175 mm long is inclined to the VP and parallel to the HP. The FV is 125 mm long.
Its end A is 50 mm in front of the VP and 75 mm above the HP. End point B is in I-quadrant.
Draw its projections and find the traces (if any).
9.3 The TV and FV of a line AB measure 150 mm and 100 mm, respectively. The line is inclined
30° to the HP. The end A is 50 mm above the HP and 25 mm in front of the VP. The other
end B is in the I-quadrant. Draw the projections and locate the traces.
9.4 The distance between two end projectors for a line AB is 200 mm. End point A is in the HP
and in front of the VP. Endpoint B is in the VP and above the HP. The HT lies on the projector
through A and 100 mm in front of the VP. The VT lies on the projector through B and
150 mm above the HP. Draw the projections and find the true lengths and true inclinations.
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9.5 The distance between two end projectors for a line AB is 100 mm. Endpoint A is 25 mm
behind the VP and below the HP. Endpoint B is 150 mm behind the VP and 75 mm above
the HP. VT lies 75 mm below the HP. Draw the projections and find the true length and true
inclinations.
9.6 The distance between two end projectors for a line AB is 150 mm. Endpoint A is 100 mm
above the HP and 50 mm in front of the VP. Endpoint B is 25 mm above the HP and
75 mm behind the VP. Draw its projections and find the true length and true inclinations. Find
traces (if any).
9.7 Endpoint A of line AB is 50 mm above the HP and in front of the VP. Endpoint B is
150 mm above the HP and in front of the VP. The FV makes 45° with the HP. VT is
175 mm above the HP and HT is 125 mm in front of the VP. Draw its projections and find
the true lengths and true inclinations.
9.8 Line AB is parallel to the PP with an endpoint A 175 mm above the HP and 50 mm in front
of the VP. Endpoint B is 50 mm above the HP and 150 mm in front of the VP. Draw its
projections. Find the true length and true inclinations. Also locate HT and VT.
9.9 Line AB is parallel to the PP with an endpoint A 150 mm behind the VP and at the same
distance below the HP. Endpoint B is in the HP and in the VP. Draw its projections. Find the
true length and true inclinations. Also locate HT and VT.
9.10 Line AB has endpoint A 25 mm behind the VP and 50 mm below the HP and endpoint B
100 mm above the HP and 75 in front of the VP. End projector distance is 125 mm. Draw
its projections and find the true length and true inclinations and locate HT and VT.
9.11 Line AB has its endpoint A 50 mm above the HP and 125 mm behind the VP. Endpoint B
is 50 mm in front of the VP and 125 mm below the HP. Draw its projections and true lengths
if HT and VT lie on the same projector line. Specify the TL, q and f, the distance of HT and
VT from the xy line.
9.12 Line AB, 150 mm long has its endpoint A 50 mm below the HP and 50 mm behind the VP.
The line is equally inclined to the HP and VP. Draw its projections when it is parallel to the
PP. Specify the apparent length and the distance of HT and VT from the xy line.
9.13 Line AB has its endpoint A 75 mm behind the VP and 75 mm below the HP. Endpoint B is
100 mm above the HP and 100 mm in front of the VP. Draw its projections and obtain the
true lengths if the end projectors are 200 mm apart. Specify the TL, q, f and the distance of
HT and VT from the xy line.
9.14 Mid point of a line PQ lies on HP and VP. FV and TV length of the line are equal to 250 mm.
The front view of the line is inclined 45° with the xy line. Draw the projections of the line. Find
its true lengths and true inclinations with HP and VP. Locate HT and VT.
9.15 Endpoint A of a line AB is 200 mm above the HP and 100 mm in front of the VP and
endpoint B is on the VP. A mid point C of the line AB is 100 mm above the HP. The distance
between the projectors passing through point A and C is 175 mm. Draw the projections of
the line AB. Find its true length and true inclinations with the reference planes.
10
Projection of Planar Surface

Objectives
® Learn the projection of planes in a 3-D space.
® Know the projection of intersection of planes with the principal planes.

Introduction
A plane surface has only two dimensions: length and breadth. The surface does not have
thickness. A plane surface may be assumed to be contained by a plane, and its projections can
be drawn, if the position of that plane with respect to the principal planes of projection is known.
The knowledge of projection of planes is useful to solve problems of section of solids and
intersection of surfaces of solids.

193
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10.1 Planes Under Study

Various types of regular planar surfaces are shown in Fig. 10.1. Various plane surfaces under study
are: (1) equilateral triangle (2) isosceles triangle (3) right angled triangle (4) trapezium (5) square
(6) rectangle (7) rhombus (8) parallelogram (9) pentagon (10) hexagon (11) circle (12) semicircle.

Fig. 10.1 Various types of plane surfaces.

10.2 Classification of Planar Surface

In Engineering Graphics, planar surfaces are divided into two types: (i) perpendicular planes and
(ii) oblique planes.

Perpendicular Planes
Perpendicular planes can be further divided into the following sub-types with reference to the
principal planes: HP and VP.
Perpendicular to one reference plane and parallel to the other: In this case, the true shape can
be obtained on a plane to which the given surface is parallel as shown in Fig. 10.2(a) and (b).
Perpendicular to one plane and inclined to the other: In this case, the true shape is not
available in either TV or FV. One view shows the line view and another view shows the apparent
shape (AS) as shown in Fig. 10.2(c).
 CHAPTER 10: Projection of Planar Surface ® 195

Fig. 10.2 Perpendicular planes.

Oblique Planes
Planes which are inclined to both the reference planes are called oblique planes. In this case, the
true shape is not available in either TV or FV. Both the views show apparent shapes. This is shown
in Fig. 10.3.

Fig. 10.3 Oblique planes.

10.3 Projection of Planar Surface

Projection of planar surface on principal planes (HP and VP) can be obtained in various stages. This
depends upon the position of planar surface with respect to the reference planes (HP and VP).
Following are the discussions on projection of principal plane surface, inclined plane surface and
oblique (skew) surface.

10.3.1 Principal Planes

If it is parallel to HP, the true shape of the surface will be in the TV and if it is parallel to VP, the
true shape of the surface will be in the FV. This is shown in Fig. 10.2(a) for both the cases.
196 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

10.3.2 Inclined Planes

In order to explain the projection of inclined planes, a plane which is inclined q ° to HP and
perpendicular to VP is taken for study. As shown in Fig. 10.2(b), the inclined planes show apparent
shape in one view and line or edge view in another. Projection of the inclined plane is obtained in
two stages: Refer to Fig. 10.4(a) and (b), respectively for 3-D and 2-D views.

Fig. 10.4 Inclined planes.

Stage I: Assumption stage

Assume plane surface parallel to that reference plane to which it is inclined and obtain the true
shape and line view (L-view).

Stage II: Surface inclination stage

Now, rotate the line view of the surface through required inclination (q °) and obtain an apparent
shape.

10.3.3 Oblique Planes

In case of oblique plane, the plane has its surface inclined to both the reference planes. Oblique
plane is also defined as a plane surface, which is inclined to one reference plane and an edge/
diameter/diagonal is inclined to another reference plane. The projections of this plane are obtained
in three stages: Refer to Fig. 10.5(a) and (b), respectively for 2-D and 3-D views.

Fig. 10.5 Stage wise projections of oblique planes.

 CHAPTER 10: Projection of Planar Surface ® 197

Stage I: True Shape stage (assumption)

Assume the plane surface parallel to the reference plane to which it is inclined. There are two
options to draw a true shape: (a) If plane is resting on its edge, draw a true shape of the surface
with the resting edge perpendicular to the xy line. (b) If the plane surface is resting on one of its
corner, then draw the true shape of the plane surface such that the line joining the resting corner
and the centre of the plane parallel to the xy line. In this stage, we obtain the true shape in one view
and the line view of surface in another view.

Stage II: Surface inclination stage

Now, ROTATE the line view of the surface, obtained in Stage I, through required inclination and
obtain an apparent shape. In this stage, a surface is called an inclined surface. In this stage, we
obtain an apparent shape in one view and line view of surface in another view.

Stage III: Edge inclination

In this stage, the edge of the apparent shape of the plane surface is rotated through the required
inclination (say a °) to obtain the final projections.

EXAMPLE 10.1 A rectangular plate of negligible thickness having 150 mm length and 100 mm
width is resting on one of its smaller side on HP. The surface is perpendicular to VP and makes an
inclination of 30° to HP. Draw projections of the plate.
Solution The plate is resting on a smaller side of HP and makes an inclination with HP. Therefore,
the plate will be made parallel to HP so that it will lie on HP. The true shape of the plate will be visible
in the TV region.
1. In the TV region, draw a rectangle of 150 mm length and 100 mm width with 100 mm side
perpendicular to the xy line. Name the corners as a, b, c and d.
2. Project all the four points on the xy line as the plate is assumed to lie on HP. Obtain a line
view a¢b¢-c¢d¢ of the plate coinciding with xy line.
3. In the Stage II, COPY the line view of the Stage I and place it on the xy line. ROTATE the
line view with respect to side a¢b¢ through a given inclination of 30°.
4. Project all the four points from the FV of the Stage II to the TV region of Stage II. Project all
the four points from the TV of Stage I to the TV of Stage II.
5. Join the respective intersecting points of the projector lines to obtain the final projection points
a, b, c and d. We get a reduced apparent shape of the rectangular plate.
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EXAMPLE 10.2 A parallelogram ABCD has its parallel length AB and CD 100 mm long. The
distance between AB and CD is 150 mm. It is resting on side AB on HP with surface inclined 25°
to HP and perpendicular to VP. Draw projections of the plate.
Solution The parallelogram is resting on side AB on HP and makes an inclination with HP. The
parallelogram will be made parallel to HP so that it will lie on HP. The true shape of the
parallelogram will be visible in the TV region.
1. In the TV region, draw a parallelogram of parallel sides 100 mm separated by 150 mm, with
side ab perpendicular to the xy line. Name the corners as a, b, c and d.
2. Project all the four points on the xy line as the parallelogram in the Stage I, is lying on HP
and obtain a line view a¢b¢-c¢d¢ of plate coinciding with the xy line. This completes the
Stage I.
3. In the Stage II, COPY the line view of the Stage I and place it on the xy line. ROTATE the
line view about side a¢b¢ through a given inclination of 25°.
4. Project all the four points from the FV of Stage II to the TV region of the Stage II. Project all
the four points from the TV of Stage I to the TV of Stage II.
5. Join respective intersecting points of projector lines to obtain the final projection points a, b,
c and d. We get a reduced shape of the parallelogram.

EXAMPLE 10.3 A pentagonal plate of negligible thickness and having edge length 100 mm is
resting on one of its corners on VP. The plate is inclined 40° to VP and perpendicular to HP. Draw
projections of the plate.
Solution The pentagonal plate is resting on one of its corners on VP and makes an inclination with
VP. Therefore, the plate will be made parallel to VP so that it will lie on VP. The true shape of the
plate will be visible in FV.
1. In the FV region, draw a pentagon of 100 mm side, with line joining one corner to the centre
o of pentagon parallel to the xy line. Name the corners as a¢, b¢, c¢, d¢ and e¢.
2. Project all the five points on the xy line as the plate in the Stage I is lying on VP and obtain
a line view a, b-c, e-d of the plate coinciding with the xy line.
3. In Stage II, COPY the line view of Stage I and place it on the xy line. ROTATE the line view
about the corner point d through a given inclination of 40°.
4. Project all the four points from the TV of Stage II to the FV of Stage II. Project all the four
points from the FV of Stage I to the FV of Stage II.
5. Join the respective intersecting points of the projector lines to obtain the final projection points
a¢, b¢, c¢, d¢ and e¢. We get a reduced shape of the pentagon.
 CHAPTER 10: Projection of Planar Surface ® 199

EXAMPLE 10.4 A circular plate is resting on its circumferential point on VP with surface
perpendicular to HP. It is inclined to VP such that the FV appears as an ellipse. Find the surface
inclination at which the ellipse has minor axis 100 mm and major axis 150 mm.
Solution If a circular surface is perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP, it appears as an ellipse
on the VP (i.e., in the FV). In this situation, a horizontal diameter is inclined to the VP and appears
as a minor axis of the ellipse. The vertical diameter which is perpendicular to HP remains unchanged
in dimension and appears as a major axis.
The circle appears as an ellipse with major axis 150 mm (equal to the diameter of the circle) and
minor axis 100 mm.
As the plate is inclined to VP it is made parallel to VP so that it will lie on VP. The true shape
will be visible in the FV.
1. In the FV, draw a circle of 150 mm diameter. Draw two diameters inside the circle, one is
parallel and the other is perpendicular to xy line. Name the diameters endpoints as a¢b¢, and
c¢d¢.
2. Project all the four points on the xy line as the plate in the Stage I is lying on VP and obtain
a line view a-c, d-b of plate coinciding with xy line. This completes the Stage I.
3. Draw an ELLIPSE with major axis ‘CD’ equal to 150 mm and minor axis a¢b¢ equal to
100 mm in Stage II FV.
4. Project the axes end points a¢b¢, c¢ and d¢.
5. COPY the Stage I TV (line view) and place it such that a coincides with the intersection point
of projector line through a¢ and the xy line.
6. ROTATE the line view a-c, d-b about a till the end b of the line view touches the projector
line for b¢.
7. Measure the inclination of the line view w.r.t. xy line, (i.e., VP) with DIM command and ANG
option. The line view (surface) makes inclination of 45° with VP.
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EXAMPLE 10.5 A rectangular plate of negligible thickness having 150 mm length and 100 mm
width is resting on one of its smaller side on HP. The surface makes an inclination of 30° to HP and
the smaller side makes an inclination of 60° to VP. Draw projections of the plate.
Solution First five steps are similar to EXAMPLE 10.1.
1. COPY the reduced shape of the rectangular plate from TV region of the Stage II and place
it in the TV region of Stage III.
2. ROTATE the copied view so that the smaller side ab makes 60° to VP.
3. Project all the four points from the TV region of Stage III to the FV region of Stage III. Project
all the four points from the FV of Stage II to the FV of Stage III.
4. Join the respective intersecting points of the projector lines to obtain the final projection points
a¢, b¢, c¢, and d¢. The shape of the rectangular plate appears to be as a parallelogram.
 CHAPTER 10: Projection of Planar Surface ® 201

EXAMPLE 10.6 A pentagonal plate of negligible thickness and having edge length 100 mm is
resting on one of its sides on VP. The plate is inclined 40° to VP and the resting side makes an
inclination of 50° to HP. Draw projections of the plate.
Solution First five steps (Stage I and Stage II) are similar to EXAMPLE 10.3.
1. COPY the reduced shape of the pentagonal plate from FV region of Stage II and place it in
the FV region of Stage III.
2. ROTATE the copied view about b¢ so that the resting side a¢b¢ makes 50° to HP.
3. Project all the five points from the FV of Stage III to the TV of Stage III. Project all the five
points from the TV of Stage II to the TV of Stage III.
4. Join the respective intersecting points of the projector lines to obtain the final projection points
a, b, c, d and e and obtain an irregular pentagonal shape.

EXAMPLE 10.7 A square lamina with diagonal 200 mm is resting on one of its corners on the
ground. The surface makes inclination of 60° with the ground and the diagonal which is not passing
through the resting point makes an inclination of 30° with the VP. Draw projections of the square
lamina.
Solution The figure shows the stepwise projections for the given position of the square lamina.
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EXAMPLE 10.8 A rectangular lamina with longer edge 175 mm and smaller edge 100 mm, is
resting on one of its smaller edges on the HP. It is inclined with the HP in such a way that its TV
appears as a square with maximum dimensions. Draw projections if the smaller edge makes an
inclination of 60° with the VP.
Solution The figure shows the stepwise projections for the given position of the rectangular lamina.

EXAMPLE 10.9 A hexagonal lamina of side 100 mm, has a circular hole of 150 mm. The lamina
is resting on one of its corner on the ground. The surface makes inclination of 45° with the ground.
In this orientation a circular hole appears as an ellipse. Draw its projections if a major axis of the
ellipse makes an inclination of 45° with the VP.
Solution The figure shows the stepwise projections for the given position of the hexagonal lamina.

EXAMPLE 10.10 A lamina of rhombus shape, has major diagonal of 200 mm and minor diagonal
of 150 mm. It is resting on one of its corners on HP. The lamina is inclined to the HP in such a way
that its major diagonal appears as a minor diagonal of 100 mm. Draw projections of the lamina when
its original minor diagonal makes an inclination of 30° with the VP.
 CHAPTER 10: Projection of Planar Surface ® 203

Solution The figure shows the stepwise projections for the given position of the hexagonal lamina.

10.4 Traces of Planar Surface

The concept of trace of a plane is similar to the one, which we have used in case of traces of a line.
Plane surface also have the traces. A plane surface, extended if necessary, will meet the reference
planes (HP and VP) in lines, unless it is parallel to any one of them. These lines are called the traces
of plane.
The line at which the surface meets the VP is called a vertical trace (VT). The line at which the
surface meets the HP is called a horizontal trace (HT). The HT of a plane appears in TV. The VT
of a plane appears in FV. This is shown in Fig. 10.6. A principal plane gives either HT or VT
depending upon their parallelism. An inclined and skew surface gives both HT and VT. This is shown
in Fig. 10.7.

Fig. 10.6 Traces of principal surfaces.

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Fig. 10.7 Traces of inclined and skew surfaces.

Exercise
Assumptions:
1. All the laminas are in I-quadrant unless it is specified.
2. Plate has a negligible thickness.

10.1 A rectangular plate of 200 mm ¥ 100 mm is resting on one of its smaller sides on the VP.
It is tilted about that side so that, it appears as a square in the elevation (FV). Find the
inclination of the plate with the VP.
10.2 A circular lamina is resting on the HP on its circumferential point. It is inclined with the HP
such that its TV appears as an ellipse with minor axis 100 mm and major axis 150 mm. Find
the surface inclination with the HP as well as the diameter of the circular lamina.
10.3 A semi-circular lamina is resting on the HP on its diameter. It is inclined with the VP such
that a FV appears as a quarter-circle with 75 mm radius. Draw projections of the lamina and
find the surface inclination with the VP.
10.4 A plate of equilateral triangular shape (side = 100 mm) is resting on one of its sides on the
VP. It is tilted about that edge so that the FV appears as an isosceles triangle with 75 mm
of height. Draw projections of the plate and find the surface inclination with the VP.
10.5 A plate of rhombus shape (major diagonal = 250 mm and minor diagonal = 150 mm) is
resting on one of its corners on the VP. It is tilted about that corner in such a way that the
FV appears as another rhombus with major diagonal equal to the minor diagonal of the plate
and minor diagonal equal to half of the major diagonal of the plate. Draw projections of the
plate and find the surface inclination with the VP. Mention dimensions of the major and
minor diagonals of the new rhombus.
10.6 A plate of square shape (side = 150 mm) is resting on one of its sides on the HP. It is tilted
about that side in such a way that it appears as a rectangle with smaller side equal to half
of the side of the square plate in TV. Draw projections of the plate and find the surface
inclination with the HP. Mention dimensions of the plate view, which appears in a
rectangular form.
 CHAPTER 10: Projection of Planar Surface ® 205

10.7 A plate with an elliptical shape (major axis = 200 mm and minor axis = 150 mm) is resting
on its peripheral point on HP in such a way that it appears as a circle of maximum dimension
in the TV. Draw projections of the plate. Find the surface inclination with the HP and the
diameter of the circle.
10.8 Draw the projections of a regular hexagonal plate of 75 mm side, having one of its edges
in the HP, inclined 60° to the VP and its surface makes an angle of 40° with the HP.
10.9 A plate of rhombus shape ABCD has its diagonal AC = 150 mm and BD = 250 mm. The
side AB of the plate is in the HP. The side BC is in the VP and the plate makes an angle
of 30° with the HP. Obtain the projections of the plate and find the inclination with the VP.
10.10 An isosceles triangular plate of 100 mm base and 150 mm altitude appears as an equilateral
triangle. Draw the projections of the plate if its 100 mm long edge is on the HP and inclined
at 45° to the VP. What are the inclinations of the plate with the HP and the VP?
10.11 A circular plate of 150 mm diameter has its imaginary diameter AB perpendicular to HP and
diameter CD parallel to and 100 mm above the HP. The surface is inclined 45° to the VP.
Draw the projections of the plate if the diameter CD is inclined at 50° to the HP.
10.12 A square lamina ABCD (diagonal = 200 mm) is resting on its corner A on the VP. The
diagonal BD is perpendicular to the HP and in front of the VP such that the FV appears as
a rhombus having one diagonal 150 mm. Draw the projections of the square lamina. Find
the surface inclination with the VP.
10.13 A hexagonal plate (side = 100 mm) with an elliptical hole at the centre (major axis =
100 mm and minor axis = 50 mm) is resting on one of its corner on VP with the minor axis
of the hole perpendicular to the HP. In the rest condition, the elliptical hole appears as a
circular hole of maximum possible diameter. Draw the projections of this lamina in given rest
condition. Find the surface inclination with the VP.
10.14 A hexagonal plate (side = 100 mm) with a circular hole at the centre (diameter = 100 mm)
is resting on one of its corner on the HP. In the rest condition, the circular hole appears as
an ellipse (major axis = 100 mm and minor axis = 75 mm). Draw the projections of this
lamina in given rest condition. Find the surface inclination with the HP.
10.15 A 30°–60° set square having smallest side 100 mm long is resting on its smallest side on
the HP and perpendicular to the VP. The surface is inclined to the HP such that:
(a) in the rest condition, it appears as another 30°–60° set square in TV.
(b) in the rest condition, it appears as a triangle with the smallest side equal to half the
smallest side of the actual lamina in TV.
(c) in the rest condition, it appears as a 45°–90°–45° set square in TV.
In all the cases, draw the projections of this lamina in given rest condition. Find the surface
inclination with the HP.
10.16 A rhombus has smaller diagonal of 100 mm and longer diagonal of 150 mm. Draw
projections of the rhombus, if the longer diagonal is perpendicular to the profile plane and
the smaller diagonal makes 35° to the VP.
10.17 Find out the surface inclination that a square plate of 150 mm diagonal makes with the HP
if it is resting on one of its corner on the HP and appears as a rhombus with smaller diagonal
100 mm and longer diagonal 150 mm.
10.18 Obtain a true shape of a plate, the surface of which is perpendicular to the HP, makes
inclination of 60° to the VP and appears as a circle with diameter 100 mm in FV. Find the
key dimensions of the plate.
10.19 A pentagonal plate of side 100 mm has its surface inclined 30° to the VP with one side
parallel to the VP and makes an inclination 30° to the HP. Draw the projections of the plate.
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10.20 A regular hexagonal plate has its corner on VP and surface inclined 40° to VP. The FV of
the diagonal passing through that corner makes inclination of 30° to HP. Draw the
projections of the plate.
10.21 A rectangular plate of 150 mm ¥ 100 mm is resting on one of its sides on the HP. It is
inclined about that side so that it appears as a square of maximum dimension in the TV.
Draw projections of the plate, when one of its diagonals is parallel to the VP.
10.22 A pentagonal lamina of side 100 mm is resting on one of its corner on the HP and the VP.
Draw its projections if an edge opposite to that corner is 100 mm above the HP and parallel
to the VP. Find the inclinations of the lamina with the HP and VP.
10.23 A hexagonal plate ABCDEF of side 100 mm is resting on its corner A on the HP and VP.
Draw its projections when a corner B is 25 mm above the HP and on the VP. Find inclination
of the plate with the HP and VP.
10.24 PQRS and ABCD are the two square plates with their diagonals 75 mm and 100 mm,
respectively. Both the plates are touching the HP at their corners P and A, respectively and
touching each other at their corners R and C, respectively. The plates are perpendicular to
each other and are also perpendicular to the VP. Draw the projections. Find the inclinations
of these plates with the HP.
10.25 A triangular lamina ABC (side 100 mm) having its corner C 50 mm above the HP and
50 mm in front of the VP. Edge AB is 25 mm above HP and parallel to the VP. Draw the
projections of the lamina and find its inclinations with the HP and the VP.
10.26. Draw the projections of a rhombus having diagonals 125 mm and 50 mm long. The smaller
diagonal of which is parallel to the HP and the VP, while the other is inclined at 30° to the
HP. Find its inclinations with the HP and VP.
11
Various Measurements

Objectives
® Learn the various measurements required in engineering graphics.
® Know the graphical methods to obtain the solution for various measurements.

Introduction
An understanding of the space relationships of points, lines and planes are necessary for the
application of graphical methods for many purposes in engineering and science. In this chapter,
graphical methods are explained to obtain various measurements between lines, lines and
points and points and planes.

207
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11.1 Various Measurements

Various measurements required are listed below:
1. Distance between point and line
2. Shortest distance between two parallel lines
3. Inclination between two lines
4. Distance between points and planes
5. Angle between two skew planes
6. Angle between lines and planes
In order to find out the required measurements we need to know the graphical methods to convert
a line into a point view and to convert a plane into a line view. In addition to this, we are required
to know the precedence of intersecting or non-intersecting lines in order to know the visibility in FV
as well as in TV.

11.2 End View of a Line

If the direction of the visual ray is along the direction of the line then we get an “end view” or a “point
view” of the line. In graphics, the line is made perpendicular to HP or VP so that we get a point view
in TV or FV, respectively. The following examples show how to obtain a point view for a principal
line, inclined line and a skew line.

EXAMPLE 11.1 Line ab is in III-quadrant and parallel to HP and VP (Fig. 11.1). Obtain the end
view of this line.

Fig. 11.1 End view of a principal line.

Solution
1. TV and FV show a true length. COPY the FV (a¢b¢) and place it in Stage II.
2. ROTATE the copied FV with either a¢ or b¢ as base point and make it perpendicular to the
xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV and Stage I TV. The intersection of these two projection lines is the
end view of the line ab (x a, b).

EXAMPLE 11.2 Line AB is in III-quadrant. The line is parallel to VP and inclined to HP (Fig. 11.2).
Obtain the end view of this line.
 CHAPTER 11: Various Measurements ® 209

Fig. 11.2 End view of an inclined line.

Solution
1. FV shows a true length. COPY the FV (a¢b¢) and place it in the Stage II FV.
2. ROTATE the copied FV with either a¢ or b¢ as base point and make it perpendicular to the
xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV and the Stage I TV. The intersection of these two projection lines is
the end view of the line ab (x a, b).

EXAMPLE 11.3 Line AB is in III quadrant and inclined to HP and VP. Obtain the end view of this
line.
Solution Line ab is parallel to the VP and inclined to the HP (Fig. 11.3). We can now obtain the
end view of this line.

Fig. 11.3 End view of a skew line.

1. Both the views in the Stage I do not show a true length. Therefore, in order to obtain an end
view a true length is required in either of the views.
2. COPY the TV (ab) and place it in the Stage II TV.
3. ROTATE the copied TV with a as a base point till the TV (ab) becomes parallel to the xy line.
4. Project the Stage II TV and the Stage I FV to obtain a Stage II FV. The Stage II FV shows
a true length. Now, this problem is similar to EXAMPLE 11.2.
5. COPY the Stage II FV (a¢b¢) which shows a true length and place it in the Stage III FV.
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6. ROTATE the copied FV in the Stage III with either a¢ or b¢ as base point and make the FV
perpendicular to the xy line.
7. Project the Stage II TV and the Stage III FV. The intersection of these two projection lines
is the end view of the line ab (x a, b).

11.3 Distance between a Point and a Line

The shortest distance between a given point and a given straight line is a perpendicular distance
between the point and the line. However, this perpendicular must be drawn in the view in which the
line falls into a point view.

EXAMPLE 11.4 Stage I of Fig. 11.4(a) shows TV and FV view of a line ab, which is parallel to HP
and VP and a point P. Find out a true distance between the point P and the line ab.

Fig. 11.4 Distance between a point and a line.

Solution
1. COPY the FV (a¢b¢) along with p¢ and place it in the Stage II.
2. ROTATE the copied FV along with p¢ with either a¢ or b¢ as a base point and make the FV
perpendicular to the xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV and the Stage I TV of line ab. The intersection of these two projection
lines is the end view of the line ab. Also, project the Stage II FV and Stage I TV of the
point P.
4. Draw a line from end view of line ab and point P in the Stage II TV.
5. Use the DIM command with ALIGNED option to measure the distance d between the end
view of line ab and the projected point P.
Note: Figure 11.4(b) shows how to obtain a true distance between a point and an inclined line.
Figure 11.4(c) shows how to obtain a true distance between a point and a skew line.
 CHAPTER 11: Various Measurements ® 211

11.4 Shortest Distance between Two Parallel Lines

In order to find out the shortest distance between two (inclined/skew) parallel lines, the lines should
be converted into their point view. Then these point views are joined by a line, which can be
measured for the true and shortest distance.

EXAMPLE 11.5 Stage I of Fig. 11.5 shows the principal views of two parallel lines ab and pq, both
of which are parallel to HP and VP. Find out a true distance between these two lines.
Solution
1. COPY the FV a¢b¢ and p¢q¢ and place it in the Stage II FV. (This is not shown here).
2. ROTATE the copied FV with either of the endpoints of line ab as a base point and make the
FV perpendicular to the xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV and Stage I TV in the Stage II. The intersections of these projection
lines are the end views of the line ab and the line pq.
4. Use the DIM command with ALIGNED option to measure the distance d between the two end
views.

Fig. 11.5

EXAMPLE 11.6 Stage I of Fig. 11.6 shows principal views of two skew lines ab and pq. Find out
a true distance in between these two lines.

Fig. 11.6

Solution
1. COPY the TV ab and pq and place it in the Stage II TV.
2. ROTATE the copied TV with either of the endpoints of line ab as a base point and make the
TV parallel to the xy line, in Stage II.
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3. Project the rotated TV of line ab and pq and the Stage I FV in the Stage II. The intersections
of these projection lines are the true lengths of the line ab and line pq.
4. COPY the true lengths and place it in the Stage III FV.
5. ROTATE the copied true lengths with either of the endpoints of line ab as a base point and
make them perpendicular to the xy line.
6. Project the true lengths of Stage III and the Stage II TV. The intersections of these projection
lines are the end views of the line ab and line pq.
7. Use the DIM command with ALIGNED option to measure the distance d between the two end
views.

11.5 Intersecting and Non-intersecting Lines

It is difficult to find out from the TV and FV whether lines are intersecting or not. In order to check
this we take help of the side view. This is illustrated in examples given below.

EXAMPLE 11.7 Lines ab and pq are perpendicular to each other (Fig. 11.7). It is required to know
whether they are intersecting or not.

Fig. 11.7 Intersecting principal lines.

Solution From TV it is not clear that the lines are intersecting or not. The FV shows the point view
of line PQ lying on the FV of the line ab. This information is sufficient to know that both the lines
are intersecting each other. Similarly, the right side view shows the point view of line ab lying on
the RSV of line pq.

EXAMPLE 11.8 Lines ab and pq are inclined to each other (Fig. 11.8). It is required to know
whether they are intersecting or not.
Solution From an individual view (i.e., TV, FV or RSV) it is not clear that the lines are intersecting
or not. The projector line drawn from the intersecting point of TV of lines ab and pq meets the
intersecting point of FV of these lines. Similarly, the projector line drawn from the intersecting point
of TV of lines ab and pq meets the intersecting point of RSV of these lines. From all the views, it
is clear that there is a single projector line between TV and FV, FV and RSV and TV and RSV. This
information is sufficient to know that both the lines are intersecting each other.
 CHAPTER 11: Various Measurements ® 213

Fig. 11.8 Intersecting skew lines.

Figure 11.9 shows example of non-intersecting lines. In this example, the projector line drawn from
the intersecting point of TV of lines ab and pq meet the intersecting point of FV of these lines.
However, from right side view it is clear that the lines are not intersecting each other.

Fig. 11.9 Non-intersecting lines.

Figure 11.10 shows another example of non-intersecting lines. In this example, the projector line
drawn from the intersecting point of TV of lines ab and pq does not meet the intersecting point of
FV of these lines. Similarly, the projector line drawn from the intersecting point of TV of lines ab and
pq does not meet the intersecting point of RSV of these lines.
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Fig. 11.10 Non-intersecting lines.

11.6 Precedence of Lines

This concept is useful in intersection of surfaces and intersection of surfaces of solids. Figures 11.11
and 11.12 shows example of precedence of two non-intersecting lines. We are interested to know
that which line is above and which line is below in the TV, with reference to the direction of the
observer. We are also interested to know that which line is at the front and which line is at the back
in the FV, with reference to the direction of the observer. The precedence “above and below” can
be checked in TV and the precedence “front and back” can be checked in FV.

Above and below precedence

Refer to Fig. 11.11 to understand the “above and below” precedence. “Above and below” decision
of precedence is for TV. However, the decision is taken with the help of FV.
Draw a projector line from the intersecting point of TV of lines ab and pq and check whether the
projector line meets a¢b¢ first or p¢q¢ first. The projector line meets p¢q¢ first. Therefore, the line pq
is above and the line ab is below.

Fig. 11.11 Above and below precedence.

 CHAPTER 11: Various Measurements ® 215

Front and back precedence

Refer to Fig. 11.12 to understand “front and back” precedence. “Front and back” decision of
precedence is for FV. However, the decision is taken with the help of TV.
Draw a projector line from the intersecting point of FV of lines ab and pq and check whether the
projector line meets ab first or pq. The projector line meets ab first. Therefore, the line ab is at the
front and pq is at the back.

Fig. 11.12 Front and back precedence.

11.7 Inclination between Two Lines

Inclination between two lines can be obtained if true lengths are available for both the lines. Apparent
length gives an apparent inclination. True inclination can be obtained from true length.

EXAMPLE 11.9 Stage I of Fig. 11.13 shows TV and FV of two inclined and intersecting lines ab
and ac. Find out an angle in between these two lines.

Fig. 11.13 Inclination between two intersecting lines.

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Solution
1. COPY the Stage I FV (i.e., a¢b¢ and a¢c¢) and place it in the Stage II FV.
2. ROTATE the copied FV of two lines and make the a¢c¢ parallel to the xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV of lines and the Stage I TV. The ac in the TV shows a true length.
4. COPY the Stage II TV and place it in Stage III TV region.
5. ROTATE the copied TV and make ac (true length) perpendicular to the xy line.
6. Project the Stage III TV and the Stage II FV. The output of these projection lines shows point
view of the line AC (i.e., a¢,c¢). Now, in order to find out the true inclination between two lines,
we need the true length of the line ab.
7. COPY the Stage III FV and place it in the Stage IV FV.
8. ROTATE the copied FV with a¢, c¢ as a base point and make it parallel to the xy line.
9. Project the Stage IV FV and Stage III TV. The output of these projection lines shows the true
length of line ab. The true length of line ac is retained.
10. Use the DIM command with ANG option to measure the angle (TI) between these two lines.
Note: Similar method can be followed to obtain the inclination between two edges of skew planes.
This is shown in Fig. 11.14. The figure is self explanatory to understand how to obtain the inclination
between the two edges of skew planes.

Fig. 11.14 Inclination between two edges of skew planes.

EXAMPLE 11.10 Stage I of Fig. 11.15 shows TV and FV of two inclined and non-intersecting lines
ab and pq. Find out an angle between these two lines.
Solution
1. COPY the Stage I TV (i.e., ab and pq) and place it in the Stage II TV.
2. ROTATE the copied TV of two lines and make the pq parallel to the xy line.
3. Project the rotated TV of lines and the Stage I FV. The p¢q¢ in the FV shows a true length.
4. COPY the Stage II FV and place it in Stage III FV.
5. ROTATE the copied FV and make p¢q¢ (true length) perpendicular to the xy line.
6. Project the Stage III FV and the Stage II TV. The output of these projection lines shows point
view of the line pq. Now, in order to find out the true inclination between the two lines, we
need the true length of line ab.
7. COPY the Stage III TV and place it in the Stage IV TV.
8. ROTATE the copied TV with b as a base point and make it parallel to the xy line.
 CHAPTER 11: Various Measurements ® 217

Fig. 11.15 TV and FV of two inclined and non-intersecting lines.

9. Project the Stage IV TV and Stage III FV. The output of these projection lines shows true
length of line ab. The true length of line pq is retained.
10. Use the DIM command with ANG option to measure the angle (TI) between these two lines.

11.8 Line View of a Plane

If direction of the observer is parallel to the planer surface and lie in the same plane then the planer
surface appears as a line view. It is also called an edge view of a plane.

EXAMPLE 11.11 Stage I of Fig. 11.16 shows TV and FV of a skew plane ABC. Obtain a line view
of the plane.

Fig. 11.16
218 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Solution
1. COPY the Stage I FV (i.e., a¢b¢c¢) and place it in the Stage II FV.
2. ROTATE the copied FV of the plane and make the a¢c¢ parallel to the xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV of planes and the Stage I TV. The ac in the Stage II TV shows a true
length.
4. COPY the Stage II TV and place it in Stage III TV.
5. ROTATE the copied TV and make ac (true length) perpendicular to the xy line.
6. Project the Stage III TV and the Stage II FV. The output of these projection lines shows a
line view of the plane.

11.9 Distance between a Point and a Plane

A perpendicular dropped from point to line view of a planer surface gives the distance between a
point and a plane.

EXAMPLE 11.12 Stage I of Fig. 11.17 shows TV and FV of a skew plane abc and point p. Find
out the distance between a point and a plane.

Fig. 11.17

Solution
Note: In COPY, ROTATE and project operations, point and plane are taken together.
1. COPY the Stage I FV (i.e., plane a¢b¢c¢ and p¢) and place it in the Stage II FV.
2. ROTATE the copied FV and make the a¢c¢ parallel to the xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV of the plane and Stage I TV. The ac in Stage I TV shows a true length.
4. COPY the Stage II TV and place it in Stage III TV region.
5. ROTATE the copied TV and make ac (true length) perpendicular to the xy line.
6. Project the Stage III TV and the Stage II FV. The output of these projection lines shows a
line view of the plane.
7. Use the DIM command with ALIGNED option to measure the distance between the point and
the plane.
 CHAPTER 11: Various Measurements ® 219

11.10 Angle between Two Skew Planes

The angle between two skew planes can be obtained if both the planes are converted into line views.

EXAMPLE 11.13 Stage I of Fig. 11.18 shows TV and FV of two skew planes abc and pqr. Find
out an angle between these planes.

Fig. 11.18

Solution
Note: In COPY, ROTATE and project operations both the planes are taken together.
From the Stage I views, it is observed that edges ab and pq are parallel to each other.
1. COPY the Stage I FV (i.e., a¢b¢c¢ and p¢q¢r¢) and place it in the Stage II FV location.
2. ROTATE the copied FV of two planes and make the a¢b¢ and p¢q¢ parallel to the xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV of planes and the Stage I TV. The ab and pq in the TV shows a true
length.
4. COPY the Stage II TV and place it in Stage III TV.
5. ROTATE the copied TV and make ac and pq (true length) perpendicular to the xy line.
6. Project the Stage III TV and the Stage II FV. The output of these projection lines shows line
views of the planes.
7. Use the DIM command with ALIGNED option to measure the angle (TI) between the line and
the plane.
Note: With this technique, it can be checked whether the two planes are parallel or not. This is
shown in Fig. 11.19. In this case, the planer surfaces are not only parallel but they are lying in the
same plane.
220 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 11.19

EXAMPLE 11.14 TV and FV of two skew planes acb and acd are shown in Stage I of Fig. 11.20.
These two planes meet at the common edge ac. Obtain the true inclination (TI) between these two
planes.

Fig. 11.20

Solution
1. FV of the edge ac is parallel to the xy line. Therefore, the TV of the line ac, which is inclined
to the xy line, shows a true length.
2. COPY the entire TV of these two planes and place it in the TV region of the Stage II.
3. ROTATE the copied TV with a as a base point and make the ac perpendicular to the xy line.
4. Project the Stage II TV and the Stage I FV. The output of these projection lines gives the line
views of these two planes.
5. With DIM command and ANG option obtain the true inclination in between these two planes
as TI.
 CHAPTER 11: Various Measurements ® 221

11.11 Angle between a Line and a Plane

The angle between a line and a plane can be obtained if the plane is converted into a line view and
a true length is obtained for a line. The angle between a line view of plane and true length of the
line is the angle between a line and a plane.

EXAMPLE 11.15 Stage I of Fig. 11.21 shows TV and FV of a skew line pq and a skew plane abc.
Find out an angle between the line and the plane.

Fig. 11.21

Solution
Note: In COPY, ROTATE and project operations the line and the plane are taken together.
1. COPY the Stage I FV (i.e., a¢b¢c¢ and p¢q¢) and place it in the Stage II FV location.
2. ROTATE the copied FV of the plane and the line with c as a base point and make the a¢c¢
parallel to the xy line.
3. Project the rotated FV of the plane and the line and the Stage I TV. The ac in the TV shows
a true length.
4. COPY the Stage II TV and place it in Stage III TV.
5. ROTATE the copied TV and make ac (true length) perpendicular to the xy line.
6. Project the Stage III TV and the Stage II FV. The intersections of these projection lines show
a line view of the plane abc along with the FV of the line. In order to obtain the angle between
the plane and the line we need true length of line and a line view of the plane.
7. Stage IV shows the procedure to obtain the true length of the line. The Stage IV FV shows
the true length of the line pq (p¢q¢) and a line view of the plane abc.
8. Use the DIM command with ALIGNED option to measure the angle (TI) between the line and
the plane (i.e., p¢q¢ and a¢, c¢-b¢) as shown.
Note: With this technique, it can be checked whether a line is normal to the plane or not.
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Exercise
11.1 Find the shortest distance between a line AB and a point P. The distance between end
projectors of this line is 125 mm. The endpoint A is in the VP and 125 mm below the HP.
Endpoint B is 175 mm behind the VP and 25 mm below the HP. The point P is 75 mm behind
the VP, 150 mm below the HP and 75 mm from the end projector for the point A.
11.2 Two lines AB and CD have common end projectors. The line AB is parallel to the HP and
line CD is parallel to the VP. The distance between the end projectors is 150 mm. The end
A is 100 mm above the HP and 25 mm in front of the VP. The endpoint B is 100 mm in front
of the VP. The endpoint C is 25 mm above the HP and 50 mm in front of the VP. The
endpoint D is 125 mm above the HP. Draw the projections and find the distance between the
skew lines: AB and CD.
11.3 FV of a line AB is measured as 125 mm. Endpoint A of the line AB is 25 mm below the HP
and 50 mm behind the VP, whereas endpoint B is 100 mm below the HP and 125 mm behind
the VP. Endpoint P is 125 mm below the HP and 150 mm behind the VP. Projections of point
P lie in between the projections of point A and B. The distance between the projectors
passing through point A and point P is 50 mm. Draw the projections of line AB. Draw the
projections of point P. Find the true distance between the line AB and point P.
11.4 TV of a line AB is measured as 150 mm and FV makes an angle 30° with the HP. Endpoint
A is 25 mm above the HP and 50 mm in front of the VP, whereas point B is 100 mm in front
of the VP. Point P is 100 mm above the HP and 125 mm in front of the VP. Projections of
point P lie in between the projections of point A and B. The distance between the projectors
passing through point A and point P is 50 mm. Draw the projections of line AB. Draw the
projections of point P. Find the true distance between the line AB and point P.
11.5 Line AB is parallel to the HP and its FV is 100 mm long. Point A is 75 mm above the HP
and 25 mm in front of the VP, whereas point B is 125 mm in front of the VP. Line PQ is
parallel to the PP. Point P is 25 mm above the HP and 125 mm in front of the VP, whereas
point Q is 125 mm above the HP and 25 mm in front of the VP. Projections of point P lie in
between the projections of point A and B. The distance between the projectors passing
through point A and point P is 50 mm. Draw the projections of line AB and PQ. Find the true
angle between the line AB and the line PQ.
12
Projections of Solids

Objectives
® To learn projections of engineering solids in a given position.
® To know how to transfer a point from one view to another view.

Introduction
In this chapter, we are going to study the projections of engineering solids in a given position.
The fundamentals of projection of engineering solids help all science and engineering students
to represent any engineering solid in a given position. A solid has three dimensions: length,
depth and height. In order to represent a solid on a plane paper, at least two orthographic views
are necessary. However, if required, additional views are projected on auxiliary planes to
complete the description of a solid. We have studied the fundamentals of projections, i.e.,
orthographic projections of engineering components.

223
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12.1 Division of Engineering Solids

Solids may be divided into two main groups:
(i) Polyhedra
(ii) Solids of revolution

12.2 Polyhedra
A polyhedra is defined as a solid bounded by planes called faces. When all the faces are equal and
regular, the polyhedron is said to be regular, otherwise it is an irregular polyhedra.

12.2.1 Regular Polyhedra

There are five regular polyhedra which may be defined as follows:
1. Tetrahedron: It has four equal faces, each an equilateral triangle [Fig. 12.1(a)].
2. Cube or hexahedron: It has six equal faces, all equal squares [Fig. 12.1(b)].
3. Octahedron: It has eight equal equilateral triangles as faces [Fig. 12.1(c)].
4. Dodecahedron: It has twelve equal and regular pentagons as faces [Fig. 12.1(d)].
5. Icosahedron: It has twenty faces, all equal equilateral triangles.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 12.1 Regular polyhedra.

12.2.2 Irregular Polyhedra

Prism is a polyhedron having two equal and similar faces called its ends or bases, parallel to each
other and joined by vertical faces, which are parallelograms. The imaginary line joining the centres
of the bases is called axis.

Prism
A polyhedron having two bases and axis perpendicular to bases is called a right and regular prism
(Fig. 12.2). The right and regular prism has equal rectangular faces. The corners and edges of bases
are called base-corners and base-edges, respectively. The edges of faces are called vertical edges.
Based on the number of base-edges, the prisms are called triangular, square, pentagonal and
hexagonal prisms.

Fig. 12.2 Prisms.

 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 225

Pyramid
A polyhedron having one base and many slant faces is called a pyramid. The number of slant faces
meeting at a point is called apex. The imaginary line joining apex and centre of base is called axis.
This is shown in Fig. 12.3. The right and regular pyramid has equal triangular (isosceles triangle)
faces. The corners and edges of bases are called base-corners and base-edges, respectively. The
edges joining apex and base-corners are called slant edges. Based on the number of base-edges,
the pyramids are called triangular, square, pentagonal and hexagonal pyramids.

Fig. 12.3 Pyramids.

Oblique prisms and pyramids have their axis inclined to their bases. Prisms and pyramids are
named according to the shape of their bases, as triangular, square, pentagonal, hexagonal etc.

12.3 Solids of Revolution

Revolution of a straight or curved edge about an axis generates a hollow solid. Revolution of a plane
figure about its own edge generates a solid.

Cylinder
Cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides [Fig. 12.4(a)].
It has two bases namely, top and bottom. The fixed side about which a rectangle is revolved is called
an axis. The side which is parallel to the axis is called a generator as it generates a curved surface.
The base-edge is called a circumference.

Cone
Cone is a solid generated by the revolution of a right angled triangle about one of its perpendicular
sides [Fig. 12.4(b)]. It has one base. The fixed side about which a rectangle is revolved is called an
axis. The side which is inclined to the axis is called a slant generator as it generates a slant curved
surface. The base-edge is called a circumference.
226 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 12.4 Solids of revolution.

Sphere
Sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a semicircular plane about its diameter [Fig. 12.4(c)].
The diameter about which a semicircular plane is revolved is called an axis.

Frustums of solids
If a solid like pyramid and cone is cut by a plane inclined to its base then the remaining portion is
called the frustum of a pyramid or frustum of a cone. The frustum of a pyramid has top and bottom
bases, regular slant faces and slant edges (Fig. 12.5). When a solid is cut by a plane inclined to
its base it is said to be truncated.

Fig. 12.5 Frustum of square pyramid and cone.

12.4 Projections of Solids

A solid in simple position may have its axis perpendicular to one of the reference planes (HP, VP
or PP). When the axis is perpendicular to one reference plane, it is parallel to the other. Also, when
the axis of a solid is perpendicular to a plane, its base will be parallel to that plane. We have seen
in Chapter 9 that if a plane is parallel to a reference plane, its projection on that plane shows its true
shape and size. Therefore, the projection of a solid on the plane, to which its axis is perpendicular,
will show the true shape and size.

If axis is perpendicular to HP or ground

The TV will show the true shape and size of the base. The TV is drawn first and then the FV is
projected from it. This is shown in Fig. 12.6.
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 227

Fig. 12.6 Projections of a cylinder with axis perpendicular to HP.

If axis is perpendicular to VP
The FV will show the true shape and size of the base. The FV is drawn first and then the TV is
projected from it. This is shown in Fig. 12.7.

Fig. 12.7 Projections of a cylinder with axis perpendicular to VP.

228 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

If axis is perpendicular to PP (or parallel to HP and VP)

The SV (LSV or RSV) will show the true shape and size of the base. The SV is drawn first and then
the TV and FV are projected from it. This is shown in Fig. 12.8.

Fig. 12.8 Projections of a cylinder with axis perpendicular to PP.

Examples based on projections of prism and cylinder (with axis perpendicular to ground
or HP)

EXAMPLE 12.1 A square prism is standing on its base on the ground with two of its faces
perpendicular to VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution Refer to P.1/Plate 12.1.

EXAMPLE 12.2 A triangular prism is resting on its base on the ground with two of its faces equally
inclined to the VP and away from the observer. Draw projections of solid.
Solution This can be seen in P.2/Plate 12.1.

EXAMPLE 12.3 A pentagonal prism is resting on its base on the ground with one face parallel to
VP and towards the observer.
Solution See P.3/Plate 12.1.

PLATE 12.1 Projections of prism and cylinder with axis perpendicular to HP.
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 229

EXAMPLE 12.4 A hexagonal prism is resting on its base on the ground with two of its alternate
faces equally inclined to the VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution This is evident in P.4/Plate 12.1.

EXAMPLE 12.5 A cylinder is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of solid.
Solution Observe P.5/Plate 12.1.

EXAMPLE 12.6 A square prism is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of solid if
one of its faces makes an angle of 30° to VP.
Solution Refer to P.6/Plate 12.1.

EXAMPLE 12.7 A triangular prism is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of solid
if one of its faces makes an angle of 45° to VP.
Solution See P.7/Plate 12.1.

EXAMPLE 12.8 A pentagonal prism is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of solid
if one of its faces makes an angle of 30° to VP and exposed to observer.
Solution We can see this in P.8/Plate 12.1.

EXAMPLE 12.9 A hexagonal prism is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of solid
if one of its faces makes an angle of 45° to VP and exposed to observer.
Solution Refer to P.9/Plate 12.1.

Examples based on projections of prism and cylinder (with axis perpendicular to VP)

EXAMPLE 12.10 A square prism is resting on one of its faces on the ground with axis
perpendicular to VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution This is seen in P.10/Plate 12.2.

EXAMPLE 12.11 A triangular prism is resting on one of its faces on the ground with axis
perpendicular to VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution Refer to P.11/Plate 12.2.

EXAMPLE 12.12 A pentagonal prism is resting on one of its faces on the ground with axis
perpendicular to VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution This is shown in P.12/Plate 12.2.

EXAMPLE 12.13 A hexagonal prism is resting on one of its vertical edges on the ground with axis
perpendicular to VP and faces associated with vertical edge equally inclined to the ground. Draw
projections of solid.
Solution See P.13/Plate 12.2.

PLATE 12.2 Projections of prism and cylinder with axis perpendicular to VP.
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EXAMPLE 12.14 A cylinder is resting on one of its generator on the ground with axis perpendicular
to VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution Refer to P.14/Plate 12.2.

EXAMPLE 12.15 A square prism is resting on one of its vertical edges on the ground with axis
perpendicular to VP and all faces equally inclined to the ground. Draw projections of solid.
Solution This is exhibited in P.15/Plate 12.2.

EXAMPLE 12.16 A triangular prism is resting on one of its vertical edges on the ground with axis
perpendicular to VP and one face is inclined at 45° to the ground. Draw projections of solid.
Solution See P.16/Plate 12.2.

EXAMPLE 12.17 A pentagonal prism is resting on one of its vertical edges on the ground with axis
perpendicular to VP and opposite face is parallel to the ground. Draw projections of solid.
Solution Observe P.17/Plate 12.2.

EXAMPLE 12.18 A hexagonal prism is resting on one of its vertical edges on the ground with axis
perpendicular to VP and one of its faces inclined at 45° to the ground. Draw projections of solid.
Solution We can see this in P.18/Plate 12.2.

Examples based on projection of pyramids and cones (with axis perpendicular to ground
or HP)

EXAMPLE 12.19 A square pyramid is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of solid
if two of its base edges are perpendicular to VP.
Solution We can see this in P.19/Plate 12.3.

EXAMPLE 12.20 A triangular pyramid is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of
solid if one of its base edges is perpendicular to VP.
Solution This is evident in P.20/Plate 12.3.

EXAMPLE 12.21 A pentagonal pyramid is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of
solid if one of its base edges is parallel to VP and towards (≠) the observer.
Solution Refer to P.21/Plate 12.3.

EXAMPLE 12.22 A hexagonal pyramid is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of
solid if two of its adjacent base edges are equally inclined to VP.
Solution See P.22/Plate 12.3.

EXAMPLE 12.23 A cone is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of solid.
Solution This is shown in P.23/Plate 12.3.

PLATE 12.3 Projections of pyramids and cones with axis perpendicular to HP.
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 231

EXAMPLE 12.24 A square pyramid is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of solid
if one of its base edges is inclined 18° to VP and exposed to the observer.
Solution See P.24/Plate 12.3.

EXAMPLE 12.25 A triangular pyramid is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of
solid if one of its base edges is inclined at 45° to VP and exposed (≠) to the observer.
Solution Observe P.25/Plate 12.3.

EXAMPLE 12.26 A pentagonal pyramid is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of
solid if one of its base edges is inclined at 45° to VP and exposed (≠) to the observer.
Solution This is shown in P.26/Plate 12.3.

EXAMPLE 12.27 A hexagonal pyramid is resting on its base on the ground. Draw projections of
solid if one of its base edges is inclined 45° to VP and exposed (≠) to the observer.
Solution See P.27/Plate 12.3.

Examples based on projection of pyramids and cones (with axis perpendicular to VP)

EXAMPLE 12.28 A square pyramid is resting on one of its base edges on the ground. Draw
projections of solid if the base is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution Refer to P.28/Plate 12.4.

EXAMPLE 12.29 A triangular pyramid is resting on one of its base corners on the ground and
base-edge associated with that corner is inclined 14° to the ground. Draw projections of solids if the
base is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution See P.29/Plate 12.4.

EXAMPLE 12.30 A pentagonal pyramid is resting on one of its base corners on the ground and
one of the base edges opposite to that corner is parallel to the ground. Draw projections of solid if
the base is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution This is exhibited in P.30/Plate 12.4.

EXAMPLE 12.31 A hexagonal pyramid is resting on one of its base-corner on the ground. Draw
projections of solid if the base is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution This is shown in P.31/Plate 12.4.

EXAMPLE 12.32 A cone is resting on its circumference of base on the ground. Draw projections
of solid if the base is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution See P.32/Plate 12.4.

PLATE 12.4 Projections of pyramids and cones with axis perpendicular to VP.
232 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 12.33 A square pyramid is resting on one of its base corners on the ground and base-
edge associated with that corner is inclined 30° to the ground. Draw projections of solid if the base
is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution Observe P.33/Plate 12.4.

EXAMPLE 12.34 A triangular pyramid is resting on one of its base corners on the ground and
base-edge associated with that corner is inclined 18° to the ground. Draw projections of solid if the
base is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution See P.34/Plate 12.4.

EXAMPLE 12.35 A pentagonal pyramid is resting on one of its base corners on the ground and
base-edge associated with that corner is inclined 45° to the ground. Draw projections of solid if the
base is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution Observe P.35/Plate 12.4.

EXAMPLE 12.36 A hexagonal pyramid is resting on one of its base corners on the ground and
base edge associated with that corner is inclined 45° to the ground. Draw projections of solid if the
base is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution This is shown in P.36/Plate 12.4.

Examples based on projection of solids (with axis parallel to HP and VP)

EXAMPLE 12.37 A square prism is resting on one of its faces on the ground with bases
perpendicular to HP and VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution This is seen in P.37/Plate 12.5.

EXAMPLE 12.38 A cylinder is resting on one of its generators on the ground with bases
perpendicular to HP and VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution We can see this in P.38/Plate 12.5.

EXAMPLE 12.39 A cone is resting on circumferential point of base on the ground with base
perpendicular to HP and VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution Refer to P.39/Plate 12.5.

EXAMPLE 12.40 A square pyramid is resting on one of its base edges on the ground with base
perpendicular to HP and VP. Draw projections of solid.
Solution See P.40/Plate 12.5.

EXAMPLE 12.41 Draw projections (TV, FV, SV) of sphere resting on the ground.
Solution Observe P.41/Plate 12.5.

PLATE 12.5 Projections of solids with axis parallel to HP and VP.

 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 233

12.5 Axis Inclined to One Reference Plane and Parallel to the Other
If a solid has its axis inclined to one reference plane and parallel to the other, its projections are
drawn in two stages. In the initial stage, the solid is assumed to be in a simple position, i.e., its axis
is perpendicular to one of the reference planes (HP or VP).
If the axis is inclined to the ground, i.e., the HP, it is assumed to be perpendicular to the HP.
In the initial stage, accordingly, the true shape of the base of the solid is drawn in the TV. Similarly,
if the axis is to be inclined to the VP, it is assumed to be perpendicular to the VP. In the initial stage,
accordingly, the true shape of the base of the solid is drawn in the FV. This is discussed from
EXAMPLE 12.42 to EXAMPLE 12.51.
As the solid is tilted, it may rest on one of its: base-corner, base-edge, vertical faces and vertical
edges (in case of prism); base-corners, apex, base-edges, slant faces and slant edges (in case of
pyramid); circumferential point of base and generator (in case of cylinder); circumferential point of
base, slant generator and apex (in case of cone).

Rest condition
While drawing the true shape (TS) of the base, the following conventions are considered. If it is
resting on:
(i) Base-edge: Draw that base-edge perpendicular to the xy line.
(ii) Base-corner: Draw a line joining that base-corner and the centre of the base parallel to the
xy line.
(iii) Slant face: Draw a base-edge of that slant face perpendicular to the xy line.
(iv) Slant/vertical edge: Draw a line joining the base-corner of that slant/vertical edge and centre
of the base parallel to the xy line.

Example based on axis inclined to one reference plane and parallel to the other reference
plane

EXAMPLE 12.42 A hexagonal prism (Fig. 12.9) having base edge 100 mm and height 150 mm is
resting on one of its base edges on the ground in such a way that the axis is inclined 70° to the
ground and parallel to VP. Draw projections of solid.

Fig. 12.9
234 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Solution First stage shows a normal position of the prism. As axis is inclined to the ground, it is
made perpendicular to the ground. The TS is visible in the TV. As the prism is resting on its base-
edge the TS is drawn in such a way that the edge on which it is resting, is made perpendicular to
the xy line. In the second stage, the FV is rotated such that the axis makes an inclination of 70° or
the base makes an inclination of 20° to the G-L line. In the second stage TV, the top base is fully
visible and the bottom base is partially visible. The vertical edges aa and bb are not visible.

EXAMPLE 12.43 A square pyramid (Fig. 12.10) having base diagonal 200 mm and height 175 mm
is resting on one of its base corner on the ground in such a way that, the slant edge associated with
that corner is vertical. Draw projections of solid if the axis is parallel to the VP.

Fig. 12.10

Solution First stage shows a normal position of the pyramid. The pyramid is resting on the ground
on one of its corner. Therefore, the TS is visible in the TV. As the pyramid is resting on its base-
corner, the TS is drawn in such a way that the line joining the base-corner and the centre of the base
co is parallel to the xy line. In the second stage, the FV is rotated such that the line oc associated
with the base-corner c is vertical. In the second stage TV, base edges as well as the slant edges
are fully visible and the slant edge oc falls into a point view.

EXAMPLE 12.44 A cylinder Fig. 12.11 having diameter 150 mm and height 175 mm is resting on
its curved surface on the ground in such a way that its base makes an angle of 50° to VP and the
axis is parallel to the ground. Draw projections of solid.
Solution First stage shows a normal position of the cylinder. As the axis is inclined to VP, it is
made perpendicular to VP. The TS is visible in the FV. The cylinder is resting on its curved surface,
(i.e., generator 4–4). In the second stage, the TV is rotated such that the axis makes an inclination
of 40° or the base makes an inclination of 50° to VP. In the second stage FV, a base which is
exposed to the observer (≠), is fully visible and the base, which is away from the observer, is partially
visible.
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 235

Fig. 12.11

EXAMPLE 12.45 A cone (Fig. 12.12) having base diameter 200 mm and height 200 mm is resting
on circumferential point of base on the ground with axis inclined 50° to VP and parallel to the ground.
Draw projections of solid if the apex is towards the observer.

Fig. 12.12

Solution First stage shows a normal position of the cone. As axis is inclined to VP, it is made
perpendicular to VP. The TS is visible in the FV. The cone is resting on its circumferential base-
point, (i.e., 4). In the second stage, the TV is rotated such that the axis makes an inclination of 50°
with the xy line. In the second stage FV, the base (2–3–4), which is nearer to the observer (≠) is
fully visible and the base (4–1–2), which is away from the observer is partially visible.
236 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 12.46 A cone (Fig. 12.13) having base diameter 150 mm and height 150 mm is resting
on its circumferential point of base with axis parallel to VP. Draw projections of solid if the axis
makes angle 45° to the ground.

Fig. 12.13

Solution First stage shows a normal position of the cone. As the axis is inclined to the ground,
it is made perpendicular to the ground. The TS is visible in the TV. The cone is resting on its
circumferential base-point, (i.e., 3). In the second stage, the FV is rotated such that the axis makes
an inclination of 40° with G–L line. In the second stage TV, the base (2–1–4) which is exposed to
the observer (≠), is fully visible and the base (2–3–4), which is away from the observer, is partially
visible.

EXAMPLE 12.47 A cylinder (Fig. 12.14) having diameter 125 mm and height 125 mm is resting
on its circumferential point of base with axis parallel to VP. Draw projections of solid if the axis
makes angle 45° to the ground.

Fig. 12.14
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 237

Solution First stage shows a normal position of the cylinder. As axis is inclined to the ground, it
is made perpendicular to the ground. The TS is visible in the TV. The cylinder is resting on its
circumferential base point, (i.e., 3). In the second stage, the FV is rotated such that the axis makes
an inclination of 45° or the base makes an inclination of 45° to line GL. In the second stage TV, the
top base is fully visible and the bottom base is partially visible.

EXAMPLE 12.48 A square prism (Fig. 12.15) having base diagonal 100 mm and height 150 mm
is resting on one of its vertical edges on the ground with axis parallel to the ground. Draw projections
of solid if axis makes angle 30° to VP.

Fig. 12.15

Solution First stage shows a normal position of the prism. As axis is inclined to VP, it is made
perpendicular to VP. The TS is visible in the FV. The prism is resting on its vertical edge dd. In the
second stage, the TV is rotated such that the axis makes an inclination of 30° or the base makes
an inclination of 60° to xy line. In the second stage FV, the base, which is exposed to observer (≠),
is fully visible and the base, which is away from the observer, is partially visible. Vertical edge cc
is not visible.

EXAMPLE 12.49 A triangular prism Fig. (12.16) having base edge 150 mm and height 225 mm
is resting on one of its base edges on the ground with axis parallel to VP. Draw projections of solid
if the axis makes angle of 40° to the ground.
Solution First stage shows a normal position of the prism. As the axis is inclined to the ground,
it is made perpendicular to the ground. The TS is visible in the TV. As the prism is resting on its
base-edge, the TS is drawn in such a way that the edge on which it is resting, is made perpendicular
to the xy line. In the second stage, the FV is rotated such that the axis makes an inclination of 40°
or the base makes an inclination of 50° to GL line. In the second stage TV, the top base is fully
visible and the bottom base is partially visible. All vertical edges are visible.
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Fig. 12.16

EXAMPLE 12.50 A pentagonal pyramid (Fig. 12.17) having base-edge 100 mm and height
200 mm is resting on one of its base edges on the ground with axis parallel to the ground and makes
inclination of 60° to VP. Draw projections of solid, if the apex is towards the observer.

Fig. 12.17

Solution First stage shows a normal position of the pyramid. As axis is inclined to VP, it is made
perpendicular to VP. The TS is visible in the FV. The pyramid is resting on its base-edge a-b. In the
second stage, the TV is rotated such that the axis makes an inclination of 60° to VP. In the second
stage FV, base-edges bc and cd are not visible.
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 239

EXAMPLE 12.51 A hexagonal prism (Fig. 12.18) having base edge 50 mm and height 175 mm is
resting on one of its base corner on the ground with axis parallel to VP. Draw projections of solid
if the axis makes angle 50° to the ground.

Fig. 12.18

Solution First stage shows a normal position of the prism. As axis is inclined to the ground, it is
made perpendicular to the ground. The TS is visible in the TV. As the prism is resting on its base-
corner the TS is drawn in such a way that the line joining the corner a and the centre of the base
is parallel to xy line. In the second stage, the FV is rotated such that the axis makes an inclination
of 50° or the base makes an inclination of 40° to GL line. In the second stage TV, the top base is
fully visible and the bottom base is partially visible. The vertical edge aa associated with the corner
a is not visible.

12.6 Transfer of Point(s) from One View to Another

The transfer of point(s) from one view to another is frequently required. In case of prisms and
cylinders, the points can be directly transferred. This concept is useful in section of solids,
development of surfaces of solids and intersection of surfaces of solids for the point transfer from
one view to another.
The following examples discuss on the transfer of points in case of prisms, cylinders, pyramids
and cones.

Example based on the transfer of point from one view to another

EXAMPLE 12.52 A square prism is standing on its base on the ground with all four faces equally
inclined to VP (Fig. 12.19). Draw projections of solid. There are two points marked, one on the top
base and one on the face AADD. Transfer a face point from FV to TV. Transfer a base point from
TV to FV.
Solution First stage shows the projections of solids with four faces AABB, BBCC, CCDD and
DDAA along with the location of point views. The visible point in the FV is on the face AADD. In the
second stage, this is directly transferred by drawing a projector from the visible point to the base
edge AD, which represents the face AADD in the TV. The visible point in the TV is on the top base
ABCD. In the second stage, this is directly transferred by drawing a projector from the visible point
to the top base in the FV.
240 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 12.19

EXAMPLE 12.53 A cylinder is standing on its base on the ground (Fig. 12.20). Draw projections
of solid. There are two points marked, one on the top base and one on the curved face. Transfer
a visible point from FV to TV and from TV to FV.

Fig. 12.20

Solution First stage shows the projections of solids along with the location of point view. The
visible point in the FV is on the curved surface. In the second stage, this is directly transferred by
drawing a projector from the FV to the circumference in the TV, which represents a curved surface.
The visible point in the TV is on the top base. In the second stage, this is directly transferred
by drawing a projector from the TV to the top base in the FV.
In case of pyramids and cones, there are two methods for the transfer of point(s) from one view
to another:
(i) Drawing a slant line starting from apex to the base or from base to the apex
(ii) Drawing a line parallel to the base. (This method is also called cutting plane method).
Examples based on the transfer of point by using a slant line method

EXAMPLE 12.54 A square pyramid is resting on its base on the ground with all four base edges
equally inclined to VP (Fig. 12.21). There is a visible point p¢ marked on a slant surface OAB. Draw
projections of solid. Transfer a visible point from FV to TV.
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 241

Fig. 12.21

Solution
1. First stage shows the projections of solids with four slant faces OAB, OBC, OCD and ODA.
The visible point view p¢ in the FV is on the face o¢a¢b¢.
2. In the second stage, in FV, an imaginary line is drawn starting from apex o¢, passing through
the FV of visible point and meeting the base at z¢.
3. The z¢ is projected in the TV on front base-edge ab and then same line is continued to o¢.
o¢z¢ and oz are FV and TV of slant line oz.
4. Draw a projector line from the FV of visible point to intersect the TV of slant line i.e., oz.

EXAMPLE 12.55 A cone is standing on its base on the ground (Fig. 12.22). Draw projections of
solid. Transfer a visible point from FV to TV.

Fig. 12.22

Solution
1. First stage shows the projections of solid. The visible point in the FV is on the curved surface.
2. In the second stage, in FV, an imaginary line is drawn starting from apex o¢, passing through
the FV of visible point and meeting the base at z¢.
3. The z¢ is projected in the TV on the circular base z and then the same line is continued to
o. o¢z¢ and oz are FV and TV of slant line oz.
4. Draw a projector line from the FV of visible point to intersect the TV of slant line i.e., oz.
Note: With the help of single LINE command this transfer can be achieved. Line from point o¢, to
point z¢, to point z, to point o.
242 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Examples based on the transfer of point by using a line parallel to the base method
There is a second method on transfer of point from one view to another in case of pyramids and
cones when the point exists on the vertical line coinciding with the axis of solid or passing through
the apex of the solid.
EXAMPLE 12.56 A square pyramid is resting on its base on the ground with all four base edges
equally inclined to VP (Fig. 12.23). Draw projections of solid. Transfer a visible point from FV to TV.
Solution
1. First stage shows the projections of solids with four slant faces OAB, OBC, OCD and ODA.
The visible point in the FV is on the slant edge OB.
2. In the second stage, in FV, a line parallel to the base starting from FV of visible point, to point
z¢ on slant edge OA is drawn.
3. The point view z¢ is projected in the TV on slant edge OA (as z).
4. Similar to FV, a line parallel to base is drawn passing through point view z and cutting the
slant edge OB in the TV to obtain the required transfer. This transfer can also be obtained
by drawing an arc from z on oc to ob. This is shown in the same figure.

Fig. 12.23

EXAMPLE 12.57 A cone is standing on its base on the ground (Fig. 12.24). Draw projections of
solid. Transfer a visible point P on the curved surface from FV to TV.

Fig. 12.24
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 243

Solution
1. First stage shows the projections of solid. The visible point in the FV is on the curved
surface lying on the axis of the cone.
2. In the second stage, in FV, a line a¢b¢ parallel to the base of the cone is drawn passing
through the FV of visible point. This line is considered as a cutting plane.
3. If the cone is cut with the help of this cutting plane, the section in the TV will appear as a
circular plane with diameter ab in the TV.
4. The FV of the visible point is now directly projected on the circumference of the cut section
in the TV.
This method is called “cutting plane method” or “line (curve) parallel to base method”.

EXAMPLE 12.58 A square prism is resting on its vertical edge on the ground with its axis parallel
to HP and VP (Fig. 12.25). There are two points, one V on vertical edge CC and another U on base
edge BC. Transfer these points on the respective edges in the TV.

Fig. 12.25

Solution
1. Figure 12.25 shows the projections of square prism with axis parallel to HP and VP. The true
shape of the base is visible in the left side view.
2. The point v¢ on c¢c¢ can be directly transferred on cc in the TV as shown v.
3. The point u¢ on b¢c¢ in FV cannot be directly transferred in the TV.
4. Transfer u¢ to true shape of the base in the side view to obtain its true position on the base
edge b¢c¢.
5. Transfer the u¢ by using a 45° line method to the TV and obtain u as shown.

Exercise A (Projection of Solids in Simple Position)

Instructions:
1. 1 unit = 4 grid spacing = 100mm.
2. Use point for locating the centre with PDMODE: 2 and PDSIZE: 0.15.
3. Draw a polygon by edge method and locate the centre of the polygon/circle.
4. Show the axis by a centre line ( ).
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Solve for the following positions of solids in III-quadrant

12.1 A square prism (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is resting on its base on the ground.
Draw its projections if two of its adjacent faces are equally inclined to the VP.
12.2 A square prism (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is resting on its base on the ground.
Draw its projections if one of its rectangular faces makes an angle 30° to the VP.
12.3 A square pyramid (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is resting on its base on the
ground. Draw its projections if two of its adjacent base edges are equally inclined to the VP.
12.4 A square pyramid (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is resting on its base on the
ground. Draw its projections if one of its base edges makes an angle 30° to the VP.
12.5 A pentagonal prism (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is resting on its base on the
ground with one rectangular face perpendicular to the VP. Draw its projections if a vertical
edge opposite to that face is 100 mm behind the VP.
12.6 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is resting on its base on the
ground with one of the base edges perpendicular to the VP. Draw its projections if the base
corner opposite to that base edge is 100 mm behind the VP.
12.7 A triangular prism (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is held in the III-quadrant with
one rectangular face perpendicular to the direction of vision. Draw its projections if a vertical
edge opposite to that face is perpendicular to the HP and 100 mm from the VP.
12.8 A triangular pyramid (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is held in the III-quadrant with
one base edge perpendicular to the direction of vision. Draw its projections if an axis is
perpendicular to the HP and an apex 50 mm below the HP.
12.9 A hexagonal prism (base edge = 75 mm, height = 100 mm) is resting on one of its
rectangular faces on the ground, base being parallel to the VP. Draw its projections if the
base is 50 mm behind the VP.
12.10 A regular tetrahedron (face edge = 100 mm) is held with one of its faces on the VP. Draw
its projections if one of the face edges is perpendicular to the HP and a face corner opposite
to that face edge is 100 mm below the HP.
12.11 A regular tetrahedron (face edge = 100 mm) is resting on one of its faces on the ground
with one of the face edges perpendicular to the direction of vision and 50 mm behind the
VP. Draw its projections when a face corner opposite to that face edge is farthest from the
observer.
12.12 Draw projections of a hemisphere (diameter = 150 mm) with a flat face on the VP.
12.13 Draw projections of a hemisphere (diameter = 150 mm) with a flat face on the ground.
12.14 Draw projections of 1/4th part of a sphere (radius = 75 mm) resting on one of its flat faces
on the ground with diameter parallel to the HP and VP.
12.15 Draw projections of 1/4th part of a sphere (radius = 75 mm) resting on one of its flat faces
on the ground with diameter perpendicular to the VP.
12.16 A right circular cone (diameter = 100 mm, height = 125 mm) is held with its base on the VP.
Draw its projections when the apex is 50 mm below the HP.
12.17 A right circular cylinder (diameter = 100 mm, height = 125 mm) is resting on its base on the
ground. Draw its projections.
12.18 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 75 mm and height = 125 mm) is held in the III-quadrant
with an axis perpendicular to the VP and an apex farthest from the observer. Draw its
projections if one of the base edges is parallel to the HP.
12.19 A square prism (base edge = 75 mm, height = 125 mm) is held in the III-quadrant. Draw
its projections if an axis is parallel to both the HP and VP and rectangular faces equally
inclined to the ground.
 CHAPTER 12: Projections of Solids ® 245

12.20 A square pyramid (base edge = 75 mm, height = 125 mm) is held in the III-quadrant. Draw
its projections if an axis is parallel to both the HP and VP and base edges are equally
inclined to the ground.
12.21 A square pyramid (base edge = 100 mm, height = 125 mm) is resting on its base on the
ground with a base edge parallel to the VP. It is surrounded by four spheres, resting on the
ground, each having a radius 68.65 mm. In this arrangement each sphere touches the
adjacent two spheres and a triangular face of a square pyramid. Draw projections of square
pyramid and spheres. Find the distance between the centres of two opposite spheres.
12.22 Three equal spheres each having 50 mm radius are resting on the ground so that each
touches the other two with the line joining the centres of any two spheres, is parallel to the
VP and one sphere is towards the observer. A fourth sphere of 75 mm radius is placed
centrally on the three spheres. Draw the TV, FV and RSV of the arrangement. Find the
distance of the centre of the fourth sphere above the ground.
12.23 Three cones similar in dimensions having base radius 50 mm and height 100 mm are
resting on the ground on their bases. Each touches the other two with a line joining the
centres of the two cones and is parallel to the VP. The third cone is towards the observer.
A sphere of 37.5 mm radius is placed centrally among them. Draw the FV, TV and RSV of
the arrangement. Find the height of the centre of the sphere above the ground.
12.24 Draw projections of a frustum of a square pyramid (with the top base side 75 mm, bottom
base side 125 mm and height 200 mm) with all base edges equally inclined to the VP and
the axis perpendicular to the ground.

Exercise B (Projection of Solids with Axis Inclined to One Reference Plane and
Parallel to the other)
Solve for the following positions of the engineering solids in III-quadrant.
12.1 A right circular cone of diameter 150 mm and height 200 mm is resting on its circumferential
base point on the ground with an axis inclined at 45° to the HP and parallel to the VP. Draw
its projections.
12.2 A right circular cylinder of diameter 150 mm and height 200 mm is resting on its
circumferential base point on the ground with an axis inclined at 45° to the HP and parallel
to the VP. Draw its projections.
12.3 A right circular cone of diameter 150 mm and height 150 mm is resting on its circumferential
base point on the ground with an apex 125 mm above the ground and axis parallel to the
VP. Draw its projections.
12.4 A right circular cylinder of diameter 150 mm and height 200 mm is resting on its curved
surface on the ground with the axis inclined 45° to the VP and parallel to the HP. Draw its
projections.
12.5 A triangular prism of base edge 150 mm and height 200 mm is resting on one of its
rectangular faces on the ground with axis inclined 30° to the VP and parallel to the HP. Draw
its projections.
12.6 A square pyramid, base edge 100 mm and height 150 mm is resting on one of its base
corners on the ground with a slant edge passing through the resting corner, in vertical
position and axis parallel to the VP. Draw its projections.
12.7 A hexagonal prism, base edge 100 mm and height 150 mm is resting on one of its base
edges on the ground with base inclined at 20° to the ground and axis parallel to the VP.
Draw its projections.
246 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

12.8 A triangular prism, base edge 150 mm and height 225 mm is resting on one of its base
edges on the ground with an axis inclined 40° with the ground and parallel to the VP. Draw
its projections.
12.9 A pentagonal pyramid, base edge 100 mm and height 200 mm is resting on one of its base
edges on VP. Draw its projections if an axis makes 35° to the VP and parallel to the HP.
12.10 A right circular cone of diameter 150 mm and height 150 mm is held in the III-quadrant with
an axis 45° to the VP and parallel to the HP. Draw its projections if an apex is towards the
observer.
12.11 A regular tetrahedron, face edge 100 mm is resting on one of its face edges with a face
associated with resting edge in a vertical position and perpendicular to the VP. Draw its
projections.

Exercise C (Transfer of Points)

12.1 Transfer the points from one view to another in problems shown in Plate 12.6.

PLATE 12.6
13
Sections of Solids

Objectives
® To learn the concepts of section plane and sectional views.
® To know how to obtain the typical shape of a cut section from an engineering solid.

Introduction
Invisible features of an object are shown by dotted lines in their projected views. However, when
such features are too many, then the number of hidden lines makes the views more
complicated and difficult to interpret. In such cases, it is customary to imagine the object as
being cut by a cutting plane or section plane. The part of the object between the cutting plane
and the observer is assumed to be removed and the view is then shown as a sectional view.
This will help us in better understanding of an object.

247
248 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

13.1 Section and Section Planes

The surface produced by cutting the object by the section plane is called the section. The section
is represented by thin section lines, uniformly spaced and inclined at 45°, to the cutting plane. The
imaginary plane is called a section plane or a cutting plane.
The projection of the section along with the remaining portion of the object is called a sectional
view. Sometimes the word section is also used to denote a sectional view. If the plan represents the
section along with the remaining object, then this plan is called a sectional plan or sectional top view.
And if the elevation represents the section along with the remaining object, then this elevation is
called a sectional elevation or sectional front view.
The section plane is represented by a cutting plane line. The arrows represent the direction of
an observer.

Figure 13.1(a) shows an isometric view of a solid cylinder with its orthographic projections, before
the cutting plane (A-A-A-A) cuts the same passing through its vertical diameter. Figure 13.1(b)
shows an isometric view of a cut portion of the cylinder with hatched lines and orthographic views
with cutting plane and sectional FV.

(a) Before section (b) After section

Fig. 13.1 Section of a solid cylinder.

Figure 13.2(a) shows an isometric view of a hollow cylinder with its orthographic projections
before the cutting plane (A-A-A-A) cuts the same passing through its vertical diameter.
Figure 13.2(b) shows an isometric view of a cut portion of the cylinder with hatched lines and
orthographic views with cutting plane and sectional FV.

(a) Before section (b) After section

Fig. 13.2 Section of a hollow cylinder.

Figure 13.3 shows isometric and orthographic views of a complicated cylindrical machine
element. The figure is self explanatory for the interpretation.
 CHAPTER 13: Sections of Solids ® 249

e
lan
ti ngp
t
Cu
A-A

A A
View direction

Fig. 13.3 Cut section of a cylindrical machine element.

13.2 Types of Section Planes

Section planes are generally perpendicular planes. They may be perpendicular to one of the
reference planes and either perpendicular, parallel or inclined to the other planes. They are usually
described by their traces. It is important to remember that the projection of a section plane, on the
plane to which it is perpendicular, is a straight line called a trace line. The trace line can be parallel,
perpendicular or inclined to xy, depending upon the orientation of section plane with respect to
reference planes. Figure 13.4 shows the various types of section planes.

Fig. 13.4 Types of section planes.

250 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

1. Section plane parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP.

This is represented by a line VT (vertical trace) parallel to xy.
2. Section plane parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP.
This is represented by a line HT (horizontal trace) parallel to xy.
3. Section plane perpendicular to both HP and the VP.
This is represented by HT and VT, both perpendicular to xy.
4. Section plane perpendicular to HP and inclined (f°) to VP. This is named as auxiliary vertical
plane (AVP). Line view for AVP comes in the FV. This is represented by HT inclined (f°) to
xy as shown in Fig. 13.4.
5. Section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined (q °) to HP. This is named as auxiliary inclined
plane (AIP). Line view for AIP comes in the TV. This is represented by VT inclined (q °) to
xy as shown in Fig. 13.4.
Figure 13.4 also shows the representation of a cut section of a solid with the help of 45° universal
hatch lines. If two adjacent parts are cut then the hatch lines should be perpendicular (45°–135°)
to each other. This is also applicable for the adjacent parts having different materials.

EXAMPLE 13.1 A square pyramid, base edge 125 mm and height 150 mm is standing on its base
on the ground with two base edges parallel to VP. It is cut by an AIP, which makes an inclination
of 35° to the ground and passing through a point on the axis 60 mm down the apex. Draw a sectional
view.
Solution
1. Draw projections (TV and FV) of solid in given position. Name the base as abcd and apex
as o.
2. Locate a cutting plane as a line view VT, inclined 35° to the ground and passing through a
point on the axis 60 mm down the apex. This VT cuts the slant edges o¢a¢, o¢b¢, o¢c¢ and o¢d¢
in the FV. Therefore, in total there are four cut points.
3. Transfer these cut points in the TV to get the four key points by direct transfer, i.e., by
projecting the cut point from FV on the respective slant edge in the TV.
4. Join all four key points sequentially (oa-ob-oc-od) by a PLINE command.
5. The portion between the observer (arrow) and cutting plane (VT) has to be removed.
 CHAPTER 13: Sections of Solids ® 251

6. As we observe the apex is being cut, part of all four slant edges has to be removed inside
the polyline boundary. Trim the inside portion of the slant edges by clicking the boundary
defined by PLINE command.
7. HATCH the portion with 45°, universal pattern and 0.125 spacing.

EXAMPLE 13.2 A square pyramid, base diagonal 150 mm and height 175 mm is standing on its
base on the ground with all four base edges equally inclined to VP. It is cut by an AVP, which makes
an inclination of 35° to the VP and passing through a point on the closest slant edge, at a top view
distance of 25 mm from the apex. Draw a sectional view.
Solution
1. Draw projections (TV and FV) of solid in given position. Name the base as abcd and apex
as o.
2. Locate a cutting plane as a line view HT, inclined 35° to VP and passing through a point on
the slant edge ob 25 mm down the apex in the TV. This HT cuts the base edges: ad, bc and
slant edges oa, ob in the TV. Therefore, in total there are four cut points.

3. Transfer these cut points in the FV to get four key points by transfer procedure. The cut points
on ad, oa and bc can be directly transferred. However, line parallel to base method is used
for the transfer of cut point on ob.
4. Join all the four key points sequentially by a PLINE command.
5. The portion between the observer (arrow) and cutting plane (HT) has to be removed. As we
observe, the base corners a and b are being cut, they have lost their identity. Trim the lines
starting from a and b till the key points.
6. Now draw a separate line for segment of line od, which was trimmed in step (5). CHANGE
into hidden line, as it is part of od, which is not visible.
7. HATCH the cut portion with 45°, universal pattern and 0.125 spacing.

EXAMPLE 13.3 A square prism having base diagonal 125 mm and height 150 mm is standing on
its base corner on the ground with axis inclined at 45° to the ground. It is cut by an AIP parallel to
and 125 mm away from the ground. Draw a sectional view.
Solution
1. Draw projections (TV and FV) of solid with axis perpendicular to the ground and line joining
the corner c to centre of the base parallel to xy. Name the top base and the bottom base as
abcd.
252 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

2. COPY the FV and bring it in FV region of Stage II. ROTATE the view about corner c, such
that the axis makes 45° to the ground.
3. Locate a cutting plane as a line view VT, parallel to and 125 mm away from the ground. This
VT cuts vertical edges: a¢a¢, b¢b¢, d¢d¢ and base edges: b¢c¢, c¢d¢ in the FV. In the FV,
therefore, in total there are three cut points.

4. Transfer these cut points in the TV to get five key points by the transfer procedure.
5. Join all the four key points sequentially by a PLINE command.
6. The portion between the observer (arrow) and cutting plane (VT) has to be removed.
Therefore, remove the top base edges ab and ad as points a, b and d are cut in TV and FV.
Also, part of cd and bc has to be removed in the TV from d as well from b till respective key
point on cd and bc.
7. HATCH the portion with 45°, universal pattern and 0.125 spacing.

EXAMPLE 13.4 A pentagonal prism having base edge 100 mm and height 175 mm, is resting on
one of its faces on the ground with axis parallel to HP and VP. It is cut by an AIP making an
inclination of 30° to the ground and passing through a point on the axis 125 mm away from either
base. Draw a sectional view.
Solution
1. Draw projections (TV, FV and RSV) of solid for first stage position. Name the left base and
the right base as a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢.
2. Locate a cutting plane as a line view VT, 30° to the ground passing through a point on the
axis 125 mm away from the left base on vertical edge, which is 100 mm above the ground.
This VT cuts the base edges: ae, de, ab, cd and vertical edges: aa, dd in the FV. In the FV,
in total there are three cut points.
3. Transfer the cut points on the vertical edges a¢a¢ and d¢d¢ from FV to the respective edges
in the TV to get two key points by direct transfer procedure.
 CHAPTER 13: Sections of Solids ® 253

4. Transfer the cut points on the left and right base to the true shape of the base in the RSV
to get their true location. Then by a 45° line procedure, these cut points are transferred on
the respective base edges to get four key points in the TV.
5. Join all six key points sequentially by a PLINE command.
6. The portion between the observer (arrow) and the cutting plane (VT) has to be removed. We
observe that the vertical edge ee is completely removed. Also, the points a and d of the right
base have lost their identity. TRIM the lines starting from a and d till the key points in the
sectional view.
7. HATCH the portion with 45°, universal pattern and 0.125 spacing.

EXAMPLE 13.5 A hexagonal pyramid having base edge 100 mm and height 255 mm is standing
on its base on the ground with its alternate base edges equally inclined to VP. It is cut by two AIPs.
One AIP is parallel to the ground and another is inclined 60° to the ground. These two cutting planes
meet each other as shown in the figure. Draw a sectional view.
Solution
1. Draw projections (TV and FV) of solid in a given position. Name the base as abcdef and apex
as o.
2. There are two cutting planes VT and V¢T¢. The VT cuts the slant edges oa, ob, of and V¢T¢
cuts the slant edges oc, od, oe. The line views of both the cutting planes VT and V¢T¢ meet
at a point on the slant surface obc in front and slant surface oef at the back. Therefore, in
total there are five cut points.
3. Transfer the cut points on the slant edges directly from FV to the respective slant edges in
the TV to get six key points. The cut point on slant surface is transferred by a slant line
method to get two key points in the TV, one on slant surface obc and another on slant surface
oef.
4. Join all the eight key points sequentially (oa-ob-surface point-oc-od-oe- surface point-of) by
a PLINE command. The key points on the front slant surface (OBC) and on the back slant
surface (OBF) in the TV are to be joined as it represents an intersection of two cutting planes:
VT and V¢T¢.
5. The portion between the observer (arrow) and the cutting planes (VT and V¢T¢) has to be
removed.
6. As we observe the apex is being cut, part of all six slant edges has to be removed inside the
polyline boundary. TRIM the inside portion of the slant edges by clicking the boundary defined
by PLINE.
7. HATCH the portion with 45°, universal pattern and 0.125 spacing.
254 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Plate 13.1 shows few more examples on sections of solids. The stepwise procedure is self
explanatory.

PLATE 13.1

13.3 True Shape of a Section

The projection of a cut section on a plane parallel to the section plane will show a true shape (TS)
of the section. Therefore, when the section plane is parallel to the HP (or the ground), true shape
of the section will be visible in the sectional TV. When it is parallel to the VP, the true shape of the
section will be visible in the sectional FV. When the section plane is perpendicular to both the
reference planes, the sectional side view will show the true shape of the section. However, when
the section plane is inclined, the section has to be projected on an auxiliary plane parallel to the
section plane, to obtain its true shape. A single auxiliary technique is used to find the TS of the
section, as it is convenient with the aid of the AutoCAD tool.
Figure 13.5 shows the orientation of section planes for various sections of cylinder, sphere and
cone
 CHAPTER 13: Sections of Solids ® 255

Fig. 13.5 Section plane orientation of true shape.

The following figures show various sections of a cone (Figs. 13.6–13.9) and cylinder (Fig. 13.10)
obtained by using a Pro-Engineer software.

Fig. 13.6 Parabola.

256 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 13.7 Isosceles triangle.

Fig. 13.8 Hyperbola.

Fig. 13.9 Ellipse from cone.

 CHAPTER 13: Sections of Solids ® 257

Fig. 13.10 Ellipse from cylinder.

Exercise A (Section of Solids)

13.1 A cube of 150 mm long edges is resting on one of its faces on the ground with vertical faces
equally inclined to the VP. It is cut by an AIP 45° to the HP and passing through the mid
point of axis. Draw a sectional view.
13.2 A hexagonal pyramid, base edge 100 mm and height 150 mm is lying on the ground on one
of its triangular faces with the axis parallel to the VP. It is cut by a vertical section plane
(AVP) inclined 30° to the VP and passing through the centre of the base. Draw a sectional
view.
13.3 A square pyramid, base edge 100 mm and height 200 mm is resting on one of its triangular
faces on the ground with axis parallel to the VP. It is cut by a horizontal section plane, which
intersects the axis 75 mm from the ground plane. Draw a sectional view.
13.4 A square pyramid base edge 100 mm and height 200 mm is resting on one of its triangular
faces on the ground. It is cut by a section plane passing through the centre of the gravity
(CG) of the solid and inclined 30° to the VP. Draw a sectional view if an apex is being
retained.
13.5 A cone of 150 mm base diameter and height 200 mm rests on the ground on its
circumferential base point with axis 60° to the HP and parallel to the VP. The cone is cut
by a horizontal section plane passing through a mid-point of the axis. Draw a sectional view.
13.6 A sphere of 200 mm diameter is resting on the ground. It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to the VP and inclined 45° to the HP and passing through the top most point
of the sphere. Draw a sectional view and true shape (TS) of the section.
13.7 A hexagonal pyramid, base edge 100 mm and height 175 mm long is resting on its base
on the ground with one base edge parallel to the VP. Draw its projections. It is cut by two
section planes: V1T1 and V2T2 meeting together on an axis 50 mm from the base. The
section plane V1T1 is 45° to the base and V2T2 is parallel to the base. Draw a sectional top
view if a common smaller portion of the solid, contained by two section planes, has to be
removed.
13.8 A pentagonal pyramid, base edge 125 mm and height 175 mm long is resting on its base
on the ground with one base edge perpendicular to the VP. Draw its projections. It is cut
by a section plane parallel to the VP and 37.5 mm from an apex towards the observer. Draw
a sectional elevation.
13.9 A square prism, base diagonal 125 mm long and height 175 mm is resting on one of its base
corners on the ground with an axis inclined 45° to the ground. Draw its projections. It is cut
by a section plane making an angle 30° to the VP and passing through a centre of one of
the base. Draw a sectional view.
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13.10 A pentagonal prism base edge 100 mm and height 200 mm long is resting on one of its
faces on the ground with axis parallel to the HP and VP. An AIP inclined at 30° to the ground
cuts the solid at a point on the axis 50 mm from either of the bases. Draw a sectional plane
if the smaller portion is to be removed.
13.11 The following figure shows the FV of a cylinder of 200 mm diameter with a hemisphere of
75 mm radius centrally placed on a top base of the cylinder. The formed composite solid
is cut by two cutting planes: AB and PQ inclined 45° to the ground and passing through a
top most point of the sphere. Draw a sectional TV.

13.12 A square prism of base diagonal 150 mm and height 200 mm is standing on the ground with
its adjacent faces equally inclined to the VP. A sphere of diameter 150 mm is placed
centrally on the top base of the prism. Both the solids are cut by an AIP at 45° and passing
through a common touching point of these two solids. Draw the projections of the combined
solids. Locate the position of the section plane. Draw its sectional view and true shape of
the cut section.

Exercise B (True Shape of Section)

In this exercise, students are asked to orient a section plane in order to obtain a typical true shape
of the cut section as discussed in section 13.3. In order to orient a section plane, a general rule is
given below.
Note: The base of the TS of the section is to be adjusted in the TS of the base of the solid and
the height of the TS of the section is to be adjusted in the other view of the solid.
13.1 A square pyramid, base edge 150 mm and height 200 mm stands vertically on the ground
on its base with base edges equally inclined to the VP. The solid is cut by a section plane,
in such a way that a sectional TV appears as an isosceles triangle with base equal to
100 mm. Locate the section plane and draw a sectional TV.
13.2 A cube of 150 mm long edges is resting on one of its faces on the ground with four vertical
faces equally inclined to the VP. It is cut by an AIP passing through the body diagonal. Draw
a TS of the section using the single auxiliary method.
13.3 A cube of 150 mm sides is resting on one of its faces with four vertical faces equally inclined
to the VP. It is cut by an AIP so that a true shape of the section is a regular hexagon, having
distance between two opposite corners equal to the length of the base diagonal of the solid.
Find the inclination of the AIP with the ground. Draw a sectional TV as well as a TS of the
section.
13.4 A solid crucible, height 200 mm has a top square base of 200 mm side and bottom square
base 100 mm side. Draw its projections when it is resting on the ground on its bottom base
with one of its base edges parallel to the VP. It is cut by a vertical section plane, parallel
to the profile plane such that the TS of the section is a trapezium with parallel sides
200 mm and 150 mm. Locate the section plane and draw a TS of the section. Find the
distance between the parallel sides of the trapezium.
 CHAPTER 13: Sections of Solids ® 259

13.5 A cylinder of 150 mm diameter and 200 mm height rests on the ground on one of its bases.
It is cut by an AIP passing through the mid-point of the axis and 45° to the HP. Draw a
sectional TV and TS of the section.
13.6 A cylinder of 150 mm diameter and 200 mm height rests on the ground on one of its bases.
It is cut by an AIP such that the TS of the section is a rectangle of 200 mm ¥ 100 mm in
the side view. Locate the section plane and find out the inclination of the AIP with the HP.
Draw TS of the section.
13.7 A triangular pyramid base edge 150 mm and height 200 mm stands on its base on the
ground with one of the base edge perpendicular to the the VP. It is cut by an AIP such that
a sectional TV appears as a trapezium with parallel sides as 100 mm and 50 mm. Locate
the section plane and find the inclination of the AIP with the HP. Draw a sectional TV.
(Note: The original TV and FV can be moved to adjust the parallel sides of the trapezium).

13.8 A triangular prism base edge 150 mm and height 200 mm stands on its base on the ground
with one of the faces perpendicular to the VP. It is cut by an AIP such that a TS of the
section is an isosceles triangle of base 100 mm and maximum height. Locate the section
plane and find the inclination of AIP with HP. Draw a sectional TV. (Note: The original TV
and FV can be moved to adjust the parallel sides of the trapezium).
13.9 A cone 150 mm diameter and 200 mm height stands on its base on the ground. It is cut
by an AIP such that a TS of the section is an isosceles triangle with base 100 mm. Locate
the AIP. Draw TS of the section and find the height of the isosceles triangle.
13.10 A semi cylinder of 150 mm diameter and 200 mm height rests on its flat face on the ground
with its base parallel to the VP. It is cut by a vertical section plane parallel to the PP such
that a TS of the section is:
(a) A rectangle with maximum dimensions (length and height)
(b) A rectangle with maximum length but height equal to half of the maximum height. Draw
a sectional view.
13.11 A sphere with 200 mm diameter is resting on the ground. It is cut by an AIP 45° to the HP
and passing through the top most point of the sphere. Draw a sectional TV and TS of a
section.
13.12 A cone of base diameter 200 mm is resting on its base on the ground. It is cut by an AIP
such that a true shape of the cut section is an equilateral triangle with 175 mm side. Draw
a sectional view. Draw a TS of the section by using an appropriate technique. Specify the
height of the cone by using a DIM mode.
13.13 A cone of base diameter 200 mm and height 150 mm is resting on its base on the ground.
It is cut by an AIP such that a true shape of the cut section is an isosceles triangle with
maximum base and minimum height. Draw a sectional view. Draw the TS of the section by
using an appropriate technique. Specify the height of the isosceles triangle by using a DIM
mode.
13.14 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge 125 mm and height 250 mm) is resting on its base on
the ground with one of the base edge perpendicular to the VP. It is cut by an AIP such that
a true shape of the cut section is an isosceles triangle with maximum base and minimum
height. Draw a sectional view, if the larger portion of the solid is removed. Draw the TS of
the section by using an appropriate technique. Specify the base and height dimension of the
isosceles triangle (TS) by using a DIM mode.
260 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

13.15 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge 125 mm and height 225 mm) is resting on its base on
the ground with one of the base edges perpendicular to the VP. It is cut by an AIP such that
a true shape of a cut section is an equilateral triangle with maximum side. Draw a sectional
view by removing the smaller portion of the solid. Draw the TS of the section by using an
appropriate technique. Specify the base and height dimension of the equilateral triangle (TS)
by using a DIM mode.
13.16 A glass tumbler of height 225 mm is in the form of a frustum of a cone with top and bottom
base diameters 200 mm and 100 mm, respectively. It is completely filled with water when
it is resting on the ground on its bottom base. It is then tilted on the rim of the bottom base
in such a way that the axis remains at 40° to the ground. Draw the projections of a glass
tumbler when it is resting on the ground on its bottom base and when the axis remains at
40° to the ground. Show a water level in the elevation and the plane.
13.17 A cylinder (diameter 140 mm and height 75 mm is resting on its base on the ground. A
square prism (base edge 100 mm and height 75 mm) is centrally placed vertically on the
top base of the cylinder with one rectangular face parallel to the VP. Draw the projections
of the combined solids. Locate a cutting plane such that the sectional FV will be a rectangle
of maximum dimensions. Draw the sectional FV. Mention the dimensions of the rectangle
in mm.
13.18 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge 75 mm and height 200 mm) is cut with a plane passing
through its apex and any two opposite base corners. This half hexagonal pyramid is resting
on its cut surface on the ground with apex farthest from the observer and base parallel to
VP. Draw the projections of the half hexagonal pyramid.
It is further cut by an AIP such that the sectional TV appears as an isosceles triangle with
maximum base. Locate the cutting plane. Draw the sectional TV. Mention the base length
of an isosceles triangle in mm.
13.19 A square pyramid (base edge = 150 mm and height = 250 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground such that the two of its base edges are perpendicular to the VP. It is cut by two
cutting planes: one parallel to extreme left slant face and the other parallel to extreme right
slant face. Both these cutting planes intersect each other on an axis of the pyramid 100 mm
below the apex. Draw projections of the solid. Locate these cutting planes. Draw sectional
top view. Mention the dimensions of the cut section.
13.20 Two frustums of a cone having same dimensions (smaller base diameter 75 mm, larger
base diameter 150 mm and height 150 mm) are joined at their smaller bases such that their
axes coincide. Draw the projections of a composite solid when it is standing on larger base
on the ground with combined axis perpendicular to the ground. It is cut by an AIP such that
the sectional view appears as a rhombus of maximum dimensions. Locate the section plane.
Draw the sectional view. Specify the dimensions of the major and minor diagonals of the
rhombus.
13.21 A frustum of a cone has its bottom base diameter 200 mm, top base diameter 100 mm and
height 200 mm is resting on its bottom base on the ground. It is cut by an AIP in such a
way that the true shape of a section appears as an ellipse withmaximum dimension of
the major axis. Draw the projections of solids. Locate the section plane. Draw the sectional
view. Specify the major and minor axes dimension using DTEXT command.
13.22 A frustum of a cone (bottom base diameter 200 mm, top base diameter 100 mm and height
200 mm) is cut by a vertical plane passing through the top and bottom base diameters. Draw
the projections of this half frustum with cut surface exposed to the direction of the observer
and standing on its bigger base on the ground. It is further cut by an AVP such that the true
shape of a cut section is an isosceles triangle of maximum dimensions in the FV. Locate
the section plane. Draw the sectional view. Specify the base and height of the isosceles
triangle using DTEXT command.
 CHAPTER 13: Sections of Solids ® 261

13.23 A combination of a hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 100 mm, height = 150 mm) and a cone
(height = 150 mm) is made in such a way that their bases meet each other with the base
corners of the pyramid exactly touching a circumference of the cone. The combined solid
is resting on the apex of cone on the ground with combined axis perpendicular to the
ground. Draw the projections (TV and FV) of the combined solid. It is cut by an AIP such
that a true shape of the section is a rhombus with maximum dimensions of major and minor
diagonals. Locate the cutting plane. Draw a sectional view. Specify the dimensions of major
and minor diagonals using DTEXT command.
13.24 Frustums of two cones, similar in dimensions (height = 100 mm, bigger base diameter =
200 mm, smaller base diameter = 100 mm) are attached and aligned along their bigger
bases. The combination of solid is kept on the ground on either of the smaller bases. Draw
the projections (TV and FV) of the combined solid.
It is cut by an AIP such that the true shape of the section is two trapeziums having similar
dimensions, with minimum distance between parallel sides and meeting at their bigger
sides. Locate the cutting plane. Draw a sectional view. Find the dimensions of the parallel
sides and height of the trapeziums.
13.25 A combination of solid consists of the hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 100 mm, height =
150 mm) and a rectangular pyramid (height = 150 mm). The combination is made in such
a way that their bases meet each other. The base of the hexagonal pyramid accommodates
the complete base of the rectangular pyramid with two opposite base edges of rectangular
pyramids aligned and matched with the base edges of the hexagonal pyramid. The
combined solid is resting on the apex of the rectangular pyramid with combined axis
perpendicular to the ground and adjacent faces of the hexagonal pyramid equally inclined
to VP. Draw the projections (TV and FV) of the combined solid. It is cut by an AIP passing
through the nearest and farthest base corner of hexagonal pyramid and 45° to the ground.
Locate the cutting plane. Draw the sectional top view.
13.26 A frustum of a cone of height 100 mm has 150 mm bottom base diameter of 150 mm and
top base diameter of 100 mm. The frustum is standing on its bigger base on the ground.
A cylinder of base diameter 100 mm and height 125 mm is placed centrally on the top base
of the frustum. This combination of solids is cut by two section planes which meet at a
common base to both the solids such that a cut section appears as a trapezium with one
of the parallel sides 125 mm and a rectangle of B ¥ H dimensions in side view.
Draw projections of both the solids. Locate the position of the section planes and find their
inclination with the reference plane. Draw sectional top view and sectional side view. Find
B and H dimensions of the rectangle, which appears in sectional side view.
13.27 A frustum of a square pyramid of height 100 mm has bottom base diagonal of 150 mm and
top base diagonal of 100 mm. The frustum is standing on its bigger base on the ground with
base edges equally inclined to the VP. A sphere of diameter 100 mm is placed centrally on
the top base of the frustum. Both the solids are cut by an AIP such that the true shape of
a cut section appears as a triangle with 50 mm base and 75 mm height and a circle of
diameter D. Draw projections of both the solids. Locate the position of the section plane and
find its inclination with the reference plane. Draw a sectional top view and true shape of the
section. Find the diameter D of the circle in the true shape of the section.
13.28 Two identical cones of base diameter 150 mm are attached base to base. This combination
is resting on the ground such that the common axis is perpendicular to the ground. These
solids are cut by two cutting planes (meeting at their common base) such that the cut section
appears to be an isosceles triangle of base 100 mm in the top view. Draw the projection
of the combined solids. Locate the position of the cutting planes. Find out their inclination
with the reference plane. Draw a sectional plane and sectional side view.
14
Development of Surfaces of Solids

Objectives
® To learn the theory and principles of development.
® To study the applications of development.
® To know the applications of reverse development.

Introduction
A layout of the complete surface of an object is called a pattern. When the surfaces of a solid
are laid out on a plane, the figure obtained is called development. The development of a solid,
thus, represents the actual shape of its lateral surfaces and base surfaces which, when bent
or folded at the edges would form a hollow solid. Therefore, it is very important to note that,
every line on the development must be the true length of the corresponding edge on the
surface. The surfaces are also true shapes and points at their true positions.
Many manufactured items can be made by rolling, folding or pressing. These operations
require the use of accurately developed views. The knowledge of development of surfaces is
essential particularly in sheet metal work. In construction of boilers, funnels, chimneys, packing
boxes, buckets, air-conditioning ducts, space capsules, cake pans, furnace pipes etc. the plates
are marked and cut according to the developments which, when folded, form the desired object.

262
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 263

14.1 Theory of Development

Any solid can be enclosed in a wrapper of thin material, such as aluminium sheet metal. If this
wrapper is opened at any folding edge and laid on a flat plane, the flattened out sheet metal is the
development of complete surfaces of the solid. The development includes the lateral surfaces as
well as base surfaces. Thus, when surfaces of a solid are laid out on a plane, the successive
surfaces of the object are called its development.
Figure 14.1 shows a square prism enclosed with sheet metal. The development consists of four
equal rectangular surfaces for the faces and two similar squares for its bases. Each figure shows
the true size and shape of the corresponding surface of the prism. The development of a solid thus,
represents the successive face surfaces and base surfaces with true area and shape. This
development, when bent or folded at the vertical edges and base edges, would form a hollow square
prism. It is very important to note that every line on the development must be the true length of the
corresponding edge on the surface.

Fig. 14.1 Development of a square prism.

The flat surface of prisms and pyramids, and single curved surfaces like cones and cylinders can
be accurately developed. However, the surface of the sphere cannot be accurately developed. The
surface of the sphere is a double-curved surface which is undevelopable. The sphere can be
approximately developed by dividing it into a number of parts.
Usually, only the lateral surfaces of the solids are developed and the ends or bases are omitted
from the developments. The bases can be easily incorporated whenever required.

14.2 Methods of Development

The wrapper can be opened at any folding edge and in either clockwise (CW) or counter clockwise
(CCW) direction. There are two principal methods to draw developments of surfaces of various
solids:

14.2.1 Parallel-line Development

This method is used in case of cylinders and prisms, in which, edges of the top base and bottom
base are considered parallel to each other. Rectangular ARRAY can be used to develop the
surfaces. The development of a right circular cylinder (Fig. 14.2) is a rectangle having a width equal
264 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 14.2 Development of curved surface of a cylinder.

to the circumference of the cylinder (p D). The opening of the curved surface is at the extreme left
generator 1-1 following a CCW direction. The sequence of the generators is 1-1, 2-2, 3-3, 11-11,
12-12, 1-1. Use ARRAY command with rectangular option for a vertical generator 1-1.
If the direction of opening is CW then the sequence would be 1-1, 12-12, 11-11º 3-3, 2-2, 1-1.
The development of a hexagonal prism (Fig. 14.3) is a rectangle having length equal to six times
the length of base edge and height equal to the height of the prism. Use ARRAY command with
rectangular option either for a vertical edge A-A or for a rectangular surface AABB.

Fig. 14.3 Development of lateral surfaces of a hexagonal prism.

 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 265

14.2.2 Radial-line Development

This method is used in case of cones and pyramids, in which the true length of the generator or slant
edge is used as the radius. Polar ARRAY can be used to develop the surfaces.
The development of a right circular cone (Fig. 14.4) is a sector of circle having a radius equal
to the slant height S and arc length equal to the circumference of the base. The angle of the sector
of circle is to be found by using equation q = r/S ¥ 360°. Draw an ARC with apex as a centre and
radius equal to slant height S. Use MEASURE command to divide the length of arc into 12 equal
parts. The segment distance to be given in MEASURE command is Sq /12. The opening generator
is 0-1 and the sequence is 0-1, 2, 3, …, 11, 12, 1 following a CCW direction.

Fig. 14.4 Development of curved surface of a cone.

The development of a hexagonal pyramid (Fig. 14.5) is six similar isosceles triangles having
base equal to the base edge and two similar sides equal to the length of the slant height of the
pyramid.
Draw an ARC with centre as an apex and radius equal to the true length of slant edge (od or
oa). Other slant edges represent apparent lengths. Use MEASURE command to set up the segment
distance of base edge drawn on the arc. Join apex with the division points in order to get isosceles
triangular surfaces. Set the point with PDMODE 3 and PDSIZE as 0.10 before the use of MEASURE
command. The opening edge is O-A with the sequence O-A, B, C, D, E, F, A following a CCW
direction.
266 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 14.5 Development of lateral (slant) surfaces of a hexagonal pyramid.

Examples showing the parallel line method

EXAMPLE 14.1 A pentagonal prism having base edge 100 mm and height 175 mm is standing on
its base on the ground with one face perpendicular to VP. It is cut by an auxiliary inclined plane (AIP)
30° to the ground and cutting the perpendicular surface at a point 50 mm below the top base in the
FV. Draw a development of lateral surfaces of the remaining solid.
Solution
1. Draw the projections of solid. Name the top base and the bottom base as abcde. The face
AABB is perpendicular to VP.
2. Draw the basic development of solid as five rectangular surfaces (175 mm ¥ 100 mm). If a
is the starting point and the opening direction is anticlockwise, then the development edges
are AA-BB-CC-DD-EE-AA.
3. Draw a line view of cutting plane AIP 30° to the ground and passing through a point on the
perpendicular surface AABB 50 mm below the top base in the FV. There are three cut points,
which will give us six key points in the development. Five key points for five vertical edges
and key point on edge AA is repeated twice as AA in closing as well as opening edge.
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 267

4. Transfer all the cut points from the FV to the development by a parallel line method.
5. Mark the points by using a POINT command and get the six key points.
6. Join all the key points by using a PLINE command.
7. Trim the portion of solid in the development.

Figure 14.6 shows four cases of the same example.

Case-1 Starting point A, CW opening direction
Case-2 Starting point B, CCW opening direction
Case-3 Starting point C, CCW opening direction
Case-4 Starting point D, CCW opening direction

Fig. 14.6

EXAMPLE 14.2 A hexagonal prism having base edge 100 mm and height 175 mm is standing on
its base on the ground with alternate faces equally inclined to VP. A triangular hole is cut through
the solid as shown in the figure. Draw the development of lateral surface of the remaining portion
of the solid.
268 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Solution
1. Draw the projections of hexagonal prism with axis perpendicular to the ground and alternate
faces equally inclined to VP. Name the top base and the bottom base as abcdef.
2. Draw the basic development of solid as six rectangular surfaces (175 mm ¥ 100 mm). If a
is the starting point and the opening direction is anticlockwise then the sequence of
development edges is AA-BB-CC-DD-EE-FF-AA.

3. Draw a triangle by locating the corner points on grids in the FV. This triangular hole
represents an assembly of three cutting planes. There are seven cut points, which will give
us thirteen key points in the development.
4. Transfer the cut points on edges: bb, ff, cc, ee and dd from the FV to the development by
using a parallel line method. Mark the points by using a POINT command and get the nine
key points.

5. The location of surface cut point is apparent as the FV of surface AABB and AAFF shows
an apparent area. The cut points on surfaces in the FV have to be transferred on the
respective surfaces in the TV to get their true location. Therefore, an imaginary line xx is
drawn passing through the surface cut point. This is shown by a point view x on aabb and
aaff in the TV. This imaginary line will be drawn in the development in next step.
Similarly, a point view y of an imaginary line yy is drawn on bbcc and eeff in the TV.
6. Use MEASURE command to locate the distance of imaginary line XX on surface AABB and
AAFF, YY on BBCC and EEFF in the development. The imaginary lines are XX on surface
AABB, AAFF and YY on surface BBCC and EEFF.
7. Now similar to Step (4), the cut points on surface are to be transferred from FV on the
respective imaginary lines by a parallel line method. Mark the points by using a POINT
command and obtain four key points.
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 269

8. While joining the key points, a triangular path has to be followed for the front visible surfaces:
AABB, BBCC, CCDD and back invisible surfaces: DDEE, EEFF, FFAA. Join all the key points
by using a PLINE command.

9. The edges: BB, FF, CC and EE are cut in the FV. Therefore, trim the edges: BB, FF, CC and
EE in the development.
10. Remove the imaginary lines XX and YY from the development.
Figure 14.7 shows the same solution with D as a starting point and anticlockwise opening direction.

Fig. 14.7
270 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 14.3 Figure 14.8 shows TV and FV of a square prism having a hole cut through it. Draw
the development of lateral surface of the remaining portion of the solid.

Fig. 14.8
Solution
1. Draw the projections of square prism.
2. Draw basic development of solid as four rectangular surfaces. With A as starting point and
opening direction as anticlockwise, the sequence of development edges is AA-BB-CC-DD-
AA.
3. The hole represents an assembly of three cutting planes. There are seven cut points, which
will give us nine key points in the development. Three key points are on surfaces and six key
points are on vertical edges.
4. Transfer the cut points on edges: bb, cc, and dd from the FV to the development by a parallel
line method. Mark the points by using a POINT command and obtain the six key points.
5. The cut points on surfaces in the FV have to be transferred on the respective surfaces in the
TV to get their true location. However, the location of surface cut point is apparent as the FV
of surface AABB. BBCC and AADD shows an apparent area. Therefore, an imaginary line yy
for AABB, AADD and zz for BBCC is drawn passing through the surface cut point. This is
shown by a point view y on aabb and aadd and by a point view z on BBCC in the TV.
6. Use MEASURE command to locate the distance of imaginary line YY on surface AABB and
AADD, ZZ on BBCC in the development.
7. Now similar to step (4), the cut points from FV are to be transferred on respective imaginary
lines by a parallel line method. Mark the points by using a POINT command and get three
key points.

8. While joining the key points, a path has to be followed for the front visible surfaces: AABB,
BBCC and back invisible surfaces: CCDD and DDAA. Join all the key points by using a
PLINE command.
The edges: BB, DD and CC are cut in the FV. Therefore, trim the edges: BB, DD and CC
in the development.
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 271

EXAMPLE 14.4 Draw the development of lateral surfaces of the cut portion of an irregular
pentagonal prism with respect to A as a starting point and following a CCW direction.
Solution Self explanatory.

EXAMPLE 14.5 A square prism is standing on its base on the ground with two rectangular faces
equally inclined to VP. The prism is cut as shown in the FV of its projections. Draw the development
of lateral surfaces of the prism with respect to A as a starting point and following a CCW direction.
Solution Self explanatory.

EXAMPLE 14.6 Irregular pentagonal prism is standing on its base on the ground There is a
triangular hole cut in it as shown in the FV of its projections. Draw the development of the lateral
surfaces of the prism with respect to A as a starting point and following a CCW direction.
Solution Self explanatory.
272 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 14.7 A cylinder is standing on its base on the ground. It is cut as shown in the FV of
its projections. Draw the development of the curved surfaces of the cylinder starting from the extreme
left generator in CCW direction.
Solution Self explanatory.

Examples showing radial line method

EXAMPLE 14.8 A cone having base diameter 200 mm and height 175 mm is standing on its base
on the ground. It is cut by an AIP 30° to the ground and passing through a point on the axis 100
mm below the apex. Draw the development of the remaining solid.
Solution
1. Draw the projections of solid. Divide the circular base into 12 equal number of parts using
12 slant generators. Name the circumferential points 1, 2, 3, …, 11, 12.
2. Draw the basic development of solid. If 1 is the starting point and opening direction is
anticlockwise then the generator sequence is 01, 02, 03, …, 012, 01.
3. Draw a line view for cutting plane AIP 30° to the ground and passing through a point on the
axis 100 mm below the apex in the FV. There are seven cut points, which will give us thirteen
key points in the development. Twelve key points for twelve slant generators and key point
generator 01 is repeated twice as 01 is closing as well as the opening generator.
4. Transfer all the cut points from the FV to the development by a radial line method.
5. Mark the points by using a POINT command and obtain thirteen key points.
6. Join all the key points by using a PLINE command. Trim part of the development for the cut
portion of the solid.
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 273

EXAMPLE 14.9 Square pyramid is standing on its base on the ground with two base edges parallel
to VP. It is cut by an AIP as shown in the figure. Draw the development of lateral surfaces of the
cut portion of the pyramid with respect to A as a starting point and following a CCW direction.
Solution Self explanatory.

EXAMPLE 14.10 A triangular pyramid is standing on its base on the ground with two base edges
equally inclined to VP. There are three points P, Q on slant surfaces and R on the slant edges. Draw
the development of lateral surfaces of the pyramid with respect to A as a starting point and following
a CCW direction. Show lines connecting these three points on the development.
274 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Solution Self explanatory.

EXAMPLE 14.11 An irregular rectangular pyramid is standing on its base on the ground with two
base edges equally inclined to VP. All the slant edges are not equal in length. Draw the development
of lateral surfaces of the pyramid with respect to A as a starting point and following a CW direction.
Solution Self explanatory.

EXAMPLE 14.12 A cone is standing on its base on the ground. It is cut by a cutting plane as
shown in the FV of its projections. Draw the development of the curved surfaces of the cone starting
from the extreme right generator and in CW direction.
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 275

Solution Self explanatory.

14.3 Development of Lateral Surfaces Along with Base

EXAMPLE 14.13 Figure 14.9 shows a hollow crucible as well as its orthographic views (TV, FV
and RSV). Draw a development of lateral as well as base surfaces.

Fig. 14.9

Solution The TV shows the true shape as well as the true dimensions of the base surface ABCD.
However, all orthographic views show an apparent shape and dimensions of lateral surfaces ABHE,
BCGH, CDFG, DAEF. In order to find a true shape of the lateral surfaces we need to find the true
lengths of all slant edges. The crucible is regular and symmetric. Therefore, finding one true length
of slant edge is sufficient. Figure 14.10(a) shows finding of the true length of slant edge ae i.e AE.
We can follow MIRROR command to get mirror image for other slant edges: DF, CG and BH. Figure
14.10(b) shows the shaded region as the development of base and lateral surfaces along with TV
and FV of the crucible. Figure 14.10(c) shows only development.
276 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Fig. 14.10

14.4 Reverse Development

EXAMPLE 14.14 A hexagonal prism having base edge 100 mm and height 175 mm is standing
on its base on the ground with adjacent faces equally inclined to VP. A thread is wound around the
prism, starting from the nearest corner of the bottom base and is brought back to the nearest corner
of the top base in CCW direction, completing one round. Find the minimum length of the thread and
show it on the elevation.
Solution
1. Draw the projections of solid with axis perpendicular to the ground and adjacent faces equally
inclined to VP. Name the top base and the bottom base as abcdef.
2. Draw the basic development of solid as six rectangular surfaces (175 mm ¥ 100 mm). While
winding, the thread starts from nearest bottom base corner C and reaches the nearest top
base corner C. Therefore, the starting edge and the closing edge is CC. If the opening
direction is anticlockwise then the sequence of the development edges is CC-DD-EE-FF-AA-
BB-CC.
3. The minimum travel from nearest bottom base corner to nearest top base corner is a straight
line joining the bottom endpoint of opening edge CC and top endpoint of closing edge CC.
Draw a straight line joining these two points. Arrow indicates the travel direction. There are
seven key points on this shortest path.
4. Measure the minimum travel using a DIM command with ALIGNED option. The minimum
travel is found to be 625 mm.
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 277

5. Transfer all the seven key points from the development to the FV by a parallel line method.
6. Mark the points by using a POINT command and get the seven key points.
7. Join all the key points by using a LINE command. The travel on the surface CCDD, DDEE,
AABB and BBCC is visible to the observer. Therefore, this travel is shown as a solid line.
However, the travel on the surfaces EEFF and FFAA is not visible to the observer. Therefore,
this travel is shown as a hidden line.

EXAMPLE 14.15 A hexagonal prism having base edge 100 mm and height 175 mm is standing
on its base on the ground with alternate faces equally inclined to VP. A thread is wound around the
prism, starting from the mid-point of nearest base edge of the bottom base and is brought back to
the mid-point of the nearest base edge of the top base in CCW direction completing one round. Find
the minimum length of the thread and show it on the elevation.
Solution
1. Draw the projections of solid with axis perpendicular to ground and alternate faces equally
inclined to VP. Name the top base and the bottom base as abcdef.
2. Draw the basic development of solid as six rectangular surfaces (175 mm ¥ 100 mm). While
winding, the thread starts from the mid-point of the nearest bottom base edge BC and
reaches the mid-point of nearest top base edge BC after completing one round. Therefore,
the starting edge is BB and closing edge is CC. If the opening direction is anticlockwise then
the sequence of development edges is BB-CC-DD-EE-FF-AA-BB-CC.
3. The minimum travel from the mid-point of the nearest bottom base edge to the mid-point of
nearest top base edge is a straight line joining mid-point of bottom base edge BC in the left
to the mid-point of top base edge BC in the right. Draw a straight line joining these two points.
Arrows indicate the travel direction. There are eight key points on this shortest path.
4. Measure the minimum travel using a DIM command with ALIGNED option. The minimum
travel is found to be 632.5 mm.
278 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

5. Transfer all the eight key points from the development to the FV by a parallel line method.
6. Mark the points by using a POINT command and obtain the eight key points.
7. Join all the eight key points by using a LINE command. The travel on the surface AABB,
BBCC and CCDD is visible to the observer. Therefore, this travel is shown as a solid line.
However, the travel on the surfaces DDEE, EEFF and FFAA is not visible to the observer.
Therefore, this travel is shown as a hidden line.

Exercise A (Development of Surfaces of Solids)

Instructions:
1. The solids are to be considered as hollow.
2. Make use of MEASURE, DIVIDE, ARRAY (R & P) commands wherever possible.
3. INT, END, PERP, TAN, MID options can be exercised at the command prompt while
drawing lines.
4. Make use of F8 and F9 key wherever, if necessary.
5. While drawing a development of surfaces of solids the starting point S and opening direction
(CCW or CW) is important.

14.1 Draw the development of surfaces of solids in Plate 14.1 and 14.2. (Take the left-most point
in TV for opening in CCW direction.)
14.2 A cone (diameter = 150 mm and height = 125 mm) is standing on its base on the ground.
It is cut by an AIP 30° to the HP and passing through a point on axis 75 mm from the base.
Draw a development of curved surface of the cone. The curved surface is to be opened at
extreme left generator in CCW direction.
14.3 A square pyramid (base edge = 150 mm and height = 150 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with one base edge parallel to the VP. An AIP 30° to the HP and passing through
mid-point of the axis cuts the solid. Draw a development of lateral surfaces if it is to be
opened at the left slant edge in CCW direction.
14.4 A triangular prism (base edge = 125 mm, height = 150 mm) is resting on the ground on its
base with one face parallel to the VP and towards the observer. A triangular hole, side
75 mm with centre on the axis of the solid 50 mm from the base is made through. One
rectangular face of the hole is parallel to the ground and towards the base of the prism.
Draw a development of lateral surfaces of prism if it is to be opened from the left vertical
edge in CCW direction.
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 279

PLATE 14.1

PLATE 14.2
280 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

14.5 A rectangular pyramid (sides 150 mm ¥ 100 mm and height = 150 mm) is resting on its base
on the ground with longer edge of the base parallel to the VP. A square hole with base
diagonal 50 mm is made through the pyramid. Rectangular faces of the hole are equally
inclined to the ground with the centre of the hole on the axis of the pyramid 25 mm from
the base. Draw development of lateral surfaces of the pyramid if it is to be opened at a left
slant edge of an exposed surface in CCW direction.
14.6 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm, height = 225 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with base edges equally inclined to the VP. A square hole with side 75 mm is
made through the pyramid. Rectangular faces of the hole are perpendicular to VP with axis
of the hole coinciding with the axis of the pyramid. Draw development of lateral surfaces of
the solid.
14.7 A square pyramid (base edge = 150 mm, height = 225 mm) is standing on its base on the
ground with two base edges perpendicular to the VP. A square hole with base diagonal
100 mm is made through the pyramid. Rectangular faces of the hole are equally inclined to
the VP with axis of the hole coinciding with the axis of the pyramid. Draw development of
lateral surfaces of the solid.
14.8 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 150 mm, height = 200 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with the base edges equally inclined to the VP. An equilateral triangular hole with
side 50 mm is cut through it. Rectangular faces of the hole are equally inclined towards the
ground with the axis perpendicular to the VP. A rectangular face, which is parallel to the
ground, is 125 mm from the apex. Draw development of lateral surfaces of the solid.
14.9 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm, height = 250 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with base edges equally inclined to the VP. An equilateral triangular hole with
side 100 mm is cut through it. Rectangular faces of the hole are equally inclined to the VP
towards the observer with the axis of the hole coinciding with the axis of the pyramid. Draw
development of lateral surfaces of the solid.
14.10 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 150 mm, height = 200 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with base edges equally inclined to the VP. A square hole with base diagonal
75 mm is cut through it. Rectangular faces of the hole are perpendicular to the VP and
equally inclined to the ground with axis of the square hole 50 mm from the ground on the
axis of the pyramid. Draw development of lateral surfaces of the solid.
14.11 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm, height = 225 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with base edges equally inclined to the VP. A square hole with side 75 mm is
cut through it. Rectangular faces of the hole are perpendicular to the VP with the axis
coinciding with the axis of the pyramid. Show the square hole in elevation and plan. Draw
development of lateral surfaces of the solid.
14.12 A square pyramid (base edge = 150 mm, height = 225 mm) is standing on its base on the
ground with two base edges perpendicular to VP. A square hole with base diagonal 100 mm
is made through it. Rectangular faces of the hole are equally inclined to the VP with axis
coinciding the axis of the pyramid cut through it. Show the square hole in elevation and plan.
Draw development of lateral surfaces of the solid.
14.13 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 150 mm, height = 200 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with base edges equally inclined to the VP. A square hole with diagonal 75 mm
is cut through it. Rectangular faces of the hole are equally inclined to the ground with axis
of the square hole 50 mm on the axis of the pyramid from the ground and perpendicular to
VP. Show a square hole in elevation and plan. Draw development of lateral surfaces of the
solid.
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 281

14.14 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm, height = 250 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with base edges equally inclined to the VP. An equilateral triangular hole with
side 100 mm is made through it with its axis coinciding with the axis of the pyramid.
Rectangular faces of the hole are equally inclined to the VP and towards the observer with
axis coinciding with the axis of the pyramid. Show the triangular hole in elevation and plan.
Draw development of lateral surfaces of the solid.
14.15 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm, height = 250 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with the base edges equally inclined to the VP. A triangular hole with side 100
mm is made through it. Rectangular faces of the hole are equally inclined to the VP and
away from the observer with the axis coinciding with the axis of the pyramid. Show the
triangular hole in elevation and plan. Draw development of lateral surfaces of the solid.
14.16 Determine graphically, the length of a body diagonal of a cube having edge length 100 mm.
14.17 Determine graphically, the height of a triangular pyramid having length of base edges equal
to the length of slant edges which is equal to 150 mm.
14.18 Two square pyramids having equal dimensions (base edge = slant edge = 150 mm, height
= 100 mm) are meeting at their bases with base edges aligned. The combination of these
two solids is standing on one of the apexes on the ground with common axis perpendicular
to the ground and two aligned base edges perpendicular to the VP. Determine a distance
between the two apexes.
14.19 A hexagonal pyramid of base edge 100 mm and height 200 mm stands on the ground with
two of its base edges parallel to the VP. A triangular hole of side 75 mm is made through
the hexagonal pyramid with axis of the hole coinciding with axis of the pyramid. One side
of the hole is parallel to the VP and a corner opposite to this side is towards the observer.
Draw the projections of the solid. Show the hole in the FV. Develop the lateral surfaces
of the hexagonal pyramid from the left most base-corner in CCW direction. Show the profile
of intersection on the development.
14.20 A pentagonal pyramid of base edge 100 mm and height 150 mm has apex on the ground
with axis perpendicular to the ground and one of its base edges perpendicular to the VP.
A square hole of side 50 mm is made through the pentagonal pyramid, the axis of which
coincides with the axis of the pyramid. Sides of the square hole are equally inclined to the
VP.
Draw the projections of the solid. Show the profile of the square hole in the FV. Develop
lateral surfaces of the pentagonal pyramid from the left base corner nearer to the observer
in CCW direction. Show the profile of the square hole on the development.
14.21 A cylindrical water-tank of base diameter 1.5 m and height 3 m is resting on the ground with
axis perpendicular to the ground. A squirrel starts to climb the tank from a circumferential
bottom base point nearest to the observer and makes two rounds along the curved surface.
Finally, it reaches to a circumferential point on the top base nearest to the observer. While
climbing, the vertical distance covered in the first round is 1 m and in the second round it
is 2 m. In each round, it covers shortest distances along the curved surface.
Draw projection of the water tank. Develop its lateral surface. Show the path followed by
the squirrel in development. Show the path followed by squirrel in the FV (Scale: 0.25
AutoCAD unit = 0.5m.)
14.22 A frustum of square pyramid has its bottom base edge 100 mm, top base edge 50 mm and
height 125 mm. It is resting on the ground with two of its base edges perpendicular to the
VP. An ant starts from a mid-point of the top base edge, nearest to the observer and
reaches a mid-point of bottom base edge nearest to the observer after completing one round
in CCW direction. While travelling on every new surface, the vertical height is reduced by
25 mm. Each path follows a shortest distance.
Draw the projections of the frustum. Develop lateral surfaces of the solid. Show the path
followed by the ant in the FV, TV and on the developed surfaces.
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14.23 Draw a development of a sheet metal tray with top square 150 mm side, bottom square
100 mm side and height 75 mm along the base.

Exercise B (Reverse Development)

14.1 A pentagonal prism, side 100 mm, height 150 mm is resting on the ground on its base with
one vertical face away from the observer and parallel to the VP. A thread is wound around
the prism, starting from the nearest bottom base corner and is brought back to the nearest
top base corner in CCW direction following a shortest path. Find the length of the thread and
show it on the elevation.
14.2 A cone (base diameter = 150 mm and height = 200 mm) is kept on the ground on its base
with an imaginary diameter AB parallel to VP. A point P starting from A moves along the
curved surface of the cone and comes back to A moving around an axis of the cone
following the shortest path. Show this shortest path in the elevation and plan of the cone.
14.3 The development of a cylinder is a rectangle of 472 mm length. A semicircle of 472 mm
diameter is perfectly inscribed in the rectangle. Draw the projections of the cylinder showing
the semicircle on elevation. (Take the diameter of the cylinder as a nearest rounded value).
14.4 A square pyramid with 150 mm base diagonal and 300 mm height is resting on the ground
with base edges equally inclined to the VP. A point P, starts from the base corner nearest
to the observer, moves on the slant surfaces of the pyramid in CCW direction and reaches
to its original position after making two rounds around the axis by the shortest route. Draw
development of the slant surfaces of the square pyramid. Show the shortest path on the
development. Represent this shortest path in two views of the pyramid.
14.5 A frustum of a square pyramid has its bottom base edge 150 mm, top base edge 50 mm
and height 300 mm is resting on its bottom base on the ground with two base edges parallel
to the VP. A point P, starts from a mid-point of the bottom base edge nearest to the
observer, moves on the slant surfaces of the frustum in CCW direction and reaches to the
mid-point of the top base edge farthest from the observer by the shortest route. How many
rounds the point P makes around the axis?
Draw a development of the slant surfaces of the frustum of a square pyramid. Show the
shortest path on the development. Represent this shortest path in two views of the frustum
of a pyramid.
14.6 A composite solid consists of a half-square pyramid (half-base diagonal 100 mm, height
200 mm) and half-hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 100 mm, height = 200 mm). The
combination is joined at the interface containing both the apex and aligning the bottom base.
It is resting on the common formed base on the ground with the half-hexagonal pyramid on
the right side and the interface perpendicular to the VP.
A point P, starts from a base corner at the interface nearest to the observer, moves on
slant surfaces of the half-hexagonal pyramid in CCW direction and reaches to a base corner
at the interface farthest from the observer by following a shortest route.
Draw development of slant surfaces of this composite solid. Show the shortest path on
the development. Represent this shortest path in two views of the composite solid.
14.7 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm and height = 250 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with two base edges equally inclined to the VP. Nails are put on the centre
of every slant face and all base corners. A string is tied at the nearest base corner and
passed over all the nails sequentially in CCW direction reaching to the nearest base corner.
Draw a path followed by the string on a lateral surfaces and find a shortest distance for the
string in mm. Show the path of the string on the projections of solid (TV and FV).
 CHAPTER 14: Development of Surfaces of Solids ® 283

14.8 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 100 mm and height = 200 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with two of its base edges perpendicular to the VP. Draw a development of
lateral surfaces with farthest edge as an opening edge, following CCW direction.
A square of maximum dimension has to be inscribed in the development of lateral
surfaces of this solid. One corner of the square is at apex and an opposite corner is on one
of the base corners of the pyramid such that the development picture looks symmetric. Find
dimension of side of the square. Draw the square on projections of solid (TV and FV).
14.9 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm and height = 250 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with two base edges equally inclined to the VP. A point P starts its travel from
a nearest base corner, meets mid-point of three slant edges, in between, with a shortest
path and then reaches to the same base corner following a shortest distance. This way it
completes the first round.
In the second round, it starts from the nearest base corner, meets a farthest base corner
and then returns back to the nearest base corner following a shortest path in CCW direction.
Draw the shortest path showing the full travel for the two rounds and mention the distance
of the total path in mm. Show the path of point P on projections of solid (TV and FV).
14.10 A frustum of a cone has smaller base diameter 75 mm, larger base diameter 150 mm and
height 150 mm. It is cut by a vertical plane passing through the diameters of both the bases.
Draw the projection of this half frustum with flat cut surface exposed to the direction of the
observer and standing on its bigger base on the ground.
A point P, starts from a mid-point of top base edge, reaches to a right bottom base corner.
Further, completing half-round around an axis of the solid in CCW direction, it reaches to
the left bottom base corner and finally reaches the starting point. In all this travel, it follows
a shortest path. Show the shortest path on the development. Represent this shortest path
in elevation. Specify the shortest distance by using TEXT command.
14.11 Figure 14.11 shows a FV of a sheet metal tray standing on its base on the ground. Draw
a development of lateral surfaces with left most slant edge as an opening edge, following
CCW direction.
Point P starts from a bottom left corner of the front face, reaches to a mid-point of right
slant edge of the same face. Further, it travels at the same elevation on right face, back face
and finally reaches the starting point by following a shortest path. Show the path of the point
P in the development. Represent this shortest path in elevation. Specify the shortest
distance by using TEXT command.

Fig. 14.11

14.12 A square pyramid is standing on its base on the ground with base edges equally inclined
to the VP. Draw development of lateral surfaces with left most slant edge as an opening
edge, following CCW direction.
A development of this solid is inscribed in a semicircle of diameter 375 mm. A point P
starts from a nearest base corner, completes one round around the axis of the solid
following a shortest path on every slant surface and then reaches the starting point. Show
the shortest path on the development. Represent this shortest path in elevation of the
pyramid. Specify the shortest distance by using TEXT command.
15
Intersection of Surfaces

Objectives
® To learn the concepts of intersection and interpenetration of two solids.
® To know how to derive the lines of intersection and interpenetration of surfaces of two solids.

Introduction
In practice, science and engineering student is required to know the line of intersections
resulting from intersection or interpenetration of two solids. In many applications, these solids
are hollow one. The line of intersection is basically an output of intersection of surfaces of
solids. There can be intersection of flat surface versus flat surface, flat surface versus curved
surface and curved surface versus curved surface.

284
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 285

15.1 Line of Intersection

In engineering practice, objects constructed may have constituent parts, the surfaces of which
intersect one another in lines, which are called lines of intersection. A dome fitted on a boiler as
shown in Fig. 15.1 is one such example. The surface of the dome extends upto the line of
intersection only. For accurate development of the surface of the dome, this line of intersection must
be accurately located. The shape of the hole to be cut in the boiler-shell is also determined from the
shape of the same line of intersection.

Fig. 15.1 Dome fitted on a cylindrical boiler.

Thus, the line of intersection of the two surfaces is a line common to both. It is composed of points
at which the lines of one surface intersect with the other surface. The line of intersection may be
straight or curved, depending upon the nature of intersecting surfaces. Two plane surfaces
(e.g. faces of prisms and pyramids) intersect in a straight line. The line of intersection between two
curved surfaces (e.g. faces of cylinders and cones) or between a plane surface and a curved surface
(e.g. faces of cylinder and prism) is a curve.

Intersection of Line versus Line

EXAMPLE 15.1 Figure 15.2 shows TV and FV of two skew lines: AB and PQ. In the TV, find out
which line is above and which is below.

Fig. 15.2

Solution
1. Draw a projector line from the intersection point of ab and pq in the TV to the FV. Check
whether, the projector line meets ab first or pq first.
2. As it meets pq first and then ab, the line PQ is above the line AB.
286 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

EXAMPLE 15.2 Figure 15.3 shows TV and FV of two skew lines: mn and rs. In the FV, find out
which line is at front and which line is at back.

Fig. 15.3

Solution
1. Draw a projector line from the intersection point of mn and rs in the FV to the TV. Check
whether, the projector line meets mn first or rs first.
2. As it meets rs first and then mn, the line RS is at the front and the line MN is at the back.

EXAMPLE 15.3 Figure 15.4 shows TV and FV of two skew lines ab and pq. In the TV, find out
which line is above and which is below and in the FV, find out which line is at front and which line
is at back.
Solution
1. Draw a projector line from the intersection point of ab and pq in the TV to the FV. Check
whether, the projector line meets line ab first or pq first.
2. As it meets ab first and then pq, the line ab is above the line pq.

Fig. 15.4

3. Draw a projector line from the intersection of lines ab and pq in the FV to the TV. Check
whether, the projector line meets line ab first or pq first.
As it meets pq first and then ab, the line pq is at the front and the line ab is at the back.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 287

15.2 Rule for Visibility

Based upon the discussions in Examples 15.1, 15.2 and 15.3, a rule of visibility can be constructed.
In the TV, to decide which line is above and which line is below, project the intersection point on
respective lines in the FV. The line to which, projector meets first is above and the other one is
below.
In the FV, to decide which line is at front and which line is at back, project the intersection point
on respective lines in the TV. The line to which, the projector meets first is at front and the other
one is at back.

Intersection of Line and Plane

EXAMPLE 15.4 Figure 15.5 shows intersection of line PQ with skew plane ABC. Find out the
location of intersection point.
Solution
1. Consider line PQ as a cutting plane either in the TV or FV. In this exercise, it is considered
in the TV. Line cuts the edges ac and bc in the TV.

Fig. 15.5

2. Transfer the cut points from TV to FV on respective edges of plane ABC and obtain two key
points. Name both the key points as x on ac as well as x on bc.
3. Join both the key points as a line xx in the FV. The intersection of line xx and the line pq
in the FV gives intersection point m.
4. Draw a projector line from m in the FV to the line pq in the TV. Point m divides the part of
line pq into two segments in both the views.
5. Apply a rule for visibility to these segments in the FV as well as TV. The last stage shows
the final solution of visibility.

15.3 Intersection of Lines and Solids

Intersection of Line and Cylinder
EXAMPLE 15.4 Orthographic view of Fig. 15.6 shows intersection of line with cylinder. Find out the
location of entry point and exit point of line on cylinder from the orthographic views.
Solution
1. Draw a projector line from the intersection point of line pq and top base in the FV to the line
pq in the TV. Note this as an entry point E.
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Fig. 15.6

2. Now draw another projector line from the intersection point of line pq and circumference of
cylinder in the TV to the line pq in the FV. Note this as an entry point E¢.
3. The point E divides the part of line pq into two segments in the TV. Apply a rule of visibility
to the line pq and the circumference of cylinder in the TV. Drop a projector line from the
intersection point of line pq and circumference of cylinder in the TV and check whether the
projector line meets line first or the curved surface first. It meets line first. Therefore, retain
the smaller segment in the TV.
4. The point E¢ divides the part of line pq into two segments in the FV. Apply a rule of visibility
to the line pq and the curved surface of cylinder in the FV. Draw a projector line from the
intersection point of line pq and curved surface of cylinder in the FV and check whether the
projector line meets the line first or the circumference (curved surface) first. It meets the line
first. Therefore, retain the smaller segment in the FV.

Intersection of Line and Pyramid

EXAMPLE 15.5 Orthographic view of Fig. 15.7 shows intersection of a line with pyramid. Find out
the location of point of entry and exit.

Solution
1. Consider line pq as a cutting plane either in the TV or FV. In this exercise, it is considered
in the FV.
2. There are three cut points in the FV, which give four key points in the TV. Transfer the cut
points from FV to TV and obtain four key points on four slant edges: oa, ob, oc and od. Join
four key points and show the cut section profile in the TV.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 289

Fig. 15.7

Now consider intersection of the line pq and the cut section profile. The line pq cuts the section
profile at two points. One point is considered as an entry point and another point is considered as
exit point. The segment EE¢ of the line pq is not visible in TV and FV. Trim the same in both the
views.

15.4 Intersection of Plane versus Plane

One Plane Intersects Another
EXAMPLE 15.6 Figure 15.8(a)(1) shows a plane abc intersecting plane pqr. Determine the line of
intersection and show the visible portion of these planes.

Fig. 15.8(a)

Solution
1. As plane abc intersects plane pqr consider the edges of plane abc as cutting edges. Edge
ab cannot be considered as a cutting edge because it is completely outside and does not cut
edges of plane pqr in both the views. The cutting edges are ac and bc.
2. Consider the cutting edges in either of the views. In this solution, TV is considered for the
cutting edges of plane abc.
3. Cutting edge ac cuts edges pq and qr in the TV. Draw projector lines from the intersection
points ac-pq and ac-qr in the TV to the edges pq and qr in the FV. Name the meeting points
as x on pq as well x on qr in the FV.
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4. Draw a line with one endpoint x on pq and another endpoint x on qr in the FV. As edge AC
is under consideration as a cutting edge, the intersection of line xx with ac gives one endpoint
of target intersection line. Note this endpoint as m.
5. Similarly, edge bc cuts edges pr and rq in the TV. Draw projector lines from these intersection
points in the TV to the edges pr and rq in the FV and name the meeting points as y on pr
as well y on rq in the FV.
6. Draw a line with one endpoint y on pr and another endpoint y on rq in the FV. As edge ac
is under consideration as a cutting edge, the intersection of line yy with bc gives another
endpoint of target intersection line. Note this endpoint as n. Join mn. mn is an intersection
line in the FV.
7. Project point m on edge ac in the TV and point n on edge bc in the TV. Join these points
to get the intersection line mn in the TV.
Visibility [Refer to Fig. 15.8 (b)]

Fig. 15.8(b)

8. The point m divides part of ac, which is covered by pqr into two segments in the TV.
9. Apply a rule for visibility to the intersection point of qr and ac in the TV.
10. Draw a projector line from the intersection of qr and ac in the TV to the FV. Check whether,
the projector line meets line qr first or ac first. It meets qr first and then ac.
11. Therefore, remove segment between the intersection point of qr versus ac and m in the TV.
Henceforth, segment between the intersection point of pq-ac and m will be retained.
12. Similarly, apply a rule for visibility for n point in the TV.
13. Follow the same procedure of rule for visibility for m and n points in the FV. The final solution
is shown in Step 7 and Step 8.

Plane versus Plane (Two Plane Intersects Each Other)

EXAMPLE 15.7 Figure 15.9(a) show planes abc and pqr intersecting each other. Determine the
line of intersection and show the visibility.
Solution Trial and error procedure is adapted to solve the problem as both the planes intersect
each other.
Firstly, consider plane abc intersecting plane pqr. This will give one end point of intersection line.
1. As plane abc intersects plane pqr, consider edges of plane abc as cutting edges. The cutting
edges could be ac, ab, and bc.
2. Consider cutting edges in either of the views. In this solution, TV is considered for the cutting
edges of plane abc.
3. Trial could be done using either of the cutting edges: ab, ac, and bc.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 291

4. Cutting edge ab cuts edges pq and qr in the TV. Draw projector lines from the intersection
points of ab-pq and ab-qr in the TV to the edges pq and qr in the FV. Name the meeting
points as x on pq as well x on qr in the FV.
5. Draw a line with point x on pq and point x on qr in the FV. As cutting edge ab is under
consideration, the intersection of line xx with ab gives one endpoint of intersection line. Note
this endpoint as m.
The trial with cutting edges ac and bc can be tried. However, it will not give us endpoint
of intersection line.

Fig. 15.9(a)

Secondly, consider plane pqr intersecting plane abc. This will give another endpoint of intersection
line.
6. Trial could be done using either of the cutting edges: pq, pr, and qr. Edge pq, and qr will not
give the desired result (another endpoint of intersection n). Therefore, the edge pr will be
considered as a cutting edge in the TV.
7. Cutting edge pr cuts edges ac and bc in the TV. Draw projector lines from these intersection
points of pr-ac and in the TV to the edges ac and bc in the FV and name the meeting points
as y on ac as well y on bc in the FV.
8. Draw a line with one endpoint y on ac and another endpoint y on bc in the FV. The
intersection of line yy with pr gives one endpoint of intersection line. Note it as n.
9. mn is an intersection line in the FV.
10. Project point m on edge ab in the TV and point n on edge pr in the TV. Join these points
to get intersection line mn in the TV.

Visibility [Refer to Fig. 15.9 (b)]

11. The point m divides part of ab, which is covered by pqr into two segments in the TV.
12. Apply a rule for visibility to the intersection point of qr versus ab or pq versus ab in the TV.
13. Draw a projector line from the intersection of qr versus ab in the TV to the FV. Check whether,
the projector line meets line qr first or ab first. It meets qr first and then ab.
14. Therefore, remove segment between the intersection point of pq versus ab and m in the TV.
Henceforth, segment between the intersection point of qr-ab and m will be retained.
15. Similarly, apply a rule for visibility for n point in the TV.
Follow the procedure of rule for visibility for m and n points in the FV. The final solution is shown
in Step 7 and Step 8.
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Fig. 15.9(b)

Intersection of Inclined Plane versus Inclined Plane

EXAMPLE 15.8 Figure 15.10 shows intersection of inclined plane abc versus inclined plane pqr.
Find out the location of the intersection point.

Fig. 15.10
Solution
1. The TV shows the line views of both plane abc and pqr. The intersection point of these two
line views is a point view of line of intersection.
2. Draw a projector line from intersection point of the two line views to the FV.
3. In the FV, the line common to both the planes is a line of intersection mn.
4. Apply a rule of visibility to obtain the final solution.

15.5 Intersection of Surfaces of Two Solids

In case of intersection of two solids, one solid is taken out after the intersection. Student is required
to draw the identities that are produced by the other solid during intersection.

15.5.1 Initial Steps

1. Draw the projections (TV and FV) of main solid.
2. Locate the TS of the base of the smaller solid. TS of the base of the smaller solid may be:
(i) In the TV, if it is a case of vertical interpenetration.
(ii) In the FV, if it is a case of horizontal interpenetration.
Accordingly, draw the other view.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 293

Horizontal Intersection
EXAMPLE 15.9 A hexagonal pyramid is intersected by a square prism. The axis of the prism is
parallel to HP, perpendicular to VP and intersects the axis of the pyramid at a point 75 mm above
the ground. The prism is removed after the intersection. Draw the intersection profile if the faces of
the prism are equally inclined to the ground.
Solution
(A) Projections of both solids (Stage 1)
1. Follow the initial steps to draw the projections of both the solids. Name the base of the
pyramid as abcdef and the slant edges as oa, ob, oc, od, oe and of. The base of the square
prism will be visible in the front view. The entry of the square prism is on the slant faces obc,
ocd and the exit of square prism is on slant faces oaf and ofe.

(B) Determination of key points from the cut points (Stage 2)

2. With reference to the base of the square prism, there are in total four cut points, two are on
surface and two are on the edges: oc, of. Two surface cut points gives four key points, two
in the entry zone and two in the exit zone, of. The cut points on edges: oc and of gives four
key points, two in entry zone and two in the exit zone. Therefore, four cut points gives us eight
key points, four key points are in the entry zone and four key points are in the exit zone.
(C) Transfer of cut points to obtain the key points (Stages 3 and 4)
3. The cut points on the edges: oc and of are transferred by using a line parallel to the base
method. Mark these points by using a POINT command (Stage 3).
4. The two cut points, which are on the surfaces, are transferred in the TV by using a slant line
method. Mark these points by using a POINT command (Stage 4).
(D) Joining the key points for the entry zone and exit zone (Stage 5)
5. Refer to the smaller base of the square prism for sequential joining of key points in the entry
as well as exit zone.
Entry zone
6. The entry is on surfaces obc and ocd. Follow the path of square in the FV to join the key
points for the entry profile in the TV.
7. Exit zone
8. The exit is on surfaces oef and ofa. Follow the path of square in the FV to join the key points
for the exit profile in the TV.
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(E) Trimming and visibility (Stages 6 and 7)

9. Trim the part of the edges oc and of between the respective two key points in the TV
(Stage 6).
10. The final solution is shown in Stage 7.

Vertical Intersection
EXAMPLE 15.10 A square pyramid is intersected by an irregular prism as shown in Fig. 15.11(2).
The axis of the prism is parallel to the axis of the pyramid. The prism is removed after the
intersection. Draw the intersection profile.
Solution
(A) Projections of both solids (Stage 1)
1. Follow the initial steps to draw the projections of both the solids. Name the base of the
pyramid as abcd and slant edges as oa, ob, oc, and od. The base of the prism will be visible
in top view.
(B) Determination of key points from cut points (Stage 2)
2. With reference to the base of the square prism, there are eight cut points, four are on four
surfaces and four are on the edges: oa, ob, oc, and od. Eight cut points gives eight key points
in FV, four key points on four edges and four key points on slant surfaces.

Fig. 15.11
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 295

(C) Transfer of cut points to obtain key points (Stages 3 and 4)

3. The cut points on the edges are directly transferred by drawing the projection lines from the
cut point on respective slant edges. Mark these key points by using a POINT command
(Stage 3).
The four cut points, which are on the surfaces, are transferred in the TV by using a slant
line method. Mark these points by using a POINT command (Stage 4).
(D) Joining the key points (Stage 5)
4. Refer to the true shape of the base of the pyramid. The visible slant surfaces are oab and
obc in the TV. The invisible slant surfaces are ocd and oda in the TV.
5. For sequential joining of key points refer to the base of the prism.
6. Join the key points which are on visible surfaces by a solid line. Join the key points which
are on invisible surfaces by a hidden line.
(E) Trimming and visibility (Stages 5 and 6)
7. Trim the part of slant edges from apex o to key points on the respective slant edges
(Stage 5). Following this procedure, it is observed that the boundary lines of the views are
hidden. However, no boundary line appears as a hidden line. Therefore, change only the
boundary part of the hidden line as a solid line.
The final solution is shown in Stage 6.

Fig. 15.11

15.6 Interpenetration of Two Solids

In case of interpenetration of two solids, both the solids are present. Student is required to draw the
identities that are produced out of intersection of surfaces of both the solids. Figure 15.12 shows few
applications of interpenetration of two solids.

Fig. 15.12
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15.6.1 Initial Steps to Solve the Interpenetration Problem

1. Draw the projections (TV, FV) of main solid. Decide about the requirement of the side view.
The side view is required only if axis of the smaller solid is parallel to HP and VP.
2. Locate TS of the base of the smaller solid. TS of the base of the smaller solid may be
(a) In the TV, if it is a case of vertical intersection.
(b) In the FV/SV, if it is a horizontal intersection.
Accordingly draw the other views.

Horizontal Interpenetration (Axis of Smaller Solid Perpendicular to PP)

EXAMPLE 15.11 A bigger triangular prism having axis perpendicular to the ground is
interpenetrated by a smaller triangular prism. The axis of the smaller triangular prism is parallel to
HP and VP. Draw an interpenetration profile.
Solution
(A) Projections of both solids
1. Follow the initial steps to draw the projections of both the prisms. The base of the smaller
triangular prism will be visible in the side view as the axis is parallel to HP and VP. Name
the base of the bigger prism as abc and vertical edges as aa, bb and cc. Name the base of
the smaller prism as pqr and vertical edges as pp, qq and rr.
2. Locate the position (TV, FV and SV) of smaller solid (Fig. 15.13). It is observed from the TV
that the entry of the smaller solid is on surface bbcc and exit is on aabb and aacc.

Fig. 15.13
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 297

(B) Determination of key points from cut points

3. With reference to the smaller base pqr in the side view, there are in total five cut points, three
are on surface (bbcc) of bigger prism and two are on the edge: aa. Three surface cut points
gives six key points, three in the entry zone and three in the exit zone. The cut points on edge
aa give two key points, which come in exit zone. Therefore, five cut points gives us eight key
points, three key points are in the entry zone and five key points are in the exit zone.
(C) Transfer of cut points to obtain key points
4. The cut points on the edge aa are transferred directly in the FV by drawing a projector line.
5. The three cut points on the surfaces have to be located for their true position on the true
shape of the base of the main solid in the TV by a 45° line method. These locations are the
intersection points, where, the edges rr, qq and pp cut the surface bbcc in the entry zone and
surface aabb, aacc in the exit zone in the TV.
6. Transfer these true locations in the FV on respective edges rr, qq and pp and locate the key
points using POINT command.

(D) Joining the key points for the entry zone and exit zone
7. Refer to the base of the smaller solid in RSV for sequential joining of key points in the entry
as well as in the exit zone in FV.
8. While joining the key points in the FV, both the true shape of the bases are observed (≠Æ)
to know the common visibility of the individual key points. Referring to the smaller base pqr
in the SV, surface ppqq is visible and surfaces qqrr, rrpp are not visible to the observer (Æ).
Referring to the bigger base, surface aabb is visible and surfaces bbcc, ccaa are not visible
to the observer (≠).
Entry zone
9. The interpenetration profile at entry has three key points, one each on pp, qq and rr in the
FV. Follow a sequence {p – q – r – p}. The intersection line joining key point on p to key point
on q is visible from the smaller base, however, not visible from the bigger base. Therefore,
it is a hidden line. The intersection lines joining key point on q to key point on r and from key
point on r to joining key point on p are not visible from the smaller base, therefore, need not
to be checked again from the bigger base. Therefore, intersection lines: q to r and r to p are
hidden.
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Exit zone
10. The interpenetration profile at exit has five key points, one each on pp, qq and rr and two on
aa in the FV. Follow a sequence {p – q – cut point on edge aa – r – cut point on edge
aa – p}. The intersection line from p to q is visible from the smaller base as well as from the
bigger base. Therefore, it is a solid line. The intersection lines: q to cut point on edge aa, cut
point on edge aa to r, r to cut point on edge aa and cut point on edge aa to p are not visible
from the smaller base, therefore, need not to be checked again from the bigger base.
Therefore, all these, intersection lines are drawn as hidden lines.
(E) Trimming and Visibility
11. The part of the edge aa between two key points has to be trimmed in the FV.
12. The part of the edges rr, qq and pp are to be trimmed in between their respective key points
in the TV.
13. The edges aa-pp, aa-qq, bb-qq and bb-pp need to be checked for their visibility (by using the
rule of visibility) in the interpenetration zone. The part of aa, qq and pp are not visible in the
intersection zone, therefore shown as a hidden line.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 299

Figure 15.14 shows graphical display of interpenetration of prism versus prism derived from
the Pro-Engineer software.

Fig. 15.14 Interpenetration of prism versus prism.

Horizontal Interpenetration (Axis of Smaller Solid Perpendicular to VP)

EXAMPLE 15.12 A pentagonal pyramid is interpenetrated by a triangular prism. While
interpenetrating, axis of the prism is perpendicular to VP. Draw a profile of interpenetration.
Solution
(A) Projections of solids
1. Follow the initial steps to draw the projections of both the solids. The base of the triangular
prism will be visible in the front view as axis of the prism is perpendicular to VP. Name the
base of the pyramid as abcde and apex as o. Name the base of the prism as pqr and vertical
edges as pp, qq and rr.
2. It is observed from the TV that the entry of the smaller solid is on surfaces obc and ocd and
exit is on oae and ode.
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(B) Determination of key points from cut points

3. With reference to the base of the prism pqr in the FV, there are in total six cut points, two
are on surface and four are on slant edges. Two cut points on surface gives four key points,
two in the entry zone and two in the exit zone. Two cut points on slant edges: oc and oe gives
four key points. Out of each, two comes in the entry zone and two comes in the exit zone.
Two cut points on slant edge od give two key points, which are common to the entry zone
and the exit zone (as od is common to both the zones). Therefore, six cut points gives us
ten key points, four key points are in the entry zone and four key points are in the exit zone
and two key points are common to both the zones.
(C) Transfer of cut points to obtain key points
4. Transfer the cut points on the edges oc, oe and od directly on the respective slant edges in
the TV by drawing a projector line and obtain six key points.
5. Transfer the two cut points on the surfaces to the TV by a slant line method and obtain four
key points.

(D) Joining the key points for entry zone and exit zone
6. Refer to the base of the prism in FV for sequential joining of key points in the entry as well
as exit zone.
7. While joining the key points in the intersection zone in the TV, the base of the prism is
referred to know the visibility of individual key points. Referring to the smaller base, surface
pprr, qqrr are visible and ppqq is not visible to the observer (Ø).
Entry zone
8. Follow a sequence: {cut point on edge od near to apex of pyramid - cut point on edge oc near
to apex of pyramid – p – cut point on edge oc near to base – q – cut point on edge od near
to base}. The intersection lines from cut point on edge od near to apex of pyramid to cut point
on edge oc near to apex of pyramid to p and from q to cut point on edge od near to base
are visible. Therefore, these are solid lines. The intersection lines from p to cut point on edge
oc near to the base of pyramid to q are not visible. Therefore, these two intersection lines
are hidden.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 301

Exit zone
9. Follow a sequence: {cut point on edge od near to apex of pyramid - cut point on edge oe near
to apex of pyramid – p – cut point on edge oe near to base – q – cut point on edge od near
to base}. The intersection lines from cut point on edge od near to apex to cut point on edge
oe near to apex to p and from q to cut point on edge od near to base are visible. Therefore,
these are solid lines. The intersection lines from p to cut point on edge oe near to the base
to q are not visible. Therefore, these two intersection lines are hidden.

(E) Trimming and visibility

10. Trim the part of the edge oc, od and oe between the respective key points located on them
in the TV.
11. The part of the edges pp and qq are to be trimmed between the respective key points on
them in the TV.
12. Because of the intersecting prism, the part of the base of the pyramid and part of the slant
edges oc and oe are not visible to the observer (Ø). Therefore, change the base of the
pyramid and part of slant edges oc and oe into hidden lines in the TV.

Vertical Interpenetration (Axis of Smaller Solid Perpendicular to HP)

EXAMPLE 15.13 A hexagonal pyramid is interpenetrated by a square prism. While
interpenetrating, axis of the prism is perpendicular to the ground. Draw a profile of interpenetration.
Solution
(A) Projections of solids
1. Follow the initial steps to draw the projections of both the solids. The base of the square prism
will be visible in the top view as axis of the prism is perpendicular to the ground. Name the
base of the pyramid as abcdef and apex as o. Name the base of the prism as pqrs and
vertical edges as pp, qq, rr and ss.
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(B) Determination of key points from cut points

2. With reference to the base of the prism pqrs in the TV, in total there are nine cut points. Three
cut points (p, q and s) are on surface. Remaining six cut points are on the slant edges of the
pyramid. These nine cut points in the TV give nine key points in the FV.

(C) Transfer of cut points to obtain key points

3. Transfer the cut points on all slant edges oa, ob, oc, od, oe and of from TV to respective slant
edges in the FV by drawing a projector line and obtain six key points.
4. Transfer the surface cut points p and q on the surfaces to the FV by a slant line method and
obtain two key points. Transfer the cut point s to the FV by a line parallel to the base method.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 303

(D) Joining the key points

5. For sequential joining of key points in the FV, refer to the base of the prism in the TV.
6. For the visibility of individual key points, in the interpenetration zone, the true shape of the
base of the prism as well as true shape of the base of the pyramid is referred. Referring to
the true shape of the base of the prism in the TV, surfaces ppqq, qqrr are visible and rrss,
sspp are not visible to the observer (≠) i.e., from p to q to r. Referring to true shape of the
base of the pyramid, slant surfaces oab, obc, ocd are visible and slant surfaces ode, oef, ofa
are not visible to the observer (≠). The common visibility has to be considered here.
According to the common visibility, visible cut points are: cut point on slant surface oab, cut
point on slant edge ob, cut point on slant surface obc and cut point on slant edge oc and cut
point on slant edge od. Remaining four cut points are not visible to the observer (≠).
7. Follow a sequence {p – cut point on edge ob – q – cut point on edge oc – r. The intersection
lines for this path are visible according to common visibility criterion. Therefore, these
intersection lines are solid lines.
8. Follow a sequence: r-cut point on edge oe – s – cut point on edge of – cut point on edge
oa – p. The intersection lines for this path are not visible according to common visibility
criterion. Therefore, these intersection lines are hidden lines.

(E) Trimming and visibility

9. Trim part of all six slant edges of pyramid: oa, ob, oc, od, oe and of from apex to the
respective key points on each of them in the FV. The part of vertical edges: pp, qq, rr and
ss are trimmed beyond key points.
10. The slant edges oe and of are basically hidden. However, as they are coinciding with oc and
ob, the FV shows solid lines. In the interpenetration zone, key points on oc and ob are nearer
to base. If the position of key point on the visible slant edge is nearer to the base and key
point position of non-visible slant edge is nearer to the apex then the part between these two
key points will be changed into hidden lines. This is done here for the non-visible slant edges
oe and of.
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11. Visibility rule is applied for slant edge oa versus vertical edge pp for their visibility in the
interpenetration zone. The part of oa is not visible as edge pp is in front of slant edge oa.

Cylinder versus Cylinder (Horizontal Interpenetration)

EXAMPLE 15.14 A bigger cylinder having axis perpendicular to HP is interpenetrated by a smaller
cylinder. Axis of the smaller cylinder is parallel to HP and VP. Draw the interpenetration profile.
Solution
(A) Projections of solids
1. Follow initial steps to draw the projections of both the cylinders. Divide the base of the bigger
cylinder into 12 equal numbers of parts. Draw twelve generators 1-1 to 12-12 in the FV as
well as in the RSV. The base of the smaller cylinder will be visible in the side view as axis
is parallel to HP and VP.
2. Draw TV, FV and SV of smaller solid.

(B) Determination of key points from cut points

3. The base of the smaller cylinder in the RSV cuts all the generators of the bigger cylinder
except generator 4-4 and 10-10. With reference to the base of the smaller cylinder base in
the RSV, there are in total ten cut points. These ten cut points give twenty key points, ten
in the entry zone and ten in the exit zone.
4. In addition to ten cut points, two more cut points are considered on the base of the smaller
cylinder. Draw two more imaginary generators touching the smaller base of the cylinder in
RSV for these two cut points. These two cut points will give four key points, two key points
in entry zone and two key points in exit zone. Therefore, in total there will be twenty-four key
points.
(C) Transfer of cut points to obtain key points
5. The original ten cut points on all generators in the RSV are directly transferred in the FV by
drawing the projector lines.
6. For additional two cut points in the RSV, the imaginary generators have to be drawn in the
FV to obtain respective key points. The two cut points on the additional generators have to
be located for their true position on the true shape of the base of the bigger cylinder in TV
by a 45° line method. These locations are the intersection points, where, the extreme
generators of smaller cylinder intersect the base of the bigger cylinder in the TV.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 305

7. Transfer the true location of two generators in the FV by drawing projector lines from TV to
FV.

(D) Joining the key points for the entry zone and exit zone
8. Refer to the base of the smaller solid for sequential joining of key points in the entry as well
as exit zone.
9. With reference to the base of the smaller cylinder in RSV, the cut points on the left-half of
the cylinder are visible to the observer (Æ). Similarly, with reference to the base of the bigger
cylinder in the TV, the cut points on the front-half of the cylinder are visible to the observer.
However, as the interpenetration is very symmetric, key points at front side will coincide with
the key points on the back side.
306 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Entry zone
10. Join all the key points which are on the right side of axis of the standing cylinder by drawing
a PLINE joining key points on {7-7 – 6-6 – 5-5 – guest generator – 5-5 – 6-6 – 7-7}. Mirror
the same for the left curve.
(E) Trimming and visibility
11. In the interpenetration zone, trim the extreme generators 1-1 and 7-7 between the two key
points on them. Similarly, trim the extreme generators of smaller cylinder in the
interpenetration zone.

Figure 15.15 shows graphical display of interpenetration of cylinder versus cylinder derived from the
Pro-Engineer software.

Fig. 15.15 Interpenetration of cylinder versus cylinder.

 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 307

Plate 15.5 shows few model solutions.

Exercise A (Point of Intersection and Line of Intersection)

Solve for the line of intersection in the given problems of Plate 15.1 and 15.2.

PLATE 15.1

PLATE 15.2
308 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Exercise B (Intersection of Two Solids)

Solve for the profile of intersection for the engineering solids shown in Plate 15.3. and Plate 15.4.

PLATE 15.3

PLATE 15.4
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 309

15.1 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 100 mm and height = 200 mm) stands on its base on
the ground with one base edge perpendicular to VP. A square prism having base diagonal
75 mm and base parallel to the VP, intersects the pyramid. Axes of both the solids intersect
each other at a distance of 75 mm from the ground with the rectangular faces of square
prism equally inclined to the ground. Draw a profile of intersection if the prism is removed
after the intersection.
15.2 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge = 125 mm and height = 200 mm) stands on the ground
with one base edge perpendicular to the VP. Draw its projections. Draw a square in the FV
with diagonal 75 mm, parallel to the ground and centre of the square 125 mm from apex
of the pyramid. This represents a through hole in the pyramid. Obtain a profile of this square
hole in the TV.
15.3 A cone (base diameter = 200 mm and height = 200 mm) is standing on its base on the
ground. It is intersected by a square prism (base diagonal 150 mm). The axis of the prism
coincides with the axis of the cone and rectangular faces of the prism are equally inclined
to the VP. Draw identities of the square prism on cone after its removal.
15.4 A cone (base diameter = 250 mm and height = 200 mm) is standing on its base on the
ground. It is intersected by a square prism (base diagonal 150 mm). The axes of both the
solids are in the same plane and separated by a distance of 25 mm with the rectangular
faces of the prism equally inclined to the VP. Draw identities of the square prism on the cone
after its removal.
15.5 A cone (base diameter = 200 mm and height = 200 mm) is standing on its base on the
ground. It is intersected by a cylinder of diameter 150 mm. Axis of the cylinder coincides with
axis of the cone. Draw identities of the cylinder on the cone after its removal.
15.6 A cone (base diameter = 250 mm and height = 200 mm) is standing on its base on the
ground. It is intersected by a cylinder of diameter 150 mm. Axes of both the solids are in
the same plane and separated by a distance of 25 mm. Draw identities of cylinder on the
cone after its removal.
15.7 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm and height = 225 mm) is resting on its base
on the ground with base edges equally inclined to the VP. A prism having trapezium base
(with parallel sides 50 mm and 100 mm separated by 50 mm) intersects the square pyramid
completely. While intersecting, axis of the prism is perpendicular to the VP and it is in the
plane of axis of the pyramid. The 50 mm side is parallel to the ground and 25 mm from the
base of the pyramid. Obtain a profile of this intersection after removal of prism if the 100
mm side is towards the apex of the pyramid.
15.8 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm and height = 250 mm) is resting on its base
on the ground with base edges equally inclined to the VP. A prism having trapezium base
(with parallel sides 50 mm and 100 mm separated by 50 mm) intersects the square pyramid.
While intersecting, axis of the prism is perpendicular to the VP and in the plane of axis of
the pyramid. The 100 mm side is parallel to the ground and 50 mm from the base of the
pyramid. The solid is removed after the intersection. Obtain the profile of this intersection
if the 50 mm side is towards the apex of the pyramid.
15.9 A square prism (base diagonal = 200 mm and height = 250 mm) is resting on its base on
the ground with vertical faces equally inclined to the VP. A triangular prism (base edge =
100 mm and height = 300 mm) is intersecting the square prism with two of its rectangular
faces equally inclined towards the top base of the square prism and vertical edges
perpendicular to the VP. Draw a profile of intersection after removal of the triangular prism.
(Assume appropriate location of the intersecting point of both the axes for full coverage of
the triangular prism).
15.10 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 100 mm and height = 250 mm) is resting on its base
on the ground with two base edges perpendicular to the VP. It is intersected by a square
prism (base edge 100 mm and height 250 mm) with two rectangular faces parallel to the
VP and the axis coincides with the axis of the pyramid. Draw a profile of intersection after
removal of the prism.
310 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

15.11 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 100 mm and height = 250 mm) is resting on its base on
the ground with two base edges parallel to the VP. It is intersected by a square prism (base
edge 100 mm and height 250 mm) with two rectangular faces parallel to VP and axis coincides
with the axis of the pyramid. Draw a profile of intersection after removal of the prism.
15.12 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 200 mm, height = 225 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with the base edges equally inclined to the VP. A square hole (side = 75 mm)
with the axis coinciding with the axis of the pyramid is cut through it. Two sides of the hole
are perpendicular to the VP. Draw a profile of this hole in the FV.
15.13 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge = 150 mm and height = 200 mm) is resting on its base
on the ground with one of the base edges parallel to the VP and towards the observer. It
is completely intersected by a square prism of base diagonal 75 mm with all base edges
45° to the ground. Axis of the square prism is 75 mm above the ground and an imaginary
plane containing axes of both the solids is parallel to the PP. Draw a profile of intersection
after removal of the prism.
15.14 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge = 150 mm, height = 250 mm) is resting on its base on
the ground, with one of its base edges parallel to the VP and towards the observer. It is
intersected by a square prism with base diagonal 100 mm and all base edges equally
inclined to the ground. Axis of the prism is 50 mm above the ground and an imaginary plane
containing axes of both the solids is parallel to the VP.
Further, the cut pyramid is again completely intersected by a second square prism with
base diagonal 100 mm and all base edges equally inclined to the VP. Axis of the second
prism passes through the apex and centre of the base of the pyramid. Draw a profile of
intersection after removal of the square prism.

Exercise C (Interpenetration of Two Solids)

Solve for profile of interpenetration of the solids shown in Plate 15.5.

PLATE 15.5
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 311

15.1 A vertical square prism base diagonal 200 mm is completely interpenetrated by a horizontal
square prism, base diagonal 100 mm so that their axes intersect. The axis of the horizontal
prism is parallel to the VP and faces of both the prisms are equally inclined to the VP. Draw
the projections of the solids, showing lines of intersection. (Assume suitable lengths of the
prism).
15.2 A square prism (base edge = 125 mm, height = 175 mm) has its base on the ground with
a rectangular face inclined at 30° to the VP. It is completely interpenetrated by another
square prism having base edge = 75 mm, and height = 150 mm with faces equally inclined
to the HP and VP. Axes of the two prisms are offset by 25 mm. The offset distance is away
from the observer w.r.t. the axis of the main solid. Draw the projections showing lines of
intersection.
15.3 A square prism (base edge = 125 mm, height = 175 mm), resting on the ground, is
interpenetrated by a triangular prism base edge 75 mm. Axis of the triangular prism is
parallel to VP and 25 mm from the axis of the square prism towards the observer. Faces
of the square prism are equally inclined to the VP, while one face of the triangular prism is
inclined 40° (ccw) to the ground. Draw the projections showing lines of intersection. (Take
sufficient lengths of both the prisms).
15.4 A square pyramid of base diagonal = 150 mm and height = 200 mm rests on the ground
with the base edges equally inclined to the VP. It is interpenetrated by a horizontal triangular
prism of base edge 75 mm. Axis of the prism is 75 mm above the ground intersecting the
axis of the pyramid. Draw their projections showing lines of intersections when a rectangular
face of the prism is parallel to the VP and away from the observer.
15.5 A square prism (base diagonal = 200 mm and height = 250 mm) is resting on its base on
the ground with vertical faces equally inclined to the VP. A triangular prism (base edge =
100 mm and height = 300 mm) is interpenetrating the square prism with two of its faces
equally inclined towards the ground plane and vertical edges parallel to the VP. (Assume
appropriate location of the intersecting point of both the axes for full coverage of triangular
prism). Obtain a profile of the interpenetration.
15.6 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 100 mm and height = 250 mm) is resting on its base
on the ground with two base edges perpendicular to the VP. It is interpenetrated by a square
prism (base edge 100 mm and height 250 mm) with two rectangular faces parallel to VP and
axis coincides with the axis of the pyramid. Obtain a profile of the interpenetration.
15.7 A square prism (base diagonal = 250 mm, height = 225 mm) is standing on its base on the
ground with faces equally inclined to the VP. It is interpenetrated by a hexagonal prism
(base edge = 75 mm and height = 300 mm) with all vertical edges parallel to the VP and
two adjacent rectangular faces equally inclined towards the ground. An imaginary plane
passing through axes of both the solids is parallel to the VP. Draw a profile of
interpenetration.
15.8 A square prism (base diagonal = 250 mm, height = 225 mm) is standing on its base on the
ground with faces equally inclined to the VP. It is interpenetrated by a hexagonal prism
(base edge = 75 mm and height = 300 mm) with all vertical edges parallel to the VP and
two alternate rectangular faces equally inclined to the ground. An imaginary plane passing
through axes of both the solids is parallel to the VP. Draw a profile of interpenetration.
15.9 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 300 mm, height = 300 mm) is resting on its base on the
ground with line joining the opposite base corners parallel to the VP. It is completely
interpenetrated by a pentagonal prism (base edge = 75 mm, height = 350 mm). Vertical
edges of the prism are perpendicular to the VP with one rectangular face parallel to and 50
mm from the ground plane. An imaginary plane passing through one base corner and the
mid-point of the base edge opposite to that base corner of interpenetrating prism also
passes through the nearest and farthest slant edges of the pyramid. Draw a profile of
interpenetration.
312 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

15.10 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 300 mm, height = 300 mm) is resting on its base on the
ground with line joining the opposite base corners parallel to the VP. It is completely
interpenetrated by a prism having a trapezium base (with parallel sides 50 and 150 mm
separated by 75 mm, height = 400 mm). Vertical edges of the prism are perpendicular to
the VP. The parallel side 150 mm is parallel to and 75 mm above the ground near the base
of the pyramid. An imaginary plane passing through the mid-points of the parallel base
edges of the prism also passes through the nearest and farthest slant edges of the pyramid.
Draw a profile of interpenetration.
15.11 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge = 150 mm, and height = 300 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with line joining any two opposite base corners parallel to the VP and one
base corner nearest to the observer. It is completely interpenetrated by a triangular prism
(base edge = 125 mm, height = 325 mm) with two rectangular faces equally inclined towards
the ground. A third rectangular face, which is parallel to base of the pyramid, is 125 mm from
the ground. An imaginary plane passing through the axis of the interpenetrating prism also
passes through the nearest base corner and apex of the pentagonal pyramid. Draw a profile
of interpenetration.
15.12 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge = 150 mm, and height = 300 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with the line joining any two opposite base corners parallel to VP and one
base corner nearest to the observer. It is completely interpenetrated by a triangular prism
(base edge = 125 mm, height = 325 mm) with one rectangular face parallel to the base of
the pyramid, is 100 mm from the ground and a vertical edge opposite to this face is towards
the apex of the pyramid. An imaginary plane passing through the axis of the intersecting
prism also passes through the nearest base corner and apex of the pentagonal pyramid.
Draw a profile of interpenetration.
15.13 A triangular prism (base edge = 200 mm and height = 200 mm) is resting on one of its bases
on the ground with one rectangular face parallel to the VP and away from the observer. It
is interpenetrated by a square prism (base diagonal = 75 mm and height = 250 mm) with
rectangular faces equally inclined to the HP and VP and axes bisecting each other. Draw
a profile of interpenetration.
15.14 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 150 mm and height = 250 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with two base edges parallel to the VP. It is interpenetrated by a square prism
(base diagonal = 150 mm and height = 350 mm). While intersecting, all rectangular faces
of the prism are equally inclined to the ground and perpendicular to the VP with axes
intersecting 100 mm above the ground level. Draw a profile of interpenetration.
15.15 A square prism (base diagonal = 200 mm and height = 250 mm) is resting on one of its base
on the ground with line joining any two base corners perpendicular to the VP. It is
interpenetrated by a triangular prism (base edge = 150 mm and height = 250 mm) with all
vertical edges parallel to the HP and VP and axis bisecting the axis of the square prism.
While interpenetrating, one rectangular face of the triangular prism is away from the
observer and parallel to the VP. Draw a profile of interpenetration.
15.16 A pentagonal pyramid (base edge = 150 mm and height = 300 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with one base edge parallel to the VP and farthest from the observer.
It is interpenetrated by a square prism (base diagonal = 150 mm and height = 350 mm).
While intersecting, the bases of prism are parallel to the ground. An imaginary plane
containing axes of both the solids is perpendicular to the VP and passes through the base
diagonals of square prism. Draw an interpenetration profile when the prism axis is offset by
a distance of 25 mm towards the observer.
 CHAPTER 15: Intersection of Surfaces ® 313

15.17 A square pyramid (base diagonal = 250 mm and height = 300 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with line joining any two base corners parallel to the VP. It is interpenetrated
by a triangular prism (base edge 100 mm and height 300 mm). While interpenetrating, the
triangular prism has its two rectangular faces equally inclined towards the ground and bases
perpendicular to the VP. Draw an interpenetration profile.
15.18 A triangular pyramid (base edge = 250 mm and height = 250 mm) is standing on its base
on the ground with two base edges equally inclined to the VP and third base edge away
from the observer. It is interpenetrated by a square prism (base diagonal 100 mm and height
250 mm). While interpenetrating, all four faces of prism are equally inclined to the VP and
bases perpendicular to the ground. Draw an interpenetration profile when their axes bisect
each other.
15.19 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 150 mm and height = 300 mm) is resting on its base
on the ground with line joining any two opposite base corners parallel to the VP. It is
interpenetrated by a square prism with base edge 100 mm and height 300 mm. While
interpenetrating, the prism has its two of its adjacent rectangular faces equally inclined to
the ground and bases parallel to PP. Draw a profile of interpenetration in the TV and FV.
15.20 A square pyramid (base edge = 150 mm and height = 300 mm) is standing on its base on
the ground with line joining any two opposite base corners parallel to the VP. It is intersected
by a square prism with base edge 50 mm and height 300 mm. While interpenetrating, one
of the rectangular faces of the square prism is inclined 60° with the VP and perpendicular
to the HP. A plane containing axes of both the solids is parallel to the VP. Draw a profile
of interpenetration.
15.21 A hexagonal pyramid (base edge = 150 mm and height = 300 mm) is resting on the ground
with line joining any two opposite base corners parallel to the VP. It is interpenetrated by
a square prism with base edge 75 mm and height 350 mm. While interpenetrating, the
square prism has one of its faces 30° with the ground and perpendicular to the VP. Axis of
the prism is 75 mm above the ground intersecting axis of the pyramid. Draw a profile of
interpenetration.
16
Freehand Sketching

Objectives
® To help provide an understanding of the essential elements of freehand sketching.
® To learn and develop the skill in sketching, producing and interpreting drawings.
® To be able to sketch 3-D view of orthographic solids and basic isometric solids.

Introduction
Freehand sketching is the technique of making drawing without the use of drawing instruments.
It is a very convenient and quick method of shape description. Freehand sketching is much
emphasised in the industrial technology because this skill is an essential tool in interpreting
ideas and visual thinking. Freehand sketching provides the ability to conceptualise and modify
design ideas from the first idea through to the final choice of the project. Freehand drawing and
sketching is a means of quickly putting your thoughts down on paper. Freehand drawing and
sketching differs from instrumental drawing primarily in the amount of time and accuracy
required. This chapter presents the fundamentals of freehand sketching. It includes both 2-D
and 3-D sketching.

314
 CHAPTER 16: Freehand Sketching ® 315

16.1 Importance of Freehand Sketches

Freehand sketches are quickly drawn to communicate ideas fast and freely. Try to sketch while you
think of ideas. Freehand sketches are sometimes called concept sketches; they are often very basic
drawings, which are far from finished but they nevertheless convey a lot of information about a
project. These sketches or drawings can formulate record, express design and develop ideas and
instructions and reduce the need for long verbal explanations. Good sketching ability enables one
to make rapid and clean drawings of ideas that can be given to his/her dealing sections for
development into scale working drawings. Sketches are usually drawn freehand, but some ruling and
compass work is done, if it facilitates the sketch work.
In appearance, the completed freehand drawing is entirely different from the clean-cut precision
of a mechanically ruled or computer generated working drawing, it has a rough and natural appeal,
but should be clear, concise and suitable for the intended purpose. A poorly presented freehand
drawing is unlikely to be appreciated, understood, or accepted.

16.2 Basic Skills

There are a variety of grades of pencil available for sketching. These grades range from a very hard
9H to a very soft EE. A suitable pencil for sketching would be a 2B. Sketch lightly to begin with as
you will unavoidably make mistakes and will want to remove some of the errors made. You will need
to practice controlling the pressure applied to the pencil. The pressure can control the thickness of
the line produced. Shading can also improve the appearance of a simple sketch, by simulating the
effect of light and shade on an object. The shade requirement is determined by deciding on the
position of a light source.
Freehand sketches and drawings can be quickly prepared on a grid paper. This can help in
keeping lines straight and to maintain proportion. Grid paper can come in various sizes and profiles:
square grids can support orthogonal projection and allow enlargement of projects and components,
45° and 30° grids allow for pictorial drawing in oblique and isometric. Although full proficiency in
freehand drawing is synonymous with complete understanding of the graphic language, and is
gained only after acquiring a good knowledge and skill in drawing with instruments, it is advisable
that one should be conversant with freehand drawing before starting to make drawing with the
instruments.

16.3 Proportion in Sketching

Sketches are not made to scale. Although produced quickly, the sketches should be in good
proportion, with clear and bold outlines and the dimensioning as complete as possible. While the
technical sketches are not scale drawings, their value is greatly enhanced if their general proportions
are good. Various components of a sketch should be kept in proportions to those of the actual object,
using eye judgement only. This technique takes a lot of practice to master.
Sketches made to supplement the oral description may be rough and incomplete. However, if
the sketch is of the medium of conveying important and precise information, it should be executed
as carefully as possible under the available time frame. For example, if a dimension of a feature is
twice, another dimension of the same or other feature should be also represented in the sketch. Few
guidelines are mentioned below:
∑ If two views are made in orthographic projection they should be placed in their correct relative
positions.
∑ The outlines should be the boldest, being twice or thrice heavy as construction lines, centre
lines, dimension lines, leaders, etc. while hidden lines are somewhat thinner than object lines.
∑ The most common shortcoming in sketching is the tendency to make the sketch too small or
too crowded in the drawing. It is, thus, important that all sketches be of a good size and be
wisely spaced.
316 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Below are some general rules relating to proportions:

∑ When sketching, whenever possible, use a graph paper.
∑ Study the object to be sketched carefully and then mentally break it into its smaller
component parts.
∑ Estimate the length, width and height of the largest component of the object. Comparing
these dimensions to the size of the sketching paper you have, estimate the proportions that
will be possible to use in the overall sketch.
∑ Layout the largest component according to the proportions decided in the previous step, to
block in irregularly shaped components.

16.4 Sketching Straight Lines

Sketches consists of straight and curved lines. With disciplined practice, anyone can obtain the skill
and become proficient in creating neat sketches involving straight and curved lines. Before starting
sketching of object views, it will be of great help to practice in sketching the lines and curves. Though
the technique of sketching depends more upon the natural movements of the designer’s hand
holding the pencil, yet below are some suggestions which can help in acquiring the required skill in
the sketching technique:
1. Place the paper in the rotated position so that the horizontal edges are perpendicular to the
natural position of one’s sketching hand, the forearm.
2. When a squared paper or a graph paper is being used for sketching try to locate the main
lines on the ruling of the sketching paper. Sketching straight lines on a graph paper is a
simple process of guiding the pencil point using the existing graph lines.
3. Hold the pencil with a good grip, but not so tight so as to create a hand fatigue.
4. Hold the pencil approximately 25 mm to 40 mm away from the pencil point.
5. Maintain a comfortable angle between the pencil and the sketching strokes.
6. Sketch all the horizontal lines and lines with small inclination to the horizontal plane from left
to right.
7. Sketch all the vertical lines and lines with small inclination to the vertical plane from top to
bottom.
8. For drawing a long straight line, first fix the endpoints of the line. Add some intermediate
points on the line, if the line is sufficiently long. Then sketch the line by a series of overlapping
strokes, keeping the eye on the point to which the line goes rather than on the pencil.
9. On a plain drawing paper, pencil dots can be positioned to plot the path of the line. In this
way, the sketcher enters a series of pencil dots on the paper which provides a basic outline
as to the shape of the object. Then using a series of slightly overlapping strokes, the pencil
dots are connected.
10. Finger movements, with the wrist stationary, are to be used for short lines, small circles, etc.
whereas stiff forearm movements are more effective for long lines.
11. For any sketch it is advisable to start by sketching light centre lines for circles, hexagons and
all other symmetrical figures or objects.

16.5 Sketching Circles, Arcs and Fillets

The best method of sketching a circle and an arc is to locate a number of points, through which the
curve should pass, by eye judgement. Remembering that all points on the circumference of a circle
is equidistant from its centre and that it is symmetrical about any diameter, a circle can easily be
drawn by using the following steps:
 CHAPTER 16: Freehand Sketching ® 317

1. Sketch vertical and horizontal centre lines, to locate the centre of the circle.
2. Mark on these centre lines, at distance equal to the circle radius, points on all sides of the
centre, to obtain four points lying on the circumference of the required circle.
3. Sketch a square through these four points.
4. Sketch the diagonal of the square.
5. Along these diagonals, plot four more points, one on each side of the centre, at distances of
circle radius. These points too lie on the circumference of the circle.
6. Sketch the right half of the circle from top to bottom passing through 4 points. Then similarly,
sketch the left half of the circle passing through 4 points to complete the circle as shown in
Fig. 16.1.

Fig. 16.1 Using enclosing square.

Another method is to draw radial construction lines lightly, then sketch short arcs across the lines
at the estimated radius distance away from the centre, and finally to sketch the full circle as shown
in Fig. 16.2.

Fig. 16.2 Using radial lines.

Figure 16.3 gives the stepwise directions in order to complete the fillet and rounds.

Fig. 16.3 Sketching fillets and rounds.

318 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

16.6 Sketching Orthographic Views

Figures 16.4 and 16.5 give the directions of orthographic sketching.

Fig. 16.4

Fig. 16.5

16.7 Sketching Isometric Views

A technique used frequently in freehand sketches and drawings is to create a “box” or “crate” that
serves as a guide for your sketch. Simply draw a box, which will enclose the object you want to draw.
Lightly draw the box then draw the object within the box. Fig. 16.6 shows the sketching of an
isometric block in steps.
 CHAPTER 16: Freehand Sketching ® 319

Fig. 16.6

16.7.1 Sketching of Isometric Circles in Isometric Block

You can also draw a circle of a given diameter by first sketching the box that it will fit into.
Figure 16.7(a) shows the steps to draw an isocircle. Mark the points half way along each side where
the circle will touch. Sketch a curve to touch these points and it will form your circle. An ellipse also
can be created using this technique, but this time we draw the rectangle box that the ellipse will fit
into. This technique is handy for drawing oblique or isometric circles. Figure 16.7(b) and (c) shows
hand drawn and AutoCAD drawn isocircles.

(a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 16.7
320 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

16.7.2 Sketching of Isometric Cylinders

Figure 16.8 shows hand-drawn isometric cylinders along three (length, depth and height) directions.

Fig. 16.8

EXAMPLE 16.1 Sketching of isometric view of solid (Fig. 16.9), (Fig. 16.10), (Fig. 16.11) and
(Fig. 16.12).

1. 2. 3.

4. 5.
Fig. 16.9
 CHAPTER 16: Freehand Sketching ® 321

1. 2. 3. 4.
Fig. 16.10

Fig. 16.11

Fig. 16.12
322 ® Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD

Exercise
16.1 Sketch the drawing or orthographic views shown:
 CHAPTER 16: Freehand Sketching ® 323

16.2 Draw sketches for the following machine components:

16.3 Draw sketches for the isometric solids shown:

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Index

Above and below precedence, 214 Dodecahedron, 224

Aerial, 40 Double auxiliary, 156
Aligned dimensioning, 65 Drawing format, 58
Angular, 40 Drawing scale, 60
ARC, 16 Drawing sheet, 55
ARRAY, 22 Drawing size, 55
Assembly drawing, 77 DTEXT, 18
AutoCAD release 10 (R10), 9
AutoCAD unit, 9, 11, 59
Auxiliary inclined plane (AIP), 149, 250 Edge view, 217
Auxiliary vertical plane (AVP), 149, 250 ELLIPSE, 111
Auxiliary view, 148 END, 13
AXIS, 12 ERASE, 19
Axonometric projection, 40, 43, 103 EXPLODE, 24
EXTEND, 23
Extension line, 62
Baseline dimensioning, 63
Block method, 107, 108
Box method, 79, 120 FILLET, 23
BREAK, 22 Freehand sketches, 315
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), 60 Front and back precedence, 215
Frustums, 226

Cabinet, 40
Cavalier, 40 General, 40
Centre line, 61 Graphic language, 2
Centre line method, 79 GRID, 12
CHANGE, 21
CIRCLE, 16
Clinographic, 40 HATCH, 17
Computer aided drafting, 8 HELP, 13
Cone, 225 Hexahedron, 224
Coordinate axes method, 110 Hidden line, 61, 73, 74
COPY, 20 Horizontal dimensioning, 64
Curved surface, 73 Horizontal interpenetration, 304
Cut points, 300 Horizontal intersection, 293
Cutting plane, 240, 248 Horizontal plane (HP), 47
Cylinder, 225 Horizontal trace (HT), 185, 250

DIM, 64 I-quadrant, 50, 168

Dimension line, 62 I-quadrant method, 52
Dimetric, 40, 44, 103 Icosahedron, 224
DIST, 24 II-quadrant, 168
DIVIDE, 23 III-quadrant, 48, 168

325
326 ® Index

III-quadrant method, 52 Principal planes, 47, 71, 194

Inclined line, 174 Principal surface, 72
Inclined planes, 196 Prism, 224
Inclined surface, 72 Profile plane (PP), 47
Indian Standard Institution, 52 Projection, 40
Interpenetration, 295 Projection line, 61
ISO, 55 Pyramid, 225
ISO standard, 55
Isometric, 40, 44, 103
Isometric drawing, 104 QUIT, 13
Isometric projection, 103, 105
Isometric view, 104
IV-quadrant, 168 Radial dimensioning, 66
REDRAW, 19
ROTATE, 21
Leader line, 63
LIMITS, 11, 59
LINE, 15 SAVE, 14
Line view, 217 SCALE, 60
Linear, 40 Section line, 61, 248
Linear dimensioning, 63 Section plane, 248
LIST, 24 Sectional elevation, 248
Sectional front view, 248
Sectional plan, 248
MEASURE, 24
Sectional top view, 248
MIRROR, 21
Sectional view, 248
Missing line(s), 133
Single piece, 76
Missing view, 133
Single view, 42
MOVE, 20
Single view projection (pictorial projection), 40
Multiview, 41
Skew line, 174
Multiview drawing, 79
Skew surface, 72
Multiview projection (orthographic projection), 40
Slant line method, 240
SNAP, 12
Oblique, 40 Sphere, 226
Oblique planes, 195 Step dimensioning, 65
Oblique projection, 40, 103
Oblique view, 45
Octahedron, 224 Tetrahedron, 224
OFFSET, 23 Three-view drawing, 78
One-view drawing, 78 Title block, 67
OOPS, 19 Trace, 185
Ordinate dimensioning, 64 TRIM, 22
Orthographic projection, 41, 71 Trimetric, 40, 44, 103
Outline of view, 61 True shape (TS), 254
Two-view drawing, 78

Parallel, 40
PDMODE, 14 UNDO, 15, 20
PDSIZE, 14 US standard, 55
PEDIT, 24
Perspective projection, 40, 46, 103
Pictorial drawings, 42 Vertical interpenetration, 301
Pictorial projection, 103 Vertical intersection, 294
PLINE, 17 Vertical plane (VP), 47
POINT, 14 Vertical trace (VT), 185, 250
POLYGON, 17 Visibility, 287
Polyhedra, 224
Precedence, 77, 135, 214
Principal line, 172 ZOOM, 19, 59