Course Name : Basic Electronics Engineering

Course Code : EIE101R01

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 1

 Course Objective

• Enable the learners

– to familiarize the fundamental concepts of electronic devices like

semiconductor diodes, BJT, JFET and MOSFET

– to design a regulated power supply unit to power various circuits

– to introduce the basic concepts of measuring devices and its

measurements

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 2

 UNIT – I (Semiconductor Diode)

• P-N junction diode

– Construction

– Working

– Characteristics

• Zener diode

– Working

– Characteristics

• Rectifiers

– Half-wave rectifier

– Full-wave rectifier

– Center-tapped

– Bridge rectifiers
Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 3
 UNIT– II (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

• BJT

– Construction

– Working of PNP/NPN

– Input and output characteristics

– Common emitter configuration

– Common base configuration

– Common collector configuration

– DC load line

– Q-Point (fixed bias only)

– Transistor as an amplifier and switch

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 4

 UNIT – III (Field Effect Transistor)

• JFET

– Construction

– Working

– Drain and transfer characteristics

• Depletion mode MOSFET

– Construction

– Working

– Characteristics

• Enhancement mode MOSFET

– Construction

– Working

– Characteristics Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 5

 UNIT– IV (Power Supply and Measuring Instruments)

• Basic building blocks of regulated power supply

• Series and shunt voltage regulator using Transistor

• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)

• Basic DC voltmeter and DC ammeter

• Oscilloscope

– Block diagram

– Measurement of voltage

– Measurement of current

– Measurement of phase

– Measurement of frequency

• Digital Storage Oscilloscope

– Block diagram Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 6

 Textbooks

• Mehta V. K. and Rohith Mehta, Principles of Electronics, 11th edition, S. Chand and company, 2008

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 7

 Unit-wise learning outcomes

• Upon successful completion of each unit, the learner will be able to

Unit-I ✔Outline the working principle of semiconductor diodes

✔ Apply the concept of diodes for different applications
Unit-II ✔ Illustrate the working of BJT, analyze the circuit configuration and characteristics in
active region of operation
✔ Apply the concept to determine the Q-point, analyze the transistor as an amplifier
and switch
Unit-III ✔ Demonstrate the working of JFET, E-MOSFET and D-MOSFET
✔ Analyze the characteristics of JFET and MOSFET
✔ Analyze the MOSFET switch and CMOS as an inverter
Unit-IV ✔ Construct the regulated power Supply unit
✔ Explain the working of oscilloscope and PMMC instruments

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 8

 References

• Jacob Millman, Christos Halkias and Chetan D. Parikh, Integrated Electronics Analog and Digital
circuits and systems, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Education, 2011

• S.K. Bhattacharya, Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 1st edition, Pearson, 2011

• Kalsi H. S., Electronic Instrumentation, 3rd edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010

• Salivahanan S, Suresh Kumar N and Vallavaraj A, Electronic Devices and Circuits, 2nd edition,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2008

• Edward Hughes, Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th edition, Pearson, 2008

• B. L. Theraja and Dr. R. S. Sedha, Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits, 5th edition, S.
Chand and company, 2005

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 9

 Course learning outcomes

• Upon successful completion of this course, the learner will be able to

– Infer the characteristics of semiconductor devices and use them for

different applications
– Design a voltage regulator using Zener diode
– Make use of CRO to measure various electrical parameters

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 10

 UNIT – I (Semiconductor Diode)

• P-N junction diode

– construction

– Working

– characteristics

• Zener diode

– working

– characteristics

• Rectifiers

– half-wave rectifier

– full-wave rectifier

– center-tapped

– bridge rectifiers
Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 11
 Resistivity

• The electrical Resistance of an electrical or electronic component or device is defined as the ratio
of the voltage difference across it to the current flowing through it - Ohm’s law

• The problem with using resistance as a measurement is it depends very much on the physical size
of the material being measured as well as the material out of which it is made
– if length of the material (making it longer) is increased its resistance would also increase
proportionally

– if its diameter is increased or size (making it thicker) its resistance value would decrease

– to define the material in such a way as to indicate its ability to either conduct or oppose the
flow of electrical current through it no matter what its size or shape happens to be

• The quantity that is used to indicate this specific resistance is called Resistivity and is given the
Greek symbol of ρ(Rho)

• Resistivity is measured inFaculty : B Vijaya (Ω.m)

Ohm-meters Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 12
 Resistivity Continued…

• Based on the resistivity materials are classified into three main groups

– Conductors

– Insulators

✔–There
Semi-conductors
is a very small margin between the resistivity of the
conductors such as silver and gold, compared to a much
larger margin for the resistivity of the insulators between
glass and quartz

✔ This difference in resistivity is due in part to their ambient

temperature as metals are much better conductors of heat
than are insulators

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 13

 Conductors

• Conductors are materials that have very low values of resistivity, usually in the micro-ohms per
meter
– This low value allows them to easily pass an electrical current due to there being plenty of free
electrons floating about within their basic atom structure

– But these electrons will only flow through a conductor if there is something to spur their
movement, and that something is an electrical voltage

• When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material “free electrons” leave their parent atom
and travel together through the material forming an electron drift, more commonly known as a
current

• The movement of free electrons through a conductor depends on how easily they can break free
from their constituent atoms when a voltage is applied

• Then the amount of electrons that flow depends on the amount of resistivity the conductor has
Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE
27 November 2020 14
 Conductors Continued…

• Examples

– Metals like Copper, Aluminum, Silver

– Non metals like Carbon because these materials have very few electrons in their outer
“Valence Shell” or ring, resulting in them being easily knocked out of the atom’s orbit

• Most metals are good conductors of electricity, as they have very small resistance values

• Metals such as copper and aluminum are very good conducts of electricity, they still have some
resistance to the flow of electrons and consequently do not conduct perfectly

• The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current, appears in the form of heat
which is why conductors and especially resistors become hot as the resistivity of conductors
increases with ambient temperature

• An Electrical Cable uses Conductors and

Faculty : B Vijaya Insulators
Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 15
 Insulators

• Insulators are the exact opposite of conductors

• They are made of materials, generally non-metals, that have very few or no “free electrons” floating
about within their basic atom structure because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly
attracted by the positively charged inner nucleus

• The electrons are stuck to the parent atom and can not move around freely so if a potential voltage
is applied to the material no current will flow as there are no “free electrons” available to move and
which gives these materials their insulating properties

• Insulators have very high resistances, millions of ohms per meter, and are generally not affected by
normal temperature changes

• Examples

– marble, fused quartz, PVC plastics, rubber etc

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 16
 Semiconductors

• Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs), have
electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a “conductor” and an “insulator”

• They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-conductors)

• They have very few “free electrons” because their atoms are closely grouped together in a
crystalline pattern called a “crystal lattice” but electrons are still able to flow, but only under special
conditions

• The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by replacing or adding
certain donor or acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons
than holes or vice versa

• That is by adding a small percentage of another element to the base material, either silicon or
germanium

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 17

 Semiconductors Continued…

• On their own Silicon and Germanium are classed as intrinsic semiconductors, that is they are
chemically pure, containing nothing but semi-conductive material

• But by controlling the amount of impurities added to this intrinsic semiconductor material it is
possible to control its conductivity

• Various impurities called donors or acceptors can be added to this intrinsic material to produce free
electrons or holes respectively

• This process of adding donor or acceptor atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity
atom per 10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping

• The doped silicon is no longer pure, these donor and acceptor atoms are collectively referred to as
“impurities”, and by doping these silicon material with a sufficient number of impurities, turn it into
an N-type or P-type semi-conductor material

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 18

 A Silicon Atom Structure

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 19

 Semiconductors Continued…

• The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is such that each atom shares one
electron with its neighbor making the bond very stable

• As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of pure
silicon (or germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value resistors

• Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid
structure

• A crystal of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic crystal (it has no
impurities) and therefore has no free electrons

• But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric
current from it

• To do that need to create Faculty

a “positive” and
: B Vijaya a “negative”
Bhaskar, pole within the silicon allowing electrons 20
AP-III/EIE/SEEE and
 N-type Semiconductor

• In order for silicon crystal to conduct electricity, need to introduce an impurity atom such as
Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities are
added)

• These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with neighboring atoms
and are commonly called “Pentavalent” impurities

• This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighboring silicon atoms leaving
one “free electron” to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron flow)

• As each impurity atom “donates” one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as “donors”

• Antimony (symbol Sb) as well as Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used as a pentavalent
additive to silicon

• Antimony has 51 electrons arranged

Faculty in five
: B Vijaya shells
Bhaskar, around its nucleus with the outermost orbital
AP-III/EIE/SEEE 21
 N-type Semiconductor Continued…

• The resulting semiconductor basics material has an excess of current-carrying electrons, each with
a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as an N-type material with the electrons called
“Majority Carriers” while the resulting holes are called “Minority Carriers”

• When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this
stimulation are quickly replaced by the free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms

• But this action still leaves an extra electron (the freed electron) floating around the doped crystal
making it negatively charged

• Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor density is greater than its
acceptor density, in other words, it has more electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 22

 Antimony Atom and Doping

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 23

 P-Type Semiconductor

• Introduce a “Trivalent” (3-electron) impurity into the crystalline structure, such as Aluminum, Boron
or Indium, which have only three valence electrons available in their outermost orbital, the fourth
closed bond cannot be formed

• Therefore, a complete connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor material an abundance
of positively charged carriers known as holes in the structure of the crystal where electrons are
effectively missing

• As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighboring electron is attracted to it and will try to
move into the hole to fill it

• However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it as it moves

• This in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it, and so forth
giving the appearance that the holes are moving as a positive charge through the crystal structure
(conventional current flow)
Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 24
 P-Type Semiconductor Continued…

• This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning the entire doped
crystal into a positive pole

• As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known as “Acceptors” as
they are continually “accepting” extra or free electrons

• Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five electrons arranged in
three shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three electrons

• The doping of Boron atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers
resulting in a P-type material with the positive holes being called “Majority Carriers” while the free
electrons are called “Minority Carriers”

• Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its acceptor density is greater
than its donor density

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 25

 Boron Atom and Doping

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 26

 N-type and P-Type semiconductors

N-type semiconductors P-type semiconductors

• The Donors are positively charged • The Acceptors are negatively charged.

• There are a large number of free electrons. • There are a large number of holes

• A small number of holes in relation to the number • A small number of free electrons in relation to

of free electrons the number of holes

• Doping gives • Doping gives

– positively charged donors. – negatively charged acceptors

– negatively charged free electrons. – positively charged holes

• Supply of energy gives • Supply of energy gives

– Majority: negatively charged free electrons. – Majority: positively charged holes

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 27
 P-N junction

• Newly doped N-type and P-type semiconductor materials do very little on their own as they are
electrically neutral

• However, if join (or fuse) these two semiconductor materials together they behave in a very
different way merging together and producing what is generally known as a “PN Junction“

• When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a
very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction

• The result is that some of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across
this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material producing negative ions

• However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type silicon to the
P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the negative side and now
the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the opposite direction into the
region where there are large numbers of free electrons
Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 28
 P-N junction Continued…

• The charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged acceptor ions
( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction becomes positive

• This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN junction is known as diffusion

• The width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each side is doped with acceptor
density NA, and donor density ND, respectively

• This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have crossed the
junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge carriers from
crossing over the junction

• Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a “potential
barrier” zone around the area of the junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor
atoms repel the electrons

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 29

 P-N junction Continued…

• Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier, the regions on
either sides of the junction now become completely depleted of any more free carriers in
comparison to the N and P type materials further away from the junction

• This area around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer

• The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain a neutral
charge condition around the junction

• If the depletion layer region has a distance D, it therefore must therefore penetrate into the silicon
by a distance of Dp for the positive side, and a distance of Dn for the negative side giving a
relationship between the two of: Dp*NA = Dn*ND in order to maintain charge neutrality also called
equilibrium

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 30

 P-N junction Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 31

 PN Junction Distance

• As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type material has
become positive with respect to the P-type

• Then the presence of impurity ions on both sides of the junction cause an electric field to be
established across this region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative to the P-side

• The problem now is that a free charge requires some extra energy to overcome the barrier that
now exists for it to be able to cross the depletion region junction

Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 32

 PN junction Continued…

• This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a “built-in potential difference”
across the junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of

• Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room
temperature, ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic concentration

• A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the PN junction can
supply the free electrons and holes with the extra energy

• The external voltage required to overcome this potential barrier that now exists is very much
dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used and its actual temperature

• Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is about 0.6 – 0.7
volts and for germanium is about 0.3 – 0.35 volts
Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 33
 PN junction Continued…

• The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both the flow of holes
and electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential barrier

• In practice, a PN junction is formed within a single crystal of material rather than just simply joining
or fusing together two separate pieces

• The result of this process is that the PN junction has rectifying current–voltage (IV or I–V)
characteristics

• Electrical contacts are fused onto either side of the semiconductor to enable an electrical
connection to be made to an external circuit

• The resulting electronic device that has been made is commonly called a PN junction Diode or
simply Signal Diode

• Then we have seen here Faculty

that a :PN junction
B Vijaya canAP-III/EIE/SEEE
Bhaskar, be made by joining or diffusing together differently
34
 PN junction Continued…

• In the next tutorial about the PN junction, we will look at one of the most interesting applications of
the PN junction is its use in circuits as a diode

• By adding connections to each end of the P-type and the N-type materials we can produce a two
terminal device called a PN Junction Diode which can be biased by an external voltage to either
block or allow the flow of current through it

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 35

 PN junction diode

• The effect of adding additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross the
depletion region from one side to the other

• The behavior of the PN junction with regards to the potential barrier’s width produces an
asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as the PN Junction Diode

• A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the
characteristic of passing current in only one direction only

• However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as
the diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore can not described its
operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law

• If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it
can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the
width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 36
 PN junction diode Continued…

• By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from
the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased

• This has the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing
or blocking the flow of current through the diodes pn-junction

• Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and
narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage

• This is due to the differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction
resulting in physical changes taking place

• One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V
(current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the
polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 37

 Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 38

 PN junction diode Continued…

• PN junction diode can be used as a practical device or as a rectifying device need to firstly bias the
junction, that is connect a voltage potential across it

• On the voltage axis above, “Reverse Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases
the potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the
“Forward Bias” direction

• There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are
– Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode

– Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and
positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the
PN junction diode’s width

– Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and
negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 39
 Zero Biased Junction Diode

• When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the
PN junction

• However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the P-type
material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction against
this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF

• Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favorable and
move across the junction in the opposite direction

• This is known as the “Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR

• This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known as diffusion

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 40

 Zero Biased Junction Diode Continued…

• The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers across
the junction

• However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and few
holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction

• Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and both
moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit

• When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic Equilibrium“

• The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium
can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation
of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but an electric current
cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the PN junction

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 41

 Zero Biased Junction Diode Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 42

 Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

• When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material

• The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode
and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the
junction towards the negative electrode

• The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator and a high potential barrier is created across
the junction thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 43

 Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
Continued…

• This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage

• However, a very small reverse leakage current does flow through the junction which can normally
be measured in micro-amperes (μA)

• If the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it
will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the
junction

• This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current,
and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve

• Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing circuits where a
series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 44
 Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 45

 Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

• When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material

• If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for
silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current
will start to flow

• This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them
the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction
towards the junction by the positive voltage

• This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the
“knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the
external voltage

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 46

 Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
Continued…

• The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow

• The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the “knee” point

• This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large
currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage

• The actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the
depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction
diodes

• Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a
short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 47
 Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 48

 Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 49

 OR/AND logic gates using Diodes

OR/AND logic gates using Diodes

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 50

 Zener Diode

• Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too, are basically the same as
the standard PN junction diode but they are specially designed to have a low and
specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any reverse voltage applied to it

• The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a silicon PN
junction and when biased in the forward direction, that is Anode positive with respect to its
Cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current

• Unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when reverse biased, that
is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as the reverse voltage reaches a
pre-determined value, the Zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction

• This is because when the reverse voltage applied across the Zener diode exceeds the rated
voltage of the device a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor
depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 51

 Zener Diode
Continued…

• The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit
value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved, this reverse saturation
current remains fairly constant over a wide range of reverse voltages

• The voltage point at which the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the “zener
voltage”, ( Vz ) and for zener diodes this voltage can range from less than one volt to a few
hundred volts

• The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor
construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, ( Vz ) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V

• This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line

• The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 52
 Zener Diode
Continued…

• This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing the zener
diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its maximum current rating IZ(max)

• This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a
voltage source against supply or load variations

• The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to
be an important characteristic of the zener diode as it can be used in the simplest types of voltage
regulator applications

• The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in
parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations in the load current

• A zener diode will continue to regulate its voltage until the diodes holding current falls below the
minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 53

 Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 54

 The Zener Diode Regulator

• Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilized voltage output with low ripple under varying load
current conditions

• By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a suitable current limiting
resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout

• By connecting a simple zener stabilizer circuit across the output of the rectifier, a more stable
output voltage can be produced

• Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the diode
with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination

• The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode

• The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC
supply so2020
27 November it is reverse biased and
Faculty : B will beBhaskar,
Vijaya operating in its breakdown condition
AP-III/EIE/SEEE 55
 The Zener Diode Regulator
Continued…

• With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all the circuit
current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power

• Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load
resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the
diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the
zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition

• The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the same
as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ )

• There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilization of the voltage is effective and the
zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at all
times

• The upper limit of current is of course dependent upon the power rating of the device. The supply
27 November Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE
voltage V2020
must be greater than V 56
 The Zener Diode Regulator
Continued…

• One small problem with zener diode stabilizer circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate
electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilize the voltage

• Normally this is not a problem for most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling
capacitor across the zener’s output may be required to give additional smoothing

• A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition

• As such a simple voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode to maintain a
constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in
the load current

• The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with the
input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased
condition

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 57

 The Zener Diode Regulator
Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 58

 Half Wave Rectification

• A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into a Direct
Current (DC) output power

• The input power supply may be either a single-phase or a multi-phase supply with the simplest of
all the rectifier circuits being that of the Half Wave Rectifier

• The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete sine wave of
the AC supply in order to convert it into a DC supply

• Then this type of circuit is called a “half-wave” rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming
AC power supply as shown below

• During each “positive” half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward biased as the anode is
positive with respect to the cathode resulting in current flowing through the diode

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 59

 Half Wave Rectification
Continued…

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 Half Wave Rectification
Continued…

• Since the DC load is resistive (resistor, R), the current flowing in the load resistor is therefore
proportional to the voltage (Ohm´s Law), and the voltage across the load resistor will therefore be
the same as the supply voltage, Vs (minus Vƒ), that is the “DC” voltage across the load is
sinusoidal for the first half cycle only so Vout = Vs

• During each “negative” half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode is reverse
biased as the anode is negative with respect to the cathode

• Therefore, NO current flows through the diode or circuit. Then in the negative half cycle of the
supply, no current flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it so therefore, Vout = 0

• The current on the DC side of the circuit flows in one direction only making the
circuit Unidirectional

• As the load resistor receives from the diode a positive half of the waveform, zero volts, a positive
half of the waveform, zero volts, etc, the value of this irregular voltage would be equal in value to
27 November 2020 DC voltage Faculty
an equivalent : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE
of 0.318*Vmax 61
of the input sinusoidal waveform or 0.45*Vrms of the input
 Half Wave Rectification
Continued…

• Then the equivalent DC voltage, VDC across the load resistor is calculated as follows

• Where VMAX is the maximum or peak voltage value of the AC sinusoidal supply, and VRMS is the
RMS (Root Mean Squared) value of the supply voltage

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 62

 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier

• To analyze a half-wave rectifier circuit, let us consider the equation of input voltage

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Halfwave rectifier
Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 77

 Full Wave Rectifier

• Half wave reciter method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable to applications
which need a “steady and smooth” DC supply voltage. One method to improve on “steady and
smooth” DC supply voltage is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other
half-cycle The circuit which allows us to do this is called a Full Wave Rectifier

• Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or current which is
purely DC or has some specified DC component

• Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts

• The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave rectifier
has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother output waveform

• In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle

•27 November
A multiple winding transformer
2020 Faculty :is usedBhaskar,
B Vijaya whoseAP-III/EIE/SEEE
secondary winding is split equally into two halves
78
 Full Wave Rectifier
Continued…

• The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance
(RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load

• When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward
direction as indicated by the arrows

• When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same
direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the
two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a “bi-phase” circuit

• As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled in by the other
diode the average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now double that of the single
half-wave rectifier circuit and is about 0.637Vmax of the peak voltage, assuming no losses

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 79

 Full Wave Rectifier
Continued…

• Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding and VRMS is the rms
value

• The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave rectifier provided
each half of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage value

• To obtain a different DC voltage output different transformer ratios can be used

• The main disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger transformer for a
given power output is required with two separate but identical secondary windings making this type
of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared to the “Full Wave Bridge Rectifier” circuit equivalent

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 80

 Full Wave Rectifier
Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 81

 Analysis of Full wave rectifier

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 Analysis of Full wave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Full wave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Full wave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Full wave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Full wave rectifier
Continued…

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 Analysis of Full wave rectifier
Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 88

 Halfwave Vs Fullwave rectifiers

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 89

 Center-tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

• A rectifier circuit whose transformer secondary is tapped to get the desired output voltage, using
two diodes alternatively, to rectify the complete cycle is called as a Center-tapped Full wave
rectifier circuit

• The transformer is center tapped here unlike the other cases

• The features of a center-tapping transformer are

– The tapping is done by drawing a lead at the mid-point on the secondary winding. This winding
is split into two equal halves by doing so

– The voltage at the tapped mid-point is zero, this forms a neutral point

– The center tapping provides two separate output voltages which are equal in magnitude but
opposite in polarity to each other

– A number of tapings can be drawn out to obtain different levels of voltages

– The center-tapped transformer with two rectifier diodes is used in the construction of
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 90
 Center-tapped Full-Wave Rectifier circuit diagram

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 91

 Working of a CT- FWR

• When the positive half cycle of the input voltage is applied, the point M at the transformer
secondary becomes positive with respect to the point N

• This makes the diode D1forward biased, hence current i1 flows through the load resistor from A to
B. We now have the positive half cycles in the output

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 92

 Working of a CT- FWR
Continued…

• When the negative half cycle of the input voltage is applied, the point M at the transformer
secondary becomes negative with respect to the point N

• This makes the diode D2 forward biased, hence current i2 flows through the load resistor from A to
B. We now have the positive half cycles in the output, even during the negative half cycles of the
input

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 93

 Waveforms of CT FWR

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 94

 Peak Inverse Voltage

• As the maximum voltage across half secondary winding is Vm, the whole of the secondary voltage
appears across the non-conducting diode

• Hence the peak inverse voltage is twice the maximum voltage across the half-secondary winding,
i.e. PIV=2Vm

• Disadvantages

– There are few disadvantages for a center-tapped full wave rectifier such as −

– Location of center-tapping is difficult

– The dc output voltage is small

– PIV of the diodes should be high

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 95

 The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

• Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

• This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop
“bridge” configuration to produce the desired output

• The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped
transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost

• The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to
the other side

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 96

 The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Continued…

• The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycl

• During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below

• The Positive Half-cycle

• During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 97
 The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Continued…

• The Negative Half-cycle

• As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load
is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the
average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 98

 Clipper Circuits

• Clipper circuit is a circuit that rejects the part of the input wave specified while allowing the
remaining portion

• The portion of the wave above or below the cut off voltage determined is clipped off or cut off

• The clipping circuits consist of linear and non-linear elements like resistors and diodes but not
energy storage elements like capacitors

• These clipping circuits have many applications as they are advantageous

• The main advantage of clipping circuits is to eliminate the unwanted noise present in the
amplitudes

• These can work as square wave converters, as they can convert sine waves into square waves by
clipping
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 99
 Positive Clipper

• The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate positive portions of the input signal can be termed
as a Positive Clipper

• Types

– Positive Series Clipper

✔ Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr

✔ Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr

– Positive Shunt Clipper

✔ Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

✔ Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 100

 Positive Series Clipper

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 Positive Series Clipper
Continued…

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that attenuates the
positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Series Clipper

• Positive Cycle of the Input

– When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit
positive with respect to the point B

– This makes the diode reverse biased and hence it behaves like an open switch

– Thus the voltage across the load resistor becomes zero as no current flows through it and
hence V0 will be zero

• Negative Cycle of the Input

– The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit negative with respect to the
point B

– This makes the diodeFaculty

27 November 2020
forward biased
: B Vijaya and hence
Bhaskar, it conducts like a closed switch
AP-III/EIE/SEEE 102
 Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased with
positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed
as Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr

• During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and the reference voltage
appears at the output

• During its negative cycle, the diode gets forward biased and conducts like a closed switch

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 103

 Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased with
negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed
as Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr

• During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and the reference voltage
appears at the output

• During its negative cycle, the diode gets forward biased and conducts like a closed switch

• Hence the input signal that is greater than the reference voltage, appears at the output.

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 104

 Positive Shunt Clipper

• Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the positive cycle is present in the practical output due to the
diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v

• Hence there will be a difference in the practical and ideal output waveforms

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 105

 Positive Shunt Clipper
Continued…

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and that attenuates the
positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Shunt Clipper

• Positive Cycle of the Input

– When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit
positive with respect to the point B

– This makes the diode forward biased and hence it conducts like a closed switch

– Thus the voltage across the load resistor becomes zero as no current flows through it and
hence V0 will be zero

• Negative Cycle of the Input

– The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit negative with respect to the
point B

– This makes the diodeFaculty

27 November 2020
reverse biased
: B Vijaya and hence
Bhaskar, it behaves like an open switch
AP-III/EIE/SEEE 106
 Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased with positive
reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as
Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

• During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward biased and nothing but the reference
voltage appears at the output

• During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an open switch

• The whole of the input appears at the output

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 107

 Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased with
negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed
as Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

• During the positive cycle of the input, the diode gets forward biased and the reference voltage
appears at the output

• During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an open switch

• Hence the input signal that is greater than the reference voltage, appears at the output

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 108

 Negative Clipper

• The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate negative portions of the input signal can be termed
as a Negative Clipper

• Types

– Negative Series Clipper

✔ Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr

✔ Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr

– Negative Shunt Clipper

✔ Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

✔ Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 109

 Negative Series Clipper
Continued…

• Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the negative cycle is present in the practical output due to
the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7vHence there will be a difference in the practical and ideal
output waveforms

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 110

 Negative Series Clipper
Continued…

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that attenuates the
negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Series Clipper

• Positive Cycle of the Input

– When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit
positive with respect to the point B

– This makes the diode forward biased and hence it acts like a closed switch

– Thus the input voltage completely appears across the load resistor to produce the output V0

• Negative Cycle of the Input

– The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit negative with respect to the
point B

– This makes the diode reverse biased and hence it acts like an open switch

–
27 November
Thus2020
the Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE
voltage across the load resistor will be zero making V0 zero 111
 Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased with
positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed
as Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr

• During the positive cycle of the input, the diode starts conducting only when the anode voltage
value exceeds the cathode voltage value of the diode

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 112

 Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased with
negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed
as Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr

• During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward biased and the input signal appears at
the output

• During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and hence will not conduct

• But the negative reference voltage being applied, appears at the output

• Hence the negative cycle of the output waveform gets clipped after this reference level

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 113

 Negative Shunt Clipper

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and that attenuates the
negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Shunt Clipper

• Positive Cycle of the Input

– When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit
positive with respect to the point B

– This makes the diode reverse biased and hence it behaves like an open switch

– Thus the voltage across the load resistor equals the applied input voltage as it completely
appears at the output V0

• Negative Cycle of the Input

– The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit negative with respect to the
point B

– This2020
27 November makes the diodeFaculty
forward biased
: B Vijaya and hence
Bhaskar, it conducts like a closed switch
AP-III/EIE/SEEE 114
 Negative Shunt Clipper
Continued…

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 115

 Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased with positive
reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed as
Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

• During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an open switch

• So whole of the input voltage, which is greater than the reference voltage applied, appears at the
output. The signal below reference voltage level gets clipped off

• During the negative half cycle, as the diode gets forward biased and the loop gets completed, no
output is present

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 116

 Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased with
negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed
as Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

• During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an open
switch. So whole of the input voltage, appears at the output V0

• During the negative half cycle, the diode gets forward biased

• The negative voltage up to the reference voltage, gets at the output and the remaining signal gets
clipped off

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 117

 Two-way Clipper

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 118

 Two-way Clipper
Continued…

• This is a positive and negative clipper with a reference voltage Vr

• The input voltage is clipped two-way both positive and negative portions of the input waveform with
two reference voltages

• For this, two diodes D1 and D2 along with two reference voltages Vr1 and Vr2 are connected in the
circuit

• This circuit is also called as a Combinational Clipper circuit

• During the positive half of the input signal, the diode D1 conducts making the reference voltage Vr1
appear at the output

• During the negative half of the input signal, the diode D2 conducts making the reference voltage
Vr1 appear at the output
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 119
 Clipper applications

• Used for the generation and shaping of waveforms

• Used for the protection of circuits from spikes

• Used for amplitude restorers

• Used as voltage limiters

• Used in television circuits

• Used in FM transmitters

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 120

 Clamping circuits

• A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal

• Actually, the positive and negative peaks of the signals can be placed at desired levels using the
clamping circuits

• As the DC level gets shifted, a clamper circuit is called as a Level Shifter

• Clamper circuits consist of energy storage elements like capacitors

• A simple clamper circuit comprises of a capacitor, a diode, a resistor and a dc battery if required

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 121

 Clamping circuits
Continued…

• A Clamper circuit can be defined as the circuit that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor
that shifts the waveform to a desired DC level without changing the actual appearance of the
applied signal

• In order to maintain the time period of the wave form, the Tau must be greater than, half the time
period discharging time of the capacitor should be slow

τ=Rc

• Where

– R is the resistance of the resistor employed

– C is the capacitance of the capacitor used

• The time constant of charge and discharge of the capacitor determines the output of a clamper
circuit

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 122

 Clamping circuits
Continued…

• The load resistor and the capacitor affect the waveform

• So, the discharging time of the capacitor should be large enough

• The DC component present in the input is rejected when a capacitor coupled network is used as a
capacitor blocks dc

• Hence when dc needs to be restored, clamping circuit is used

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 123

 Types of Clampers

• Positive Clamper

– Positive clamper with positive Vr

– Positive clamper with negative Vr

• Negative Clamper

– Negative clamper with positive Vr

– Negative clamper with negative Vr

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 124

 Positive Clamper Circuit

• A Clamping circuit restores the DC level

• When a negative peak of the signal is raised above to the zero level, then the signal is said to
be positively clamped

• A Positive Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that shifts
the output signal to the positive portion of the input signal

• The figure below explains the construction of a positive clamper circuit

• Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and the diode is reverse biased

• The output is not considered at this point of time

•27 November
During the negative half cycle, at the peak value, the capacitor gets charged with negative on one
2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 125
 Positive Clamper Circuit
Continued…

• During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to positive Vm while the diode gets
reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be

V0=Vi+Vm

• Hence the signal is positively clamped

• The output signal changes according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to
the charge on the capacitor, as it adds the input voltage

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 126

 Positive Clamper with Positive Vr

• A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference voltage, that voltage will be added
to the output to raise the clamped level

• During the positive half cycle, the reference voltage is applied through the diode at the output and
as the input voltage increases, the cathode voltage of the diode increase with respect to the anode
voltage and hence it stops conducting

• During the negative half cycle, the diode gets forward biased and starts conducting

• The voltage across the capacitor and the reference voltage together maintain the output voltage
level

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 Positive Clamper with Negative Vr

• A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference voltage, that voltage will be added
to the output to raise the clamped level

• During the positive half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor and the reference voltage together
maintain the output voltage level

• During the negative half-cycle, the diode conducts when the cathode voltage gets less than the
anode voltage

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 128

 Negative Clamper

• A Negative Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that shifts
the output signal to the negative portion of the input signal

• During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its peak value vm

• The diode is forward biased and conducts

• During the negative half cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and gets open circuited

• The output of the circuit at this moment will be V0=Vi+Vm

• The output signal changes according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to
the charge on the capacitor, as it adds the input voltage

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 129

 Negative clamper with positive Vr

• A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference voltage, that voltage will be added
to the output to raise the clamped level

• Though the output voltage is negatively clamped, a portion of the output waveform is raised to the
positive level, as the applied reference voltage is positive

• During the positive half-cycle, the diode conducts, but the output equals the positive reference
voltage applied. During the negative half cycle, the diode acts as open circuited and the voltage
across the capacitor forms the output

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 130

 Negative Clamper with Negative Vr

• A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level

• The cathode of the diode is connected with a negative reference voltage, which is less than that of
zero and the anode voltage

• Hence the diode starts conducting during positive half cycle, before the zero voltage level

• During the negative half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor appears at the output

• Thus the waveform is clamped towards the negative portion

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 131

 Clamper applications

• Used as direct current restorers

• Used to remove distortions
• Used as voltage multipliers
• Used for the protection of amplifiers
• Used as test equipment
• Used as base-line stabilizer

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 132

 The Light Emitting Diode (LED)

• They are the most visible type of diode, that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either visible light at
different colored wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type light when a
forward current is passed through them

• The “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a specialized
type of diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics to a PN junction diode

• This means that an LED will pass current in its forward direction but block the flow of current in the
reverse direction

• Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor material
and depending on the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, when forward
biased an LED will emit a colored light at a particular spectral wavelength

• When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band recombine
with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a
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monochromatic (single color) of light
 The Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Continued…

• When operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are semiconductor devices
that convert electrical energy into light energy

• The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a normal signal diode

• The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical
shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both vibration and shock

• Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the epoxy resin body is
constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted by the junction are reflected away from
the surrounding substrate base to which the diode is attached and are focused upwards through
the domed top of the LED, which itself acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light

• This is why the emitted light appears to be brightest at the top of the LED

•27 November
However,2020
not all LEDs areFaculty
made: Bwith a Bhaskar,
Vijaya hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy shell
AP-III/EIE/SEEE 134
 The Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Continued…

• Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – ) terminal identified by either a
notch or flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead being shorter than the other as the anode ( + )
lead is longer than the cathode (k)

• Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of heat when
illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a “cold” generation of light which leads to high
efficiencies than the normal “light bulb” because most of the generated energy radiates away within
the visible spectrum

• Because LEDs are solid-state devices, they can be extremely small and durable and provide much
longer lamp life than normal light sources

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 135

 Light Emitting Diode Colors

• The actual color of a light emitting diode is determined by the wavelength of the light emitted, which
in turn is determined by the actual semiconductor compound used in forming the PN junction
during manufacture
Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material

GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v

GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v

AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v

GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 136

 Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics

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 Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics
Continued…

• Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow through it, as it is
a current dependent device with their light output intensity being directly proportional to the forward
current flowing through the LED

• As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power supply it should
be current limited using a series resistor to protect it from excessive current flow

• Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be destroyed almost instantly
because too much current will pass through and burn it out

• Each LED has its own forward voltage drop across the PN junction and this parameter which is
determined by the semiconductor material used, is the forward voltage drop for a specified amount
of forward conduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA

• In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series resistor, R S used to
limit the forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for a simple LED indicator to 30mA or more
27 November Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE
where a 2020
high brightness light output is needed 138
 LED applications

• Sensor applications

• Mobile applications

• Sign applications

• Automotive uses

• LED signals

• Illuminations

• Indicators

• Flashing

• Bi-Color

• RGB tri-color

• Decorative-multi color
27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 139
 Photo diode

• A special type of PN junction device that generates current when exposed to light is known as
Photodiode

• It is also known as photodetector or photosensor

• It operates in reverse biased mode and converts light energy into electrical energy

• It works on the principle of Photoelectric effect

– The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the junction of this two-terminal
semiconductor device is illuminated then the electric current starts flowing through it

– Only minority current flows through the device when the certain reverse potential is applied to
it

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 140

 Construction of Photodiode

• The PN junction of the device placed inside a glass material

• This is done to order to allow the light energy to pass through it

• As only the junction is exposed to radiation, thus, the other portion of the glass material is painted
black or is metallized

• The overall unit is of very small dimension nearly about 2.5 mm

• It is noteworthy that the current flowing through the device is in micro-ampere and is measured
through an ammeter

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 141

 Operational Modes of Photodiode

• Photovoltaic mode

– It is also known as zero-bias mode because no external reverse potential is provided to the
device. However, the flow of minority carrier will take place when the device is exposed to light

• Photoconductive mode

– When a certain reverse potential is applied to the device then it behaves as a photoconductive
device. Here, an increase in depletion width is seen with the corresponding change in reverse
voltage

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 142

 Working of Photodiode

• In the photodiode, a very small reverse current flows through the device that is termed as dark
current

• It is called so because this current is totally the result of the flow of minority carriers and is thus
flows when the device is not exposed to radiation

• The electrons present in the p side and holes present in n side are the minority carriers

• When a certain reverse-biased voltage is applied then minority carrier, holes from n-side
experiences repulsive force from the positive potential of the battery

• Similarly, the electrons present in the p side experience repulsion from the negative potential of the
battery

• Due to this movement electron and hole recombine at the junction resultantly generating depletion
region at2020
27 November the junction Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 143
 Working of Photodiode
Continued…

• The combination of electron and hole at the junction generates neutral atom at the depletion. Due
to which any further flow of current is restricted

• Now, the junction of the device is illuminated with light

• As the light falls on the surface of the junction, then the temperature of the junction gets increased.
This causes the electron and hole to get separated from each other

• At the two gets separated then electrons from n side gets attracted towards the positive potential of
the battery. Similarly, holes present in the p side get attracted to the negative potential of the
battery

• This movement then generates high reverse current through the device

• With the rise in the light intensity, more charge carriers are generated and flow through the device.
Thereby,2020
27 November producing a large electric
Faculty current
: B Vijaya through
Bhaskar, the device
AP-III/EIE/SEEE 144
 Working of Photodiode
Continued…

• So, we can say the intensity of light energy is directly proportional to the current through the device

• Only positive biased potential can put the device in no current condition in case of the photodiode

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 145

 CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE

• Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the device and the horizontal
line represents the reverse-biased potential

• The first curve represents the dark current that generates due to minority carriers in the absence of
light

• As we can see in the above figure that all the curve shows almost equal spacing in between them

• This is so because current proportionally increases with the luminous flux

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 146

 Curve for current versus illumination

• It is noteworthy here that, the reverse current does not show a significant increase with the
increase in the reverse potential

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 147

 Advantages, disadvantages and applications of photo diode

• Advantages of Photodiode

– It shows a quick response when exposed to light

– Photodiode offers high operational speed

– It provides a linear response

– It is a low-cost device

• Disadvantages of Photodiode

– It is a temperature-dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability

– When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary

• Applications of Photodiode

– Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits

27 November 2020 Faculty : B Vijaya Bhaskar, AP-III/EIE/SEEE 148
 Crystal diode equivalent circuits

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 Problem 1

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 Problem 1
Continued…

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 Problem 2

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 Problem 3

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 Problem 4

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 Problem 5

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 Problem 6

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 Problem 7

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 Problem 8

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 Problem 9

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 Problem 10

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 Problem 10
Continued…

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 Problem 11

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 Problem 11
Continued…

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 Problem 12

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 Problem 13

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 Problem 14

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 Problem 15

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 Problem 16

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 Problem 17

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 Problem 17
Continued…

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 Problem 18

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 Problem 18
Continued…

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 Problem 19

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 Problem 19
Continued…

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 Problem 19
Continued…

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 Problem 19
Continued…

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 Problem 20

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 Problem 21

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 Problem 21
Continued…

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 Problem 22

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 Problem 23

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 Problem 23
Continued…

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 Problem 24

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 Problem 24
Continued…

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 Problem 25

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 Problem 25
Continued…

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 Problem 26

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 Problem 27

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 Problem 28

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 Problem 29

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 Problem 29
Continued…

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 Problem 30

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 Problem 30
Continued…

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 Problem 31

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 Problem 32

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 Problem 32
Continued…

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 Problem 33

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 Problem 34

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 Problem 35

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 Problem 36

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 Problem 36
Continued…

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 Problem 37

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 Problem 38

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 Problem 39

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 Problem 40

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 Problem 41

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 Problem 42

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 Problem 42
Continued…

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 Problem 43

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 Problem 43
Continued…

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 Problem 44

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 Problem 45

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 Problem 46

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 Problem 46
Continued…

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 Problem 46
Continued…

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 Problem 47

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 Problem 47
Continued…

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 Problem 48

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 Problem 49

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 Problem 50

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 Diode equation

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