Module 6 Lecture Notes

Contents
6.1 An Introduction to Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
6.2 Evaluating Logarithmic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
6.3 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6.4 Determining the Domain of a Logarithmic Function . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.5 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.6 Applications to Logarithmic and Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . 10
6.7 Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.8 The Change-of-Base Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.9 Summary of the Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6.1 An Introduction to Logarithms

We looked at equations such as 8x = 2x+1 in the last section, and solved them by rewriting the left-
hand side with a base of 2. But what if we have equations such as 2x = 10? We know intuitively
that 3 < x < 4, but can we give an exact answer? We will need functions that are inverse functions
to exponential functions to solve such equations.

The logarithmic function to the base a, where a > 0 and a 6= 1, is denoted by y = loga (x)
and is defined by
y = loga (x) if and only if x = ay

1
 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

The common logarithmic function is the logarithmic function with base 10 given by
f (x) = log(x). We write
log(x) to represent log10 (x)

The natural logarithmic function is the logarithmic function with base e given by
f (x) = ln(x). We write
ln(x) to represent loge (x)

Example 1: Solve the equation 2x = 10 by converting from exponential form to logarithmic form.

2x = 10
x = log2 (10)

Notice in the example above that the base 2 was the same in each the exponential equation and
the logarithmic equation. The base 2 logarithmic function is the inverse of the base 2 exponential
function. In the equations above, the base 2 stays the same. When changing from exponential
form to logarithmic form, the x and the 10 changed places–as one would expect to happen with
inverses.

Example 2: Change the exponential statement to an equivalent statement using logarithms.

1 x


(a) 4
=6 (b) 10m = 7

 x
1 10m = 7
=6
4 log10 (7) = m
log1/4 (6) = x log(7) = m

(c) e2t = 5

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

e2t = 5
loge (5) = 2t
ln(5) = 2t
If we continued solving for t :
ln(5)
=t
2

Example 3: Change the logarithmic statement to an equivalent statement using exponents.

1
(a) log3 (5) = x (b) log(x) = 2
(c) ln(x) = 5

log3 (5) = x 1 ln(x) = 5

log(x) =
3x = 5 2 e5 = x
1
10 2 = x

(d) log2 (y + 1) = −3

log2 (y + 1) = −3
2−3 = y + 1
If we continue solving for y :
1
=y+1
8
1
−1=y
8
7
− =y
8

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

6.2 Evaluating Logarithmic Expressions

Example 4: Find the exact value of each logarithmic expression without using a calculator.
(a) log2 (8)

log2 (8) = log2 23

=3

(b) log3 (3−2 )

log3 3−2 = −2

(c) ln(e3 )

ln(e3 ) = 3

(d) log5 (25)

log5 (25) = log5 52

=2

1


(e) log4 64

   
1 1
log4 = log4
64 43
4−3


= log4
= −3

1


(f) ln e

 
1
= ln e−1


ln
e
= −1

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

(g) log(100)

log(100) = log10 102

=2

(h) log4 (1)

log4 (1) = log4 40

=0

√

(i) log6 6

√ 
6 = log6 61/2


log6
1
=
2

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

6.3 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

Example 5: If f (x) = 2x , then the inverse function of f is given by f −1 (x) = log2 (x). We can
sketch the graph of y = f (x) by creating a table of values, as shown in Table 5 and Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1
Table 6.1
y
x 2x y=0
y = f (x)
8
1
-4 16 6
1
-3 8 4
1
-2 4 2

-1 1 x
2
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
0 1 −2

1 2 −4

2 4 −6

3 8 −8

To graph y = f −1 (x) and
create a table of values, we can use the properties of inverses functions.
1 1


Since the point −3, 8 is on the graph
1 of y
= f (x), the point 8 , −3 will be on the graph of
−x 1
y = f . Likewise, the points 4 , −2 , 2 , −1 , (1, 0), (2, 1), and (4, 2) and (8, 3) will all be on the
graph of y = f −1 (x). This is shown in Figure 6.2 and Table 5.

Figure 6.2
Table 6.2
y=x
y
x log2 (x) y=0 8
1 x=0
16
-4 y = f (x)
6
1
8
-3 y = f −1 (x)
4
1
4
-2 2
1
-1 x
2
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
1 0 −2

2 1 −4

4 2 −6

8 3 −8

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

Based on the graphs in the previous example, we can see the domain, range, and any asymptotes
for each function, which are summarized below:

Table 6.3
Function Domain Range
f (−∞, ∞) (0, ∞)
f −1 (0, ∞) (−∞, ∞)

6.4 Determining the Domain of a Logarithmic Function

Example 6: State the domain of the following functions:

(a) f (x) = log5 (x)
Since a logarithmic function can only be evaluated at numbers greater than zero, the domain
of f is {x | x > 0}.

(b) g(x) = log4 (x + 5)

Since a logarithmic function can only be evaluated at numbers greater than zero, the in-
equality x + 5 > 0 must hold. Thus x > −5 and so the domain of g is {x | x > −5}.

(c) h(x) = log9 (7 − x)

Since a logarithmic function can only be evaluated at numbers greater than zero, the in-
equality 7 − x > 0 must hold. Thus x < 7 and so the domain of h is {x | x < 7}.

1


(d) j(x) = log2 x−3
1
This domain of j is a bit more challenging to determine. We need x−3 > 0, which cannot
1
be solved algebraically. If we solve this numerically or graphically, we see that x−3 > 0 for
x > 3. Thus the domain of j is {x | x > 3}.

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

6.5 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

We can use the properties of logarithms to solve equations containing exponential expressions.
Logarithms are necessary to solve equations where the variable is in the exponent (and each side
of the equation does not have a common base). If the variable we are solving for is inside a
logarithm, we will need to convert this to exponential form in order to solve for the varaible.

Example 7: Solve the following equations for x and state the solution set.

(a) e−2x+1 = 13

e−2x+1 = 13
−2x + 1 = ln(13)
−2x = ln(13) − 1
ln(13) − 1
x=
−2
ln(13) − 1
x=−
2
n o
Solution set: − ln(13)−1
2

(b) 8 · 107x = 4

8 · 107x = 4
8 · 107x 4
=
8 8
7x 1
10 =
  2
1
log = 7x
2
log 12


=x
7
 
log( 12 )
Solution set: 7

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

(c) log3 (5x − 4) = 2

log3 (5x − 4) = 2
32 = 5x − 4
9 = 5x − 4
13 = 5x
13
=x
5
 13
Solution set: 5

(d) log2 (x2 + 1) = 3

log2 (x2 + 1) = 3
23 = x2 + 1
8 = x2 + 1
7 = x2
√
± 7=x
 √ √
Solution set: − 7, 7

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

6.6 Applications to Logarithmic and Exponential Equa-

tions

Example 8: Let p(h) be the atmospheric pressure on an object (measured in millimeters of mer-
cury) that is h kilometers above sea level. The function p can be modeled by

p(h) = 760e−0.145h

Find the height of a mountain where the atmospheric pressure is 620 millimeters of mercury.

To determine the height of a mountain where the atmospheric pressure is 620 millimeters of
mercury, we need to solve p(h) = 620:

620 = 760e−0.145h
620
= e−0.145h
760
31
= e−0.145h
38
 
31
ln = −0.145h
38
ln 31


38 −0.145h
=
−0.145 −0.145
31


ln 38
=h
−0.145
h ≈ 1.404

The height of the mountain is approximately 1.404 km (or 1,404 meters).

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

Example 9: The pH of a chemical solution is given by the formula

pH = − log10 H+
 

where H+ is the concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per liter. Values of pH range from 0
 

(acidic) to 14 (alkaline).

(a) What is the pH of a solution for which the concentration of hydrogen ions ( H+ ) is 0.01
 

moles per liter?

Since we are given that H+ = 0.01, we will replace H+ in the equation above to determine
   

the pH:

pH = − log10 (0.01)
 
1
= − log10
100
= − log10 10−2

= −(−2)
=2

The pH of a solution for which the concentration of hydrogen ions ( H+ ) is 0.01 moles per
 

liter is 2.

(b) What is the concentration of hydrogen ions ( H+ ) in a banana with a pH of 4.5?

 

 Since
 we are given that pH = 4.5, we will replace pH in the equation above and solve for
H+ :

4.5 = − log10 H+
 

−4.5 = log10 H+
 

H = 10−4.5
 +
 +
H ≈ 0.000316

The concentration of a banana is about 0.00316 moles per liter.

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

6.7 Properties of Logarithms

For each rule of exponents, there exists a logarithmic counterpart. For example, because a0 = 1,
it holds that loga (1) = 0. Similarly, as a1 = a, loga (a) = 1. If we think about these with concrete
examples, this result should seem logical:

log5 (1) = log5 (50 ) log5 (5) = log5 (51 )

=0 =1

For any positive real number a, a 6= 1, it holds that

• loga (1) = 0

• loga (a) = 1

Since f (x) = ax and g(x) = loga (x), we know that f (g(x)) = x and g(f (x)) = x. But what do
f (g(x)) and g(f (x)) look like?

f (g(x)) = f (loga (x))

g(f (x)) = g(ax )
loga (x)
=a = loga (ax )

For any positive real numbers x and a, a 6= 1, it holds that

• loga (ax ) = x

• aloga (x) = x

Example 10: Use the properties of logarithms to find the exact value of the following expressions
without using a calculator.
(a) log4 4−5

log4 4−5 = −5

(b) log 107

log 107 = 7

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

(c) eln(2)

eln(2) = 2

(d) 2log2 (11)

2log2 (11) = 11

Exponent Rules:
• am+n = am an
m
• am−n = aan

n
• am = amn

For each of the exponent rules above, we have logarithmic counterparts. As you work through
applying these properties, it’s good to write them down each time you use them. You will need to
know all of the main properites of logarithms, and the best way to commit them to memory is to
get a lot of practice with them. At the end of these lecture notes, you will find a complete list of
the properties.

Properties of Logarithms: For any positive real numbers M , N , and a, a 6= 1, it holds that
• loga (M N ) = loga (M ) + loga (N )
 
M
• loga = loga (M ) − loga (N )
N
• loga (M r ) = r loga (M )

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

Example 11: Use the properties of logarithms to find the exact value of the following expressions.
Do not use a calculator.
(a) log3 (6) − log3 (2)

 
6
log3 (6) − log3 (2) = log3
2
= log3 (3)
=1

(b) log8 (16) + log8 (4)

log8 (16) + log8 (4) = log8 (16 · 4)

= log8 (64)
= log8 (82 )
= 64

(c) 4log4 (7)+log4 (8)

4log4 (7)+log4 (8) = 4log4 (7·8)

= 4log4 (56)
= 56

Alternately, we could do the following:

4log4 (7)+log4 (8) = 4log4 (7) · 4log4 (8)

=7·8
= 56

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

Example 12: Write each expression as a sum and/or difference of logarithms. Express powers as
factors.  
1
(a) log ,x > 3
x−3
 
1
log = log(1) − log(x − 3) By Prop. 6
x−3
= 0 − log(x − 3) By Prop. 1
= − log(x − 3)


4
√
5

(b) log3 x · 1+ x2


4
√
5

4

√
5

log3 x · 1+ x2 = log3 x + log3 1+x 2 By Prop. 5

= log3 x4 + log3 (1 + x2 )1/5

1
= 4 log3 (x) + log3 (1 + x2 ) By Prop. 7
5

√ !
x2 + 4
(c) ln
x2 − 4

√ !
√
2
x +4 
ln 2
= ln x + 4 − ln(x2 − 4)
2 By Prop. 6
x −4

1/2 
= ln x2 + 4


− ln (x − 2)(x + 2)

1
ln(x2 + 4) − ln(x − 2) + ln(x + 2)
 
= By Prop. 7 and Prop. 6
2
1
= ln(x2 + 4) − ln(x − 2) − ln(x + 2)
2

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

Example 13: Write each expression as a single logarithm.

   
1 1
(a) log4 + log 4
x3 x4
     
1 1 1 1
log4 + log4 = log4 · By Prop. 5
x3 x4 x3 x4
 
1
= log4 or − 7 log4 (x)
x7

   
1 1
(b) log4 − log4
x3 x4
     
1 1 1 1
log4 − log4 = log4 ÷ By Prop. 6
x3 x4 x3 x4

1 x4
 
= log4 ·
x3 1

= log4 (x)

(c) log x2 + 5x + 6 − 2 log (x + 3)

log x2 + 5x + 6 − 2 log (x + 3) = log x2 + 5x + 6 − log (x + 3)2

By Prop. 7

= log (x + 3)(x + 2) ÷ (x + 3)2

By Prop. 6
 
(x + 3)(x + 2)
= log
(x + 3)2
 
(x + 3)(x + 2)
= log
(x + 3)2
 
x+2
= log
x+3

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

x2 + 9x + 14 x2 − 49
   
(d) ln + ln
x2 − 6x − 7 x2 + x

x2 + 9x + 14 x2 − 49 x2 + 9x + 14 x2 − 49
     
ln + ln = ln ·
x2 − 6x − 7 x2 + x x2 − 6x − 7 x2 + x
 
(x + 7)(x + 2) (x − 7)(x + 7)
= ln ·
(x − 7)(x + 1) x(x + 1)

(x + 7)2 (x + 2)
 
= ln
x(x + 1)2

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

6.8 The Change-of-Base Formula

If a, b, and M are positive real numbers, a 6= 1 and b 6= 1, then

logb (M )
loga (M ) =
logb (a)

In practice, we primarily use one of the following forms of this formula:

log(M ) ln(M )
loga (M ) = or loga (M ) =
log(a) ln(a)

Example 14: Use the Change-of-Base formula to write the following logarithmic expressions in
terms of the natural logarithmic function or common logarithmic function. Then approximate
each in your calculator.
(a) log2 (5)
log(5) ln(5)
log2 (5) = and log2 (5) =
log(2) ln(2)

log2 (5) ≈ 2.322

1


(b) log5 2
log 12 ln 12
 
 

1 1
log5 = and log5 =
2 log(5) 2 ln(5)

log5 12 ≈ −0.431

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 Math 111 Module 6 Lecture Notes

6.9 Summary of the Properties of Logarithms

If a, b, M and N are positive real numbers, a 6= 1 and b 6= 1, then

• loga (1) = 0

• loga (a) = 1

• loga (ax ) = x

• aloga (x) = x

• loga (M N ) = loga (M ) + loga (N )

 
M
• loga = loga (M ) − loga (N )
N
• loga (M r ) = r loga (M )
logb (M )
• loga (M ) =
logb (a)

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