Robert Farr Contributing

Kate Wilson authors

YEAR 11 Philip Young

Darren Goossens
2ND EDITION
Neil Champion
Geoff Cody
Megan Mundy
Physics in Focus Year 11 © 2017 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
2nd Edition
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 21 20 19 18 17
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
AUTHOR AND REVIEWER TEAMS. . . . . . . . . .viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii
USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
OUTCOME GRID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

1 Working scientifically and depth studies 1

1.1 The nature of physics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Solving scientific problems: depth studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Planning your depth study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Conducting your investigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Communicating your understanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 29

2 Motion in a straight line 30

2.1 Motion along a straight line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Acceleration along a straight line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3 Equations for straight-line motion with constant acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3 Motion on a plane 57
3.1 Analysing vectors in one and two dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Distance and displacement in a plane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3 Describing motion using vectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4 Relative motion in a plane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Module 1 review questions 85

9780170409063 iii
 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 87

Forces 88 4
4.1 Forces are interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2 Net force in one and two dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3 Zero net force: equilibrium in one and two dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4 Investigating the motion of objects on inclined planes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Forces, acceleration and energy 116 5

5.1 Newton’s laws and friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2 Acceleration of an object subject to a constant net force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3 Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.4 Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Momentum, energy and simple systems 152 6

6.1 Momentum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2 Momentum and energy in elastic collisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
6.3 Impulse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.4 Momentum and energy in inelastic collisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Module 2 review questions 181

MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 184

Wave characteristics 185 7

7.1 The mechanical wave model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.3 Electromagnetic waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.4 Graphical representations of waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.5 Frequency, period, wavelength and velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

iv CONTENTS 9780170409063
 8 Wave behaviour 208
8.1 Reflection of waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.2 Refraction of waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.3 Diffraction of waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.4 Wave superposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.5 Standing waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.6 Resonance in mechanical systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

9 Sound waves 234

9.1 Pitch and loudness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.2 Sound in air is a longitudinal wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.3 Relationship between distance and intensity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
9.4 Reflection, diffraction and resonance of sound waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
9.5 Standing waves in strings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
9.6 Vibration in air columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.7 Beats and the Doppler effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

10 Ray model of light 267

10.1 Images in mirrors and lenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.2 Refraction, Snell’s law and total internal reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.3 Dispersion of light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
10.4 Light intensity and the inverse square law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

11 Thermodynamics 300
11.1 Heat, work and energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
11.2 Thermal equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
11.3 Specific heat capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
11.4 Conservation of energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
11.5 Energy transfer models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Module 3 review questions 333

9780170409063 CONTENTS v
 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 335

Electrostatics 336 12
12.1 Electric charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
12.2 Electric fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.3 The electrostatic force and the electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
12.4 Potential energy and work in an electric field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Electric circuits 368 13

13.1 Electric current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
13.2 Current–voltage relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
13.3 Energy and power in electric circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
13.4 Circuits and circuit diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

Magnetism 402 14
14.1 Magnetism and magnetic materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
14.2 Magnetic field lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
14.3 Magnetic fields produced by current-carrying wires and solenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
14.4 Magnetisation: making magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
14.5 Modelling magnetic fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

Module 4 review questions 428

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
NUMERICAL ANSWERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

vi CONTENTS 9780170409063
 INTRODUCTION
Physics in Focus Year 11 (2nd edition) has been written to meet the the level of depth and interest necessary to pursue tertiary
requirements of the NESA NSW Physics Stage 6 Syllabus (2017). The studies in physics, engineering, technology and other STEM
text has been written to enable students to meet the requirements related courses. Physics taken for the Higher School Certificate
of achieving a Band 6 in the Higher School Certificate. It also provides opportunities for students to arrive at a deeper
allows all students to maximise their learning and results. understanding of their world whether they are intending to
Physics deals with the wonderfully interesting and pursue STEM related careers or take a different pathway.
sometimes strange Universe. Physicists investigate space Each chapter of the Physics in Focus text follows a consistent
and time (and space–time), from the incredibly small to pattern. Learning outcomes from the syllabus appear on
the incredibly large, from nuclear atoms to the origin of the the opening page. The text is then broken into manageable
Universe. They look at important, challenging and fun puzzles sections under headings and sub-headings. Question sets are
and try to work out solutions. found at the end of each section within the chapter. Relevant
Physicists deal with the physical world where energy diagrams which are easy to interpret and illustrate important
is transferred and transformed, where things move, where concepts support the text. New terms are bolded and defined
electricity and magnetism affect each other, where light and in a glossary at the end of the book. Important concepts are
matter interact. As a result, physics has been responsible summarised to assist students to take notes.
for about 95% of the world’s wealth – including electricity Worked examples, written to connect important ideas and
supply and distribution, heating and cooling systems, solution strategies, are included throughout the text. Solutions
computers, diagnostic and therapeutic health machines, are written in full, including algebraic transformations with
telecommunications and safe road transport. substitution of values with units and significant figures. In
Physicists are not just concerned with observing the order to consolidate learning, students are challenged to try
Universe. They explain these observations, using models, laws similar questions on their own.
and theories. Models are central to physics. Physicists use There is a comprehensive set of review questions at the
models to describe, explain, relate and predict phenomena. end of each chapter which expand on the questions sets
Models can be expressed in a range of ways – via words, for further revision and practice. Questions have been set to
images, mathematics (numerical, algebraic, geometric, accommodate the abilities of all students. Complete worked
graphical), or physical constructions. Models help physicists to answers appear on the teacher website.
frame physical laws and theories, and these laws and theories Investigations demonstrate the high level of importance
are also models of the world. Models are not static – the authors attach to understanding-by-doing physics.
as scientific understanding of concepts or physical data or These activities introduce, reinforce and enable students to
phenomena evolves, so too do the models scientists use practise first hand investigation skills, especially experimental
to describe, explain, relate and predict these. Thus, the text design, data collection, analysis and conclusions. Chapter 1
emphasises both the observations and quantitative data explores the concepts of reliability, validity and the nature
from which physicists develop the models they use to explain of scientific investigation using the scientific method in
the data. Central to this is the rigorous use of mathematical detail and provides valuable information for performing and
representations as a key element of physics explanations. analysing investigations. Detailed information is provided that
Physics in Focus Year 11 (2nd edition) is written by academic is designed to enhance students’ experiences and to provide
and classroom teaching experts. They were chosen for their them with information that will maximise their marks in this
comprehensive knowledge of the physics discipline and fundamental area which is reinforced throughout the course.
best teaching practice in physics education at secondary Système Internationale d’Unités (SI) units and conventions,
and tertiary levels. They have written the text to make it including accuracy, precision, uncertainty and error are also
accessible, readable and appealing to students. They have introduced in the first chapter. This invaluable chapter supports
included numerous, current contexts to ensure students gain student learning through questions and investigations.
a wide perspective on the breadth and depth of physics. This Physics in Focus Year 11 (2nd edition) provides students with a
mathematically rigorous and methodological approach is comprehensive study of modern physics that will fully prepare
designed to ensure students can reach the highest possible them for exams and any future studies in the area.
standard. The intention is to ensure all students achieve Robert Farr (lead author)

9780170409063 vii
AUTHOR AND REVIEWER TEAMS
Author team at UNSW (Kensington). Kate has published more than
30 research papers, including more than 20 in Physics
Rob Farr has taught Science for over 30 years, 20 of those as
education research. She is also an author of the first year
Head of Department. He has extensive experiencen as an HSC
university text Physics by Serway, Jewett, Wilson and Wilson,
marker in Physics and Chemistry, and is a past Supervisor of
and Nelson Physics Units 3&4 for the Australian Curriculum. 
Marking. Rob has co-authored the very successful Physics in
Philip Young is a former director of the National Space
Focus series and is a contributing author to the iScience for NSW
Society in Washington DC, and former President of the National
series and the Nelson Physics for the Australian Curriculum books.
Space Society of Australia. He was Coordinator for the Australian
He writes trial HSC examinations for Physics, used in over 120
Space Network run by the Australian Centre for Astrobiology,
schools across NSW, and leads workshops for the Broken Bay
a NASA-affiliated organisation hosted at Macquarie University.
Diocese Science teachers to help improve their HSC results.
For the last decade he has been teaching high school Science,
Rob maintains his passion for Science teaching through active
specialising in Physics, and writing textbook materials at
engagement with bodies such as the CSIRO and the STANSW,
both senior and junior levels for the Australian Syllabus in
as well as sitting on the experienced teacher accreditation
several states. He holds a Bachelor of Science (Physics and
assessment panel for the NSW Association of Independent
Mathematics) from the University of Sydney.
Schools (AIS). He is a BOSTES Board Curriculum Committee
Dr Darren Goossens has a PhD in Physics from Monash
(BCC) member for the new Stage 6 Science syllabuses about to
University and a Grad. Cert. in Professional Writing (Editing)
be introduced in NSW, representing the NSW AIS.
from the University of Canberra. He is currently a freelance
Dr Kate Wilson has a PhD in Physics from Monash
editor and writer, specialising in scientific writing. Darren
University and a Grad. Dip. Ed. (Secondary Teaching) from
has worked as a research scientist at the Australian Nuclear
the University of Canberra. She is currently a senior lecturer
Science and Technology Organisation, and as an educator
at UNSW Canberra (ADFA) in the School of Engineering and
and researcher at the University of New South Wales and
IT and the Learning and Teaching Group, where she teaches
the Australian National University, where he won several
first year engineering mechanics and the Graduate Teaching
awards for his teaching. He has published over 100 research
Program. Previously Kate was first year coordinator in Physics
papers, including work in education research. In 2012 he
at the ANU and Director of the Australian Science Olympiads
won the inaugural Sandy Mathieson Medal of the Society
Physics Program. She is a past member of the Sydney
of Crystallographers in Australia and New Zealand for
University Physics Education Research Group and has held an
distinguished contributions to crystallography.
Innovative Teaching and Educational Technology Fellowship

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author acknowledgements particularly Skunkie, whose insistence on being fed kept him
grounded in reality.
Rob Farr would like to thank his wife Elisa and children Josh
Darren Goossens would like to thank his co-authors,
and Lauren for the use of their kitchen table, study and other
particularly Dr Kate Wilson, for their guidance and advice.
rooms in the house during the writing of this book. Without
their calming support it would not be possible to produce a Publisher acknowledgements
work such as this.
Eleanor Gregory sincerely thanks Rob, Kate, Philip and Darren
Kate Wilson would like to thank David Low for valuable
for their perseverance and dedication in writing this manuscript.
suggestions and feedback, and her students who have very
She also thanks Dr Elizabeth Angstmann, Dr Darren Goossens,
patiently been guinea pigs for her teaching experiments.
Bill Matchett and Megan Mundy for reviewing the manuscript
Philip Young would like to thank his wife Jennie
to ensure that it was of the best quality.
and children Sophie and Mark for their forbearance at
Also thanks to Dr Darren Goossens, Roger Walter, Anne
his distractedness. He would also like to thank the cats,
Disney and Gillian Dewar for authoring NelsonNet material.

viii 9780170409063
 USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Physics in Focus has been purposely crafted to enable you, the student, to achieve maximum understanding and success in
this subject. The text has been authored and reviewed by experienced Physics educators, academics and researchers to ensure
up-to-date scientific accuracy for users. Each page has been carefully considered to provide you with all the information you
need without appearing cluttered or overwhelming. You will find it easy to navigate through each chapter and see connections
between chapters through the use of margin notes. Practical investigations have been integrated within the text so you can see
the importance of the interconnectedness between the conceptual and practical aspects of Physics.

2 Motion in a straight line

» MODULE ONE

OUTCOMES
INQUIRY Students:
QUESTION • describe uniform straight-line (rectilinear) motion and uniformly accelerated motion through:

KINEMATICS
– qualitative descriptions
How is the motion of
– the use of scalar and vector quantities (ACSPH060)
an object moving in a
straight line described • conduct a practical investigation to gather data to facilitate the analysis of instantaneous and average
velocity through: ICT
and predicted?
– quantitative, first-hand measurements
– the graphical representation and interpretation of data (ACSPH061) N
2 Motion in a straight line • calculate the relative velocity of two objects moving along the same line using vector analysis
• conduct practical investigations, selecting from a range of technologies, to record and analyse the motion
of objects in a variety of situations in one dimension in order to measure or calculate: ICT N
3 Motion on a plane –
–
time
distance
– displacement
– speed
– velocity
– acceleration
• use mathematical modelling and graphs, selected from a range of technologies, to analyse and derive
relationships between time, distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration in rectilinear motion,
including:
  1
– s = ut + at 2
2
  
– v = u + at
2 2 
– v = u + 2a s (ACSPH061) ICT N
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

iStock.com/Cebas
Shutterstock.com/Jag_cz

9780170409063 29 30 9780170409063

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.5 The content is organised under four modules as set out in Learning across the curriculum content has been
the NESA Stage 6 Physics syllabus. Each module begins with a
A car is travelling along a road at 22 m s−1. A truck is travelling in the same direction 100 m ahead at identified by NESA as important learning for all students. This
18 m s−1.
Module
1 How long will opener.
it take for the car to overtake the truck? content provides you with
2 How far will the car have travelled in that time?
Each chapter begins with a Chapter opener. This the opportunity to develop Critical and
creative thinking
ANSWERS
presents
 
the learning outcomes LOGIC
from the NESA Stage 6
• Identify the appropriate formula to determine the
general capabilities beyond
1 Relative velocity = v − v car truck
Physics syllabus that will be •covered
−1 −1
in the chapter and also
difference in speed.
the Physics course, as well as
= 22 m s − 18 m s Substitute known values into the formula and calculate
gives
= 4 m s you the opportunity to relative
 
−1
monitor velocity.
your own progress links into areas that are important to Australia and beyond.
 s s • Identify the correct formula to determine the time taken
and t learning.
v = , so t = 
v
and rearrange to find the unknown. This content has been identified by a margin icon.
= To improve comprehension, a number of strategies Mathematical relationships are presented in context.
100 m • Substitute known values into the formula and calculate
−1 the time taken.
4 ms
have
= 25 s been applied to the preparation of our text to improve Step-by-step instructions on how to perform mathematical
2 Absolute distance travelled: • Identify the correct formula to determine the absolute
  literacy and understanding. One of these is the use of shorter
distance.
Average speed, vare shown in the Worked examples. The logic
calculations avg
s = vt
When you are travelling through the city in a car, your speed changes all the time. If you have travelled
= 22 × 25 sentences and paragraphs. This is coupled • Substitute known valueswith clearandand
into the formula calculate behind each
20 km in half an step
hour, you would issay explained andv you
that your average speed, can practice
, was 40 km h these
for that trip. It does avg
−1

the answer. not mean that you were always moving at 40 km h ; however, if you had been travelling at a constant −1
= 550 m
concise explanations and real-world examples. New terms steps
40 km h ,by
−1
attempting
the same the
trip would have taken therelated problems
same time. Average speed is the presented
would enable the car to cover the same distance in the same time interval:
one single speed that at the
are bolded as they are introduced and are consolidated in an
TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Two vehicles are approaching each other on opposite sides of a motorway. The first is moving at
end of the worked example. v =
∆d
∆t t
s
= (Units: m s ) avg
−1

end-of-book
100 km h , while the glossary.
−1 −1
other is travelling at 85 km h . If their initial separation is 2.0 km, how long
will it take them to pass each other?
Throughout
2 A dog theThetext,
is chasing a postman. important
dog sprints
−1
at 8.5 m s and ideas, concepts
starts 10 m −1
and The
behind the postman. WORKED EXAMPLE 2.3
postman sprints at 6 m s . The dog will stop 50 m from its starting point.
Concept boxes.
What was the average speed of the athlete in worked example 2.2?
theories are summarised
a Will the dog reach the postman? in This provides
ANSWER LOGIC
repetition and summary for improved assimilation of new ideas.
b How long will the pursuit take?
vavg =
∆d s
=
• Use the correct formula.
∆t t • The average speed is found by dividing the total distance
travelled by the total time interval taken for the entire event.
s = 20 km; Δt = 1.25 hours
KEY CONCEPTS

● A frame of reference is a spatial coordinate system for observing physical phenomena that 20
vavg = = 16 km h −1 • Substitute the correct values to find the correct answer and
allows for an origin. It enables the measurement of quantities involved in changing position. 1.25 units.
● The centre of mass is the average (mean) position of all matter in the system, weighted by
mass.
TRY THIS YOURSELF
● A scalar is a number that has only magnitude (size).
A car trip involves travelling at 60 km h−1 for 1 hour, and then at 100 km h−1 for the next 30 minutes. Find the
● Distance, d, is the actual length between two points. It has no direction and is therefore a scalar. average speed of the car for the entire trip.
● A vector is a number that has both magnitude and direction.

● Displacement, s , represents a change of position with respect to the starting point. It has both
magnitude (the distance) and direction, so it is a vector.
Instantaneous speed, vinst
● Movement is the change in position as time changes.
Glancing down at the speedometer of a car will give Position
● Any time interval can be shown as Δt, where: Δt = t2 − t1 (Unit: s).
9780170409063 ● Speed, v, relates to the distance covered in a time interval.

information about the vehicle’s speed at that moment. This is
the car’s instantaneous speed, vinst. When observing an object
Tangent
ix
● Velocity, v , specifically relates to the change in displacement during a time interval. in motion, it is often very difficult to measure its instantaneous Distance
speed. To find a speed, we need to measure the distance and travelled
the time intervals. This means that every measurement Time interval
 Physics is a science and you need to be given the Full understanding of a concept is often constructed from
opportunity to explore and discover the physical world many pieces of information. Due to the sequential nature of a
through practical investigations. Investigations introduce book, this information
You will learn more
and reinforce the Working scientifically skills listed in the NESA cannot always be about fluid transport
Stage 6 Physics syllabus. In some cases, the investigations presented together in Chapter 6.
are open-ended. These provide you with the opportunity as it is best placed in
to design and carry out your own scientific investigation, other chapters. Links between concepts that occur on other
either individually or in a group. At times you are prompted pages and chapters are indicated using the Margin notes.
to consider ideas for improvement to illustrate that science Regular opportunities to recall new terms and
is constantly undergoing review and improvement. At other review recent concepts are provided as short Check
times investigations are secondary-sourced, meaning that your understanding question sets throughout each
you need to research the subject using data and information chapter.
gained by other people. Further information on how to
conduct a scientific investigation can be found in the 1 Describe the difference between speed and velocity.
CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING
Working scientifically and depth study chapter on page 1.
−
2 An aeroplane has a velocity of 500 km h 1 S50°E. Calculate the velocity’s components to the north, east,
west and south. A sketch may be useful. 3.3
3 A passenger on the aeroplane in question 2 takes 6.0 s to run 40 m along the aisle towards the tail of the
plane. Calculate the average velocity of the passenger during their run.
4 A rider on a horse takes an hour to ride 28 km N25°E.
a Calculate their average speed.
b Write down their average velocity.
c Calculate the northward and eastward components of their velocity.
INVESTIGATION 2.1 −
5 A child throws a ball of plasticine horizontally at a vertical wall. Initially, it is travelling at 10 m s 1 at an angle
−
of 35° to the wall. It does not bounce very well, so when it comes off the wall it is travelling at 3.0 m s 1,
The speeds of common objects again at 35° to the wall.
We can make objects move at different speeds. Some first-class cricketers can bowl a ball at speeds a Suggest the coordinate system you might use to tackle this problem. Draw a sketch, noting labels and
Numeracy
approaching 45 m s−1. The mechanical advantage conferred by a bat or racquet can increase or decrease quantities. Also draw a vector diagram.
ball speeds. 
Information and
communication b What is the change in velocity, ∆v , of the ball of plasticine?
AIM technology 
capability c If the plasticine hit the wall and stopped (i.e. stuck to it), what would ∆v be then?
To measure the speeds of some human-propelled objects

MATERIALS

• Stopwatch
• Measuring tape
• Various bats, racquets and balls
• Optional: video camera or motion data-logger
Relative
3.4 The motionreview
end-of-chapter in a plane
provides:

WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
!
RISK
ASSESSMENT
•
The• relative
a Summary  an objectof
position of theon the
depends important concepts
position of the observer. If an object isthat have
at position d been 1
A ball hit with a bat could hit a person or break a window. Perform the experiment in an open space, such as a school and an observer is at d , then 2
 
covered in the chapter.

= This
d − d will be a valuable tool when
oval, and keep bystanders well back.
s 1 relative to 2 1 2
What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?  
For example, if a dog is at d , 3 m from a wall, and a cat is at d , 6 m from the wall in the same
METHOD you
direction, aredogrevising
then the is (3 – 6) = –3 mfor
fromtests
1
and
the cat. The minusexams
sign comes in because the distance
2

1 Measure out an appropriate length (e.g. 20 m) between two lines on the school oval or in a clear area.
away from the wall is positive. From the cat’s point of view, the dog is towards the wall, which is the
2 By either throwing or hitting a ball with a bat or racquet, reproduce the actions of several different
ball sports (e.g. cricket, tennis, hockey, golf ) that propel a ball from one line past the other. negative direction.  

3 Measure the time it takes for the ball to travel the designated distance. For this, use a stopwatch or you may s1 relative to 2 is also the displacement that needs to be applied to the cat at d2 to bring it to d1 . This is a
be able to video the motion and use the clock on the video. You might also have access to a motion data- one-dimensional example. We have already looked at subtraction of displacement vectors ( for example,
logger that is able to measure speed directly.  
4 Repeat step 3 for the same sport several times.
Worked
 example 3.3), and this is another application. Sometimes, s1 relative to 2 may be written as s1,2 or
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 for a different sport. d1,2, but this notation11 CHAPTER SUMMARY
2 does not make it very clear what is relative to what. It is generally preferable to be
RESULTS
as clear as possible, even if it means using more words.
Record the results of your timing measurements for each sport in a table. The relative motion of an object depends on the motion of the observer. It might be said that it
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
depends on what the object’
• A frame of references velocity
is a spatial is being system
coordinate measured
for against.
• The Inarea
Worked
under theexample 3.4, whengraph
curve on a speed–time Mario
shows
observing physical phenomena that allows for an origin. the distance travelled.
1 Find the average speed of the ball for each sport. Include an estimate of the uncertainty in each value.
was sitting down,It enables his velocity relativeof to
the measurement the carriage
quantities involved in was zero. Relative to the tracks, his velocity was
• A graph of v versus t shows that the area under the line
2 Convert the results from m s−1 to km h−1. 60 km h−1. A passenger changingin the same carriage (the ‘carriage frame ofequals
position. reference’)
s, which is saw Mariotravelled.
the distance as stationary. A
• The centre of mass is the average (mean) position of all Relative velocity
• would depends on the frame of reference.
DISCUSSION
passenger standing beside the tracks (‘track frame of reference’)
matter in the system, weighted by mass.
see Mario moving.
  When Mario
• Relative velocity is given by v o − v d .
Discuss the difficulties encountered during this experiment and suggest ways in which the data collection changed seats,•the passenger
A scalar is a number inthat
thehascarriage saw (size).
only magnitude his movement relative to the carriage – they saw only
• Using vector addition, the resultant vector from the point
could be made to be more accurate. one aspect of his motion.
• Distance, d, is the actual length between two points. It has of view of one object is with respect to the other object,
no direction and is therefore a scalar.
CONCLUSION In Figure 3.17 (page 78), car A is moving 2 m s−1 faster than carnot
• A vector is a number that has both magnitude and
B.theTofixed
an external
observer frame of reference.
standing still on the
• Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity divided by
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation. roadside (lookingdirection.into the page), 
both cars are moving to the right. If the
the time observer
interval. was seated in car B, still
• Displacement, s , represents a change of position with Acceleration −1
looking into the page, car A would seem to be moving to the right
respect to the starting point. It has both magnitude (the
• at 2 m s . Car Bline
in a straight wouldcan bebe
positive or negative,
stationary
depending on whether the object is speeding up or
relative to the observer.distance) and If the observer
direction, so it is awas
vector.a passenger in car A, slowingcar B down.
would seem to be moving to the
left. This shows• that Movement is the changelooks
the situation in position as time changes.
different for different frames
• On aof reference.
speed–time The
graph, cars are
the average in motion
acceleration is the
• Any time interval can be shown as Δt, where Δt = t2 − t1 gradient of the line drawn covering the time interval Δt.
relative to each other (Unit: s).and relative to the road. They have positions, velocities and accelerations relative
• The instantaneous acceleration is found as the time interval
9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 35 to each other and relative
• Speed, to
v, relates the
to theroad.
distanceFor now,
covered inwe are
a time looking
interval. at velocities.
becomes small enough to be negligible.

• Velocity, v , specifically relates to the change in • On a speed–time graph, the area under the line drawn
displacement during a time interval. covering the time interval Δt represents the distance
9780170409063
• Speed is the magnitude of the velocity. Velocity also travelled during that interval. CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 77
includes direction. • A graph of a versus t shows that the area under the line

The Risk assessment table occurs • Change in distance, called the distance interval, is given the equals the change in speed, Δv.

!

 v  
symbol s, where s = d2 − d1 (Unit: m). • For uniformly accelerated motion, a = , implying v = at .
t
• Speed is measured as distance travelled over time (Unit:    

within the investigations. The table highlights m s−1). • If we include an initial velocity u , then v = u + at .

RISK • Average speed is the one single speed that would enable
an object to cover a specified distance in a given time
• If we know the initial velocity, acceleration and time of
  1
travel, then the distance covered is given by s = ut + at 2.

ASSESSMENT
2
the risks of the investigation and provides interval.
• Instantaneous speed is the rate at which distance is
covered over a time interval that is so brief as to be
• If we do not have the time interval, the relationship
between initial velocity, final velocity, acceleration and
2 2
distance travelled is given by v = u + 2as .


suggestions on how to minimise these risks –

negligible.
• For constant speed, the gradient on a distance–time graph
is the same at all points. The graph is a straight line.

they are not to be considered comprehensive. Teachers are

expected to amend this table in the case of substitutions or in
the case of any additional risks. This may mean obtaining and
following Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for certain chemicals. All
teachers are required to follow the safety guidelines of their
specific school and associated government legislation when 54 CHAPTER ONE
MODULE 11 » »CHEMISTRY
KINEMATICS 9780170409063

students are in their care.

x USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS 9780170409063

 •• Chapter review questions that review understanding The Depth study provides you with the opportunity
and provide opportunities for application and analysis of to pursue a topic of interest from within the course. It
concepts and how they interrelate. enables you to study a topic in more depth and present your
findings in a format of your choice. Advice and support to
assist you in undertaking your depth study can be found
2 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz
in chapter 1, and there are suggestions for topics provided
1 Write down the symbols for acceleration, initial velocity, 9 Show that the unit used for the area under a velocity
final velocity, time interval and displacement.
2 Describe the difference between:
versus time graph is the same as the unit of displacement.
10 In a 100 m sprint race, the winning time is 10.6 s.
at the end of each module review. Refer to the NESA
10 Two girls are misbehaving on a train (train 1) and throwing this tell us about the velocities of train 1, train 2 and
a distance and displacement. a What was the winner’s average speed?
a basketball back and forth along the aisle of a carriage. the basketball?
b speed and velocity.
3 What is the difference between instantaneous and
b Do you think that the runner’s average speed was the
same as their instantaneous speed during the race?
Explain your reasoning.
Stage 6 Physics syllabus for the full details on scoping and
While they do this, the carriage passes under a bridge
and another train (train 2) passes them, going the same
c From the frame of reference of the bridge, are the two
trains moving in the same or different directions?
average:
direction but faster.
a speed?
b velocity?
11 A robot takes three paces forwards and then two paces
back, taking 6.0 s for this motion. Use calculations to
explain why the robot’s average speed is not the same as
completion of your depth study.
a List four frames of reference that might be used to
describe this situation.
d From the frame of reference of train 1, are the two
trains moving in the same or different directions? Are
c acceleration? they moving at all?
its average velocity.
b An observer in train 2 looks across at train 1, and for a
4 Draw vector diagrams to show change of:
Shutterstock.com/Early Spring moment sees the basketball as stationary. What does
a displacement.
b velocity. Total time 5 6.0 s

5 For a velocity versus time graph, what quantity is found by

calculating the:
a area under the graph?
b gradient?
6 Consider how the speed of an object that is dropped from ▻ Research engine design for chemically-propelled spacecraft. When are constant-thrust engines
a height changes over time. appropriate, and list three spacecraft that have used them. When might variable-thrust engines be
a Describe this in words. deployed?
b Describe this on a v versus t graph.
7 Explain the positive horizontal line for the acceleration ▻ The Centre for Plasmas and Fluids at the Australian National University developed the Dual-Stage
versus time graph shown in Figure 2.18 on page 48. 4-Grid (DS4G) thruster. What is its purpose, how is it accomplished, and what performance could it
8 Explain why the position versus time graph in Figure 2.24
achieve?
cannot be a completely true graph of an object’s actual
3 paces
motion. ▻ Bullets, artillery shells and cannon balls all use chemical propulsion. What are the strengths and
2 paces
weaknesses of chemical propulsion in this context, and how does it compare to electrical propulsion
of ammunition?
12 As a blue car moving at a constant 18 m s−1 passes a
1ve stationary red car, the red car begins to move in
▻ Drag racing uses a standard quarter-mile course. Research the final velocities of dragsters since the
the same direction with a constant acceleration
Displacement

of 3.0 m s−2. 1960s.
a Show the motion of the two cars on a velocity versus
0 time graph. ▻ Research the value of the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon and the planets in the solar
Time −1
b From your graph in part a, find the time when the two system. In each case, if a projectile is fired straight upwards at 300 m s , draw a table of the distance
2ve
cars are next to each other again. it would travel to the point where its velocity is zero.
c Check your answer to part b using appropriate
equations of motion. ▻ Investigate vectors in three dimensions. Vector decomposition becomes a bit trickier, but show some
FIGURE 2.24
examples of how it can be done.

▻ Using GPS, maps, and actual journeys, compare the distance you actually travel to the net
displacement for some journeys you commonly take, such as the trip to your school or the shops.

NelsonNet ▻ Trace the use of vectors back through the history of science, looking at other attempts to tackle
quantities with magnitude and direction.

▻ Assemble a spreadsheet that can plot two vectors and their sum, or can resolve a vector into

NelsonNet is your protected portal to the premium

components.
9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 55
▻ Using skateboards, tennis balls tossed back and forth, and an open space such as a basketball court,
explore some aspects of relative motion.
digital resources for Nelson textbooks, located at www.
Each module concludes with a Module review. This nelsonnet.com.au. Once your registration is complete
contains short-answer questions that provide you with the you will have access to a helpful suite of digital
opportunity to assimilate content from across the chapters resources for each chapter to further enhance and
that fall within that module. 86reinforce learning.
MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

Each chapter will be supplemented with the

following digital resources.
» END-OF-MODULE REVIEW MODULE 1 : KINEMATICS •• Worksheets to review concepts and to practice
Answer the following questions.
applying understanding to new examples
•• A review quiz containing 20 auto-correcting
−1
1 A vehicle travels west at 100 km h for 45 minutes. It 6 Chen has ridden his bike east for 30 km and north
stops for 15 minutes, and then resumes its journey west at for 12 km.
−1
80 km h for 20 minutes. After stopping for another half a Explain why it is necessary to provide distance and
−1
an hour, it returns to its first rest stop at 85 km h . direction information to describe his movements.
a What distance did the vehicle travel?
b What is its final displacement?
b If the first leg of his journey took 1 hour and the
second leg took 20 minutes, calculate the average
multiple-choice questions to review understanding
c What is its average speed? speed for each leg of the journey.

•• Links to websites that contain extra information. These

d What is its average velocity? c Given the times in part b, calculate the average
velocity for the entire ride, including the direction.
2 A spacecraft accelerates from 0 to 1000 km h−1 at 9.8 m s−2.
a How far does the spacecraft travel while doing this? 7 A student is adding vectors by plotting them on graph
b How long does it take?
paper.
a Explain why the student has to draw the vectors all to
are hotspotted within the ebook and they can also be
3 At exactly 3:00 p.m., a stationary motorcycle begins to the same scale.
−1
accelerate to 110 km h , achieving this velocity in 15 s.
A car that had been travelling at a constant 90 km h
−1
b Explain the parallelogram rule and how it can help
avoid errors when adding vectors graphically. accessed at http://physicsinfocus11.nelsonnet.com.au.
was 0.6 km in front of the motorcycle at 3:00 p.m., and c Explain how you would use a vector diagram to
travelling in the same direction as the motorcycle. subtract one vector from another.
a How long does it take for the motorcycle to pass the car?
b How far had the motorcycle travelled at this point?
d Explain how a diagram can be used to add and/or
subtract any number of vectors, not just two.
Please note that complimentary access to NelsonNet
c What was the velocity of the car relative to the
and the NelsonNetBook is only available to teachers
−1
motorcycle? 8 An aeroplane has a velocity of 950 km h N35°W.
d What was the velocity of the motorcycle relative to a Sketch the velocity vector on a suitable set of axes and
the car? add in its components to the north and west. Note the

who use the accompanying student textbook as a core

angle.
4 A stone is dropped from the top of an 80-m cliff. After b What is the northerly component of the aeroplane’s
2 s, the stone meets a helium-filled balloon that had velocity? What is the westerly component?

educational resource in their classroom. Contact your

previously been released from the bottom of the cliff. The c For how long must the plane keep flying to travel
−1
balloon is ascending at a constant 2 m s . 2000 km north?
a What is the relative velocity of the stone from the d For how long must the plane keep flying to go
balloon’s point of view?
sales representative for information about access codes
2000 km to the north-west (that is, N45°W)? (Hint –
b What is the relative velocity of the balloon from the resolve the plane’s velocity into components different
stone’s point of view? from those you used in part b.)
c How far from the bottom of the cliff did this encounter
and conditions.
−1
take place? 9 A dog is running north-east at 10 m s . It then turns and
−1
runs due north at 6.0 m s .
d At what time, relative to the stone’s release, was the
balloon released? a For how long was the dog running north-east if it ran
150 m before turning?
5 Two ships pass in the night, travelling in opposite b If the dog ran north for 20 s, what was the total
directions (t = 0). Ship A is travelling at 20 knots, and ship distance the dog ran?
B at 25 knots. After they have travelled for another two c Draw a vector diagram of the distances involved in the
minutes, ship A blasts its horn. The speed of sound in air dog’s journey, including the net displacement. Draw a
−1
under prevailing conditions is 341 m s , and 1 knot = second diagram of the velocities.
−1 
1.852 km h . d What is ∆v , the change in velocity (magnitude and
a How far apart are the two ships when the horn blasts direction), between the first leg and the second leg of
(t = 2 minutes)? the run? What was the average velocity for the whole
b How far apart are the two ships when ship B hears the journey?
horn?
c At what time does ship B hear the horn?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 85

9780170409063 USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS xi

OUTCOME GRID
Working Scientifically mapping
Content statements from the NESA Stage 6 Physics syllabus are shown in full on the chapter opening pages of the chapters
where they are dealt with. A full mapping of chapters and content statements can be found on the NelsonNet Teacher website.
Below is a mapping of the outcome statements for Working scientifically across all the chapters of Physics in Focus Year 11.

OUTCOME STATEMENTS CHAPTER

STUDENTS:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
PH11/12-1 develops and evaluates questions
and hypotheses for scientific investigation
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
PH11/12-2 designs and evaluates investigations
in order to obtain primary and secondary data ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
and information
PH11/12-3 conducts investigations to collect
valid and reliable primary and secondary data ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
and information
PH11/12-4 selects and processes appropriate
qualitative and quantitative data and information ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
using a range of appropriate media
PH11/12-5 analyses and evaluates primary and
secondary data and information
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
PH11/12-6 solves scientific problems using
primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
and scientific processes
PH11/12-7 communicates scientific
understanding using suitable language and ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
terminology for a specific audience or purpose

xii 9780170409063
 Working scientifically and depth
1 studies

OUTCOMES
Skills
A student:
•• develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation PH11-1
•• designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and information PH11-2
•• conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information PH11-3
•• selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range of
appropriate media PH11-4
•• analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information PH11-5
•• solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific processes PH11-6
•• communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific audience or
purpose PH11-7
Knowledge and understanding
A student:
•• describes and analyses motion in terms of scalar and vector quantities in two dimensions and makes
quantitative measurements and calculations for distance, displacement, speed velocity and acceleration PH11-8
•• describes and explains events in terms of Newton’s laws of motion, the law of conservation of momentum and
the law of conservation of energy PH11-9
•• explains and analyses waves and the transfer of energy by sound, light and thermodynamic principles PH11-10
•• explains and quantitatively analyses electric fields, circuitry and magnetism PH11-11
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

Alamy Stock Photo/Peter van Evert

9780170409063 1
 Science is the systematic study, by

Science Photo Library/ANDREW BROOKES/

NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY
observation and experiment, of the natural
and physical world. Science is characterised
by a way of thinking and working, and,
most fundamentally, by questioning. The
knowledge and understanding that arises
from this questioning is not in itself science –
it is the product of science, as is the
technology that arises from this knowledge
and understanding. Science is empirical –
when scientists ask questions, they seek to
answer them by using evidence, in particular
observational and experimental evidence.
FIGURE 1.1  Science is characterised by a way of thinking,
working and questioning. Physics, the oldest and most fundamental of
the sciences, is the study of how things work.
Physics asks questions about matter and energy, and the interactions between matter and energy.
Given that everything is composed of matter and energy, physics is a very broad science!

1.1 The nature of physics

Scientific knowledge and theories are testable and falsifiable (able to be disproved). This applies to all
sciences, including physics. It means that for a theory to be considered scientific, it must be possible to
test it and, most importantly, to show that it is not true. This sets science apart from disciplines in which
there are theories that cannot be tested or disproved. Such theories are not scientific.
Theories cannot be proved, only ever disproved – no matter how much evidence you gather that agrees
with a theory, it only takes one experiment that disagrees to disprove a theory. As Einstein said, ‘No amount
of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong.’ This is why scientists
never talk about proving a theory, but rather about providing evidence to support a theory. When a large
enough amount of evidence has been gathered that supports a theory, that theory is then accepted by the
scientific community. Conservation laws are examples of theories that have so much evidence supporting
them that they are generally accepted; for example, conservation of energy and momentum.
When a theory, model or idea has been accepted by the scientific community, it means that there is
an overwhelming amount of evidence supporting it. Nonetheless, a scientist will still not describe that
theory as proven – instead they will say it is well supported or accepted. Unfortunately, this sometimes
means that people who don’t know how science works think that all theories are equally valid. This is
not the case. Scientific theories must have a great amount of evidence to support them before they are
accepted. A scientific theory is not merely someone’s opinion.

The scientific method

Critical and creative The scientific method is the process of systematically gathering data by observation and measurement,
thinking
and using it to test and formulate hypotheses. A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question. It is an
idea or explanation that can be tested. For example, we might hypothesise that it takes more force to
accelerate a heavy object than a lighter one by some amount. We could test this hypothesis by performing
experiments where we measure the acceleration of different objects subject to the same force.
The scientific method is summarised in Figure 1.2. The basic process for the scientific method is to
start with a question or questions (sometimes called your research question). Based on these questions,
you formulate a hypothesis, which is a tentative answer to your question. Usually this involves reading the

2 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 literature to see if anyone has already answered your question or investigated
Think of
a similar question. The hypothesis is then used to make a prediction of what a question
will happen in particular circumstances. An experiment is designed and
performed to test the prediction, and the results are analysed. If the results of
the experiment agree with the prediction, then the hypothesis is supported. Formulate a hypothesis informed
by the existing literature
Note that it is not proved, only supported. There may be other explanations
that would also be supported by the results. If the results do not agree with the
prediction, then the hypothesis is not supported and you need to come up with Develop predictions and design
another explanation. an experiment to test them
Reproducibility and peer review are important aspects of science. If an
experiment cannot be repeated to give the same results, then there is a good
Perform the experiment and
chance that a mistake was made. Experiments are considered valid when they analyse the data
can be repeated to give the same results, and when the uncertainties in the
measurements allow the hypothesis to be clearly disproved.
Scientists communicate their work to each other to share new ideas and Communicate the results
information. If the outcomes of an experiment are not shared, then they
cannot contribute to the ongoing development of science. Scientists usually
communicate new findings to each other by writing articles for scientific Peer review
journals. When you conduct an experiment and write a report on it, the report
is very much like a scientific paper. FIGURE 1.2  The scientific method
Before a scientific paper is published, it is reviewed by other scientists
(experts in the particular area), who evaluate it. They try to determine whether
the experiments conducted were appropriate, whether the conclusions drawn were valid, and whether
the hypothesis is clearly supported or not. If the paper is considered to make a useful contribution to

knilbeW
science, and the experiments and analysis are valid, then it will be published. Other scientists can then
read the scientific paper and use it to inform their own work. Scientists also communicate their work in
The scientific
other ways to students and the public. method
This description of the scientific method is somewhat idealised. Sometimes scientists only have Read this article
about the scientific
questions, and no hypothesis to answer them. Experiments are conducted or observations are made method and come
to try to form a hypothesis that can then be tested. Sometimes, while trying to answer one question, up with your own
explanation of the
a whole new and more interesting question arises so a scientist will change their experiments to work difference between
science and
on that instead. However, even when a new and exciting discovery is made by accident, the scientific pseudoscience.
method will still be used to formulate and test hypotheses that arise to explain it.

Physics
Disciplines within science can be characterised by the sorts of questions that they ask. Physics asks
questions about how the universe works, why things happen, and why things are the way they are.
Physicists have found that these questions can generally be answered by looking at the way matter and
energy interact via forces.
The more we find out, the more questions are generated. There are many questions we haven’t
answered yet. As current and future physicists answer these questions, yet more questions will arise that
no one has thought of yet. Since answering one question often leads to further questions, it is unlikely
that we will ever have a complete understanding of how the universe works. However, scientists will
continue to work towards developing a deeper understanding of how the universe works. Science is
an adventure, and will continue to be for a long time before all the possible questions about how the
universe works are answered.
Many generations of scientists have asked questions and sought answers to these questions. From their
answers, we have constructed models of how our universe works. These models are always changing as

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 3

 we get better answers to existing questions, or ask new questions. Models are representations of physical
reality – they are not the physical reality itself any more than a model aeroplane is a real aeroplane.
Models can be physical models, or mathematical models made up of equations and data, or conceptual
models consisting of principles, laws and theories. Physicists use all sorts of models, combine models,
and switch between models, as they ask and try to answer questions.
Models in physics have two important purposes – to explain how things work, and to predict what
will happen. A model that does not accurately predict the results of an experiment will generally be
revised or replaced.
The model that we choose to represent a situation depends on the situation. For example, classical
mechanics and quantum mechanics can both be used to describe and analyse the behaviour of moving
objects. Although the two models give the same results for large objects, such as cars, the quantum
mechanical model is much more complicated so we generally choose to use classical mechanics when
we analyse the behaviour of cars. When we analyse the behaviour of electrons, the two models give quite
different results – quantum mechanics gives results that match experiments involving electrons, while
classical mechanics does not. So when analysing the behaviour of electrons, we use quantum rather than
classical mechanics. This doesn’t mean that either model is ‘right’ or ‘true’, just that quantum mechanics
is a better model than classical mechanics in this situation.
Choosing the right model for a situation is an important skill in solving problems in physics.

Physics knowledge and understanding

As you progress through your Physics course, you will learn a lot of useful skills and practise working
scientifically by performing investigations and depth studies. You will also gain some knowledge and
develop a deeper understanding of physics.
The knowledge that has arisen from answering the questions asked by physicists can be broadly
categorised into five areas.
1 Mechanics describes the motion and interaction of objects, and uses the ideas of force and energy to
explain phenomena. We use mechanics to describe and predict the behaviour of small numbers of
macroscopic (bigger than atomic-sized) objects.
2 Waves are how we model the organised movement of energy and information when there is no overall
movement of objects. Information is transmitted via waves, including light and sound. We use the
same ideas as in mechanics, with the addition of superposition.
3 Thermodynamics is the study of how energy moves in a system, and is transformed from one form
to another. It describes the behaviour of very large numbers of microscopic particles, such as the
atoms in a material. It uses the same ideas as mechanics and applies them to find average values of
quantities, such as energy per particle, and relate them to measurable quantities, such as temperature.
Thermodynamics gave rise to most modern transport via the invention of engines.
4 Electromagnetism describes the electric and magnetic properties and interactions of matter and
energy. It is the foundation of electronics. Electromagnetism uses the same core ideas as mechanics
and waves, with the addition of the concepts of charge and electromagnetic field. Fields are a way of
describing how forces act at a distance.
5 Quantum physics describes the behaviour and interactions of waves, atoms and subatomic particles,
so it combines ideas from mechanics and waves. The idea of quantisation comes from standing
waves, such as those created on musical instruments. Quantum physics is described in Physics in
Focus Year 12.

4 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 These five areas are not separate – they overlap, and we typically need to draw on ideas from more
than one of them to understand any phenomenon. For example, light is an electromagnetic wave. To
understand how light interacts, we need to use ideas from waves and electromagnetism, and sometimes
from quantum mechanics too. To understand how a car works, we need ideas from thermodynamics
and mechanics.
There are core concepts and principles in physics that underlie all of these areas. These are energy,
forces, and conservation principles. Figure 1.3 shows a concept map for mechanics outlining just some
of the ideas you will meet in chapters 2–6, and how they are related.
Figure 1.4 shows a similar concept map for waves (chapters 7–10). Note that the same core ideas
are present in both maps, with the addition of superposition for waves. Neither of these maps show
everything that you will study in these topics, but they do show the core ideas and some of the
relationships between them.
You will only study a very small part of thermodynamics, so the concept map for thermodynamics
shown in Figure 1.5 is sparse compared with those for mechanics and waves. The concepts shown in grey
are not covered in your Physics course, but you may meet them in your other studies, such as Chemistry.
Electromagnetism is sometimes seen by students as quite a different topic, with a new set of ideas
and equations to learn. In fact, apart from the idea of charge and the electromagnetic field, we use
all the same ideas again, as shown in Figure 1.6. The idea of a field is introduced in electricity and
magnetism, but it is also used in mechanics to understand gravity, which will be described in Physics
in Focus Year 12.
One of the most powerful aspects of physics is that the same ideas apply to many different situations
and systems. A good understanding of any one part of physics will help you analyse any unfamiliar
situation. You will find that you always draw upon the core ideas of force and energy and use conservation
principles to help you frame and answer questions in physics.

Forces change the state

of motion by causing an
Motion acceleration (Newton’s Forces
Motion can be described in terms first and second laws) Forces are interactions
of the vector quantities position, between objects
velocity and acceleration
using kinematics

There is a type of
potential energy
associated with Newton’s third law
There is kinetic
each force is a statement of
energy associated Forces covert one
with all motion sort of energy to conservation of
another, but the momentum
total energy is
always conserved

Energy Conservation
Energy comes in two types: Some things are conserved,
potential and kinetic e.g. energy and momentum

FIGURE 1.3  Concept map for mechanics (chapters 2–6)

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 5

 Transverse waves apply a force
to particles perpendicular to the
wave velocity, longitudinal
Motion Forces
waves apply a force parallel
Wave motion is described in Mechanical waves travel
terms of period, wavelength, because of the forces
When at the same position, amplitude and wave velocity between particles
waves superimpose, Waves reflect,
causing interference refract and diffract when they
interact with matter

Superposition Electromagnetic waves

Waves superimpose carry energy in
electromagnetic fields Waves can apply forces
and do work to transfer energy
and momentum

Conservation
Energy
Waves move energy, but the
Waves carry energy
total energy is conserved
The inverse square law
for intensity is a result
Energy is neither created or of energy conservation
destroyed when waves interfere

FIGURE 1.4  Concept map for waves (chapters 7–10)

Pressure is related to
temperature via the ideal gas law

Faster moving particles

exert more force in collisions,
Motion so give higher pressures Forces
All particles are in constant Pressure is a measure of
When materials are at the motion, including translation,
same temperature their force per unit area
vibration and rotation
particles have the same
average kinetic energy
(thermal equilibrium)
The temperature Convection is energy transfer
Temperature of a material depends due to the movement
on the average kinetic of particles.
Temperature is a
energy of the particles, Radiation is energy
measure of internal Conduction is energy
which depends on their transfer by waves
energy transfer by particles exerting
average speed forces on each other

When energy is
transferred to a system Energy Conservation
its temperature or state Energy is stored as internal Energy is conserved
changes energy and transferred as heat

The first law of thermodynamics

is a statement of energy conservation.
The second says that heat can never
be completely converted to work

FIGURE 1.5  Concept map for thermodynamics (chapter 11). The concepts shown in grey are not part of this Physics course, but are important ideas
that you may meet in your Chemistry course or later studies of physics.

6 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 Motion
Fields exert forces, and cause acceleration Forces
Current is the motion of charges. Charges create and interact
Moving charges create magnetic with electric and magnetic
fields Resistance acts to decrease current
fields
(Ohms law)

Power is energy Fields can exert forces

transferred per unit Kirchhoff’s current law
for circuits is a statement of because they
time, and depends on store energy
current. conservation of charge

Circuit elements convert

energy to different forms,
Energy but total energy is conserved
Conservation
Potential energy is stored
in electric and magnetic Energy and charge are
Kirchhoff’s voltage law for circuits is a conserved
fields statement of energy conservation

FIGURE 1.6  Concept map for electricity and magnetism (chapters 12–14)

As you learn more of the content knowledge of physics, you need to create your own mental models to
help you understand it. Concept maps are a useful way of representing your mental models. They help to
remind you that physics is not simply a collection of facts and formulae. Every idea in physics is connected
to other ideas, and always to one of the fundamental ideas of force, energy and conservation. All of the
theories, laws and equations of physics are fundamentally interconnected; none of them stands alone.
These concept maps (Figures 1.3–1.6) summarise just some of our knowledge and understanding
of physics. This knowledge and understanding was arrived at by physicists who asked questions and
then tried to answer those questions by working scientifically (Figure 1.2). Working scientifically is more
characteristic of, and more important to, the study of physics than any particular collection of content
knowledge. You will practise working scientifically (working like a physicist) when you undertake
investigations and depth studies.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Scientific theories are falsifiable – they can be disproved, but they cannot be proved. For a
theory to be accepted, it must be supported by a great amount of evidence.
●● The scientific method consists of questioning, formulating hypotheses, making measurements
to test the hypotheses, analysing the results, and communicating them for peer review. It is the
process by which science proceeds.
●● Physics uses models (physical, mathematical, conceptual, etc.) to describe the world and to
make predictions. Models are constantly being refined as we learn more.
●● Physics is not a collection of facts and formulae. All of the theories, laws and equations of
physics are fundamentally interconnected. Force, energy and conservation are the central ideas
in physics that we use to understand the interactions of matter and energy. All the knowledge
that you learn in physics will be related to one or more of these ideas.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 7

  Solving scientific problems:
1.2
depth studies
Depth studies are your opportunity to work scientifically and solve scientific problems. When performing
a depth study, you will pose questions, develop hypotheses to answer your questions, and then seek
evidence to support or disprove your hypotheses. The evidence may come from the existing scientific
literature, or from your own experiments. You will need to analyse data to determine whether your
hypotheses are supported. Analysing data usually requires you to represent it in some way, often
mathematically or graphically. Finally, as scientists do, you need to communicate your findings to others.
There are many ways that you can do this, and you need to choose the communication method most
appropriate for your audience.
Depth studies provide you with an opportunity to:
◗◗ use the research methods that scientists use
◗◗ analyse works for scientific relevance and validity
◗◗ broaden your range of reading in a field of interest
◗◗ extend your depth of thinking and understanding
◗◗ ask questions and investigate areas that do not have definite answers
◗◗ investigate contentious issues and use critical thinking skills to consider the validity of views
expressed in a variety of sources
◗◗ use inquiry-based learning to develop your creative thinking.
Depth studies can take different forms, and over the year you may undertake several different types
of depth studies.

Types of depth studies

There are two broad types of depth studies. In first-hand practical investigations, you design and perform
experiments or make observations to gather primary data. Investigations based on secondary sources
require you to research and review information and data collected by other people.
First-hand investigations may be work undertaken in a laboratory, field work at home, school or
elsewhere, or the creation and testing of a model or device.
Secondary-sourced depth studies may include undertaking a literature review, investigating emerging
technologies, analysing a science-fiction movie or novel, or developing an evidence-based argument.
Depth studies may be presented in different forms, some of which include:
◗◗ written texts (reports, summaries, essays)
◗◗ visual presentations (diagrams, flow charts, posters, portfolios)
◗◗ multimedia presentations
◗◗ physical models
◗◗ a blend of the above.
All depth studies will involve the analysis of data, either from primary data that you collect or from
analysing other people’s research. Looking for patterns and trends in data will involve analysing and
constructing graphs, tables, flow charts and diagrams.

8 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 Stages in a depth study
The summary below outlines four main stages of conducting a depth study, as well as the Working
Scientifically skills that you will need to develop and apply at each stage.
Questioning and predicting
A student develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation (PH11-1)
Planning investigations
A student designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and
information (PH11-2)
Conducting investigations
A student conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and
information (PH11-3)
Processing data and information
A student selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a
range of appropriate media (PH11-4)
Analysing data and information
A student analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information (PH11-5)
Problem solving
A student solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and
scientific processes (PH11-6)
Communicating
A student communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific
audience or purpose (PH11-7)
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

Developing and evaluating questions and hypotheses

Alamy Stock Photo/Jim West

The first step to beginning any investigation or depth study is deciding on a
question.
Obviously, it is a good idea to investigate something that you find interesting.
If you are working in a group, try to find something that is interesting to everyone.
A good way to start is by ‘brainstorming’ for ideas. This works whether you
are working on your own or in a group. Write down as many ideas as you can
think of. Don’t be critical at this stage. Get everyone in the group to contribute
and write every idea down. FIGURE 1.7  Brainstorm as many ideas as you can
After you have run out of ideas, it is time to start being critical. Decide which in your group.
questions or ideas are the most interesting. Think about which ones are actually
possible to investigate given the time and resources available. Make a shortlist of questions, but keep the
long list too for the moment. Once you have your shortlist, it is time to start refining your ideas.

Refining your question

Your depth study will be based on one of the areas described in Figures 1.3–1.6, which are described in the
Literacy
remaining chapters. However, the purpose of a depth study is to extend your knowledge while at the same
time building your skills at working scientifically, so you will need to go beyond the basic syllabus content. Information and
The next step is therefore to find out what is already known about the ideas on your list. You will need communication
technology capability
to conduct a literature review. If your depth study is a secondary-sourced investigation, then the literature
review may be the investigation itself. A formal written literature review includes the information you Critical and creative
thinking
have found, and complete references to the sources of information. It also includes interpretation and
critique of what you have read. This is particularly important for a secondary investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9

 Literature reviews are important to increase your breadth of knowledge, to learn from others and
to stimulate new ideas. They are necessary to identify gaps in current knowledge that you may wish
to research and to identify methods that you could use. You may also find there are a variety of views
(sometimes opposing views) in an area of research.

Literature review
Literacy A literature review is a search and evaluation of available literature in a particular subject area. It has a
particular focus, which is defined by your research question or hypothesis.
The process of conducting a literature review involves researching, analysing and evaluating the
literature. It is not merely a descriptive list of the information gathered on a topic, or a summary of one
piece of literature after another. It outlines any opposing points of view in the research, and also expresses
your perspective of the strengths and weaknesses of the research being reviewed. A literature review
brings together results of different studies, pointing out areas where researchers or studies agree, where
they disagree, and where major questions remain. By identifying gaps in research, literature reviews often
indicate directions for future research.
Your literature review will give you an idea of past findings, and procedures, techniques and research
designs that have already been used. This will help you to decide which methods are worth following,
which need modifying, and which to avoid (those that have been inconclusive or invalid). You may plan
your investigation to target a gap in research or try to replicate an investigation to test or validate it.
The length of your literature review will depend on its purpose. If the literature review is a depth study
in itself, it will need to be more detailed and draw conclusions about the research. If the literature review
is used as an introduction to inform your own research, it will be shorter and more focused.
To write a literature review, you first need to define the topic. It may help to formulate a literature
review question, and then write a list of key words that will help you search for information.
To find articles, you can use library catalogues, databases and the internet. Refine your search
technique by using specific words that narrow your search. Record search words that are successful and,
if necessary, modify your search strategy.
When you write your literature review for your report, it should have an introduction that defines the
topic and gives your specific focus. It may also explain the structure of the review for a lengthy, secondary-
sourced depth study.
The main body of the review will then group the literature according to common themes and provide
an explanation of the relationship between the research question and the literature reviewed. It should
Weblink
Literature reviews proceed from the general, wider view of the research to the specific area you are targeting. Include
More information information about the usefulness, currency and major authors or sources of the literature.
about literature
reviews and how to The literature review concludes by summarising the major contributions of the literature, and
complete them. explaining the link between your investigation and the literature reviewed. It may also point out major
flaws or gaps in research if appropriate.

Evaluating sources
Always be critical of what you read. Be wary of pseudoscience, and any material that has not been peer-
Weblink
The CRAAP test reviewed. Apply the CRAAP (currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, purpose) test to websites that you
Apply the CRAAP tests find. The most reliable sites are from educational institutions (particularly universities), government and
to any websites that
you find. scientific organisations such as the CSIRO and NASA, and professional organisations such the Australian
Institute of Physics and international equivalents. You can narrow your search to particular types of sites
by including in your search terms ‘site:edu’ or ‘site:gov’ so that you only find sites from educational or
government sources.
Make sure you keep a record of the information you find as well as the sources, so you can correctly
reference them later. It is a good idea to start a logbook at this stage. You can write in references, or attach
printouts to your logbook. This can save you a lot of time later on. Your logbook may be hardcopy or
electronic.

10 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 Finally, talk to your teacher about your ideas. They may be able to suggest

Shutterstock.com/Ermolaev Alexander
sources of information. They will also be able to tell you whether your ideas are
likely to be possible given the equipment available. They may have had students
with similar ideas in the past and will make helpful suggestions.
After you have researched your questions and ideas, you will hopefully be
able to narrow the shortlist down to the one question you want to tackle. If none
of the questions or ideas look possible (or still interesting), then you need to go
back to the long list.

Proposing a research question or hypothesis FIGURE 1.8  Start researching your topic,
and make sure you keep a record of all your
A research question is one that can be answered by performing experiments or references. Good record-keeping is important in
making observations. A hypothesis is a prediction of the results of an experiment, scientific research, and it begins at this stage of
the investigation.
which can be tested by performing experiments or making observations.
You need to frame a research question carefully. A good research question
should define the investigation, set boundaries and provide some direction

Alamy Stock Photo/Marmaduke St John

to the investigation. It needs to be specific enough that it guides the design of
the investigation. A specific question rather than a vague one will make the
design of your investigation much easier. Asking ‘What volume of water gives
the maximum height for a water rocket?’ tells you what you will be varying and
what you will be measuring. It also gives a criterion for judging whether you
have answered the question.
Asking ‘How can we make a water rocket fly the best?’ is not a good
question. This question does not say what will be varied, nor does it tell you
when you have answered the question. ‘Best’ is a vague term. What you mean
by ‘best’ may not be what someone else means.
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or prediction, such as ‘The height
attained by a water rocket will increase with the amount of water contained in
the rocket’. Your hypothesis should give a prediction that you can test, ideally
quantitatively.
A hypothesis is usually based on some existing model or theory. It is a
prediction of what will happen in a specific situation based on that model. For
example, kinematics describes the trajectory of projectiles. A hypothesis based
on the kinematics model predicts the range of a specific projectile launched at a
given angle and speed.
FIGURE 1.9  You need to frame your research
A good research question or hypothesis identifies the variables that will be question carefully. These students are
investigated. Usually you will have one dependent variable and one independent investigating the launch angle at which their
water rocket will achieve maximum range.
variable. For a depth study, you may have two or more independent variables
that you control.
If your experiments agree with predictions based on your hypothesis, then you can claim that they
support your hypothesis. This increases your confidence in your model, but it does not prove that it is true.
Hence, an aim for an experiment should never start ‘To prove …’, as it is not possible to actually prove a
hypothesis – only to disprove it.
If your experimental results disagree with your hypothesis, then you may have disproved it. This is
not a bad thing! Often the most interesting discoveries in science start when a hypothesis based on an
existing model is disproved, because this raises more questions.
Even if your question or hypothesis meets these criteria, do not be surprised if you change or modify
it during the course of your investigation or depth study. In scientific research, the question you set out
to answer is often only a starting point for more questions.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 11

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Investigations begin with a question, which is used to formulate a hypothesis. A good
research question is specific, and can be answered by performing experiments and making
measurements. A good hypothesis is a statement that predicts the results of an experiment and
can be tested using measurements.
●● A literature review helps you refine your question or hypothesis. It helps you to know what
knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and the areas of strength and weakness
in the research.

1.3  Planning your depth study

There are many things to consider when planning an investigation. You need to think about how much
time you will have, what space and equipment you will need, and where you will go if you want to
make measurements or observations outside. If you are conducting a secondary-sourced investigation
or some other type of depth study (such as a creative work), you still need to plan ahead to make sure you
have the resources you need.
You may be working in a group or on your own. Most scientists work in groups. If you can choose who
you work with, think about it carefully. It is not always best to work with friends. Think about working
with people who have skills that are different from your own.
Having a plan allows you to ensure you collect the data (whether primary- or secondary-sourced)
that you need to test your hypothesis. The longer the investigation, the more important it is that you
have a clear plan. There are several factors to consider, as shown in Table 1.1.

Critical and TABLE 1.1  Factors to consider when planning your depth study
creative thinking
PRIMARY-SOURCED INVESTIGATION SECONDARY-SOURCED INVESTIGATION

What data will you need to collect? What information will you need to gather?

What materials and equipment will you need? What sources will you use?

When and where will you collect the data? When and where will you gather the information?

If you are working in a group, what tasks are assigned If you are working in a group, what tasks are assigned
to which people? to which people?

Who will collect the data? Who will collect what information?

Who will be responsible for record-keeping? How will record-keeping be done to avoid plagiarism?

How will the data be analysed? How will the information be analysed?

How will sources be referenced? How will sources be referenced?

The most common problem that students have is time management. It is important to plan to have
enough time to perform the experiments (including repeat measurements), and also to analyse the
experiments and to report on them.
A good plan will help you keep on track. Your teacher may ask you to submit a plan for your depth
study before you begin the implementation stage. Table 1.2 gives an idea of the areas you should
consider.

12 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 TABLE 1.2  Depth study plan

1 INTRODUCTION

Title Choose a title for your depth study.

What?

Rationale Explain why you have chosen this area of research.

Why? Describe what you are hoping to achieve through this
investigation. Include any applications.

Type of depth study State the type of depth study you intend conducting
Which? (e.g. literature review, practical investigation etc.).
Where applicable, describe any theoretical models
(e.g. kinematics) that you will use.

2 TIMELINE

Action and time frame – when? Working Scientifically skills – how?

Initiating and planning Questioning and predicting: formulate questions
When? (e.g. week 1 and 2) and/or a hypothesis.
Planning: wide reading to research background
information, assess risks and ethical issues, plan
methods, and design experiments.

Implementation and recording Conducting investigations: safely carry out

experiments, make observations and/or
measurements, use appropriate technology, and use
measuring instruments.
Process and record data and information: collect,
organise, record, and process information and/or
data as you go.

Analysing and interpreting Analyse data and information: begin looking for
trends, patterns or mathematical relationships.
Problem-solve: evaluate the adequacy of data
(relevance, accuracy, validity and reliability) from
primary and/or secondary sources, answer your
research question, and draw and justify conclusions.

Communicating Present your depth study: Write the report or

other presentation using appropriate language,
visualisations and technologies.

Final presentation Due date: allow time for proofreading and editing.

3  DATA COLLECTION

Variables Measurements and uncertainties

What will you measure and what will you hold How will you make measurements?
constant?
Identify dependent and independent variables. What equipment will you need?
How will you minimise uncertainties?

4  DATA ANALYSIS AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Data analysis Conclusions

What method(s) will you use to analyse the data and How will you judge whether the experiment was valid?
how will you represent the trends and patterns? How will your data allow you to test your hypothesis or
answer your question?

Keep a record of your planning. This should go in your logbook. Recording what you plan to do, and
why, will help you stay focused. This is particularly important for a depth study. If you are working in a
group, keep a record of what each person agrees to do. But remember, the plan may need to be adjusted
as you go.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 13

 Designing your depth study
When designing your depth study or investigation, you should be aiming for reliable and valid
measurements with good accuracy and precision. For a secondary-sourced investigation, you should be
trying to find resources that have these characteristics.
Some good questions to ask to assess the reliability, validity, accuracy and precision of your design are
outlined in Table 1.3.

TABLE 1.3  Assessing reliability, accuracy and validity in investigations

PRIMARY INFORMATION AND DATA SECONDARY INFORMATION AND DATA

Reliability • Have I tested with repetition? • How consistent is the information with
other reputable sources?
• Is the data presented based on repeatable
processes?

Accuracy • Have I designed my experiments to • Is this information similar to information

and minimise uncertainties? presented in peer-reviewed scientific
precision • Have I used repeat measurements to journals?
estimate random errors? • Is the data given with uncertainties, and are
• Have I used the best measuring equipment these uncertainties small compared with
available, and used it correctly? the measured values?

Validity • Does my experiment actually test the • Do the findings relate to the hypothesis or
hypothesis that I want it to? problem?
• Have all variables (apart from those being • Are the findings accurate and the sources
tested) been kept constant? reliable?

Selecting equipment
A well-framed question or hypothesis will help you choose the equipment that you need. For example,
Weblink
Minimising if your hypothesis predicts a temperature change of 0.5°C, then you will need a thermometer that can
uncertainty
Find out how Foucault measure to at least this precision. You also need to know how to use the equipment correctly. Always ask
measured the speed
of light so precisely.
if you are unsure. The user manual will usually specify the precision of the device, and let you know of
any potential safety risks.
You need to think about how you can minimise uncertainties. Minimising uncertainty is not just
about using the most precise equipment you can find – it is also about clever experimental technique.
Very precise measurements are possible using simple equipment. For example, in 1862, Léon Foucault
measured the speed of light with an uncertainty of 0.2%, without a computer, data logger or even a digital
stopwatch. Remember that it is a poor worker who blames their tools!

Ethical
Working safely: risk assessment
understanding
You may be required to complete a risk assessment before you begin your depth study. You need to think
Personal and social about three factors:
capability
1 What are the possible risks to you, to other people, to the environment or property?
2 How likely is it that there will be an injury or damage?
Work and enterprise
3 How serious are the consequences likely to be if there is an injury or damage to property or
environment?
A ‘risk matrix’, such as Table 1.4, can be used to assess the severity of a risk associated with an
investigation. The consequences are listed across the top from negligible to catastrophic. ‘Negligible’ may
be getting clothes dirty. ‘Marginal’ might be a bruise from falling off a bike, or a broken branch in a tree.
‘Severe’ could be a more substantial injury or a broken window. ‘Catastrophic’ would be a death or the
release of a toxin into the environment. You need to ensure that your investigation is low risk.

14 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 TABLE 1.4  Risk matrix for assessing for severity of risk

CONSEQUENCES→ Negligible Marginal Severe Catastrophic

LIKELIHOOD↓

Rare Low risk Low risk Moderate risk High risk

Unlikely Low risk Low risk High risk Extreme risk

Possible Low risk Moderate risk Extreme risk Extreme risk

Likely Moderate risk High risk Extreme risk Extreme risk

Certain Moderate risk High risk Extreme risk Extreme risk

Once you have considered what the possible risks are, you need to think about what you will do
about them. What will you do to minimise the possible risks, and what will you do to deal with the
consequences if something does happen? You can use a risk assessment table such as the one shown in
Table 1.5.

TABLE 1.5  Sample risk assessment table

!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS EXPERIMENT? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
Water from the rocket may be spilled and someone Clean up all spills immediately.
might slip.

Consider where you will perform your experiments or observations. Will you need to consider the

knilbeW
convenience or safety of others? Talk to your teacher about what space is available.
In a secondary-sourced investigation, take precautions with cyber safety and remember to keep your Stay safe
personal information private. online!
Read the material
on this site, and
think about what
KEY
CONCEPTS

●● In primary-sourced investigations you collect and analyse your own data. In secondary-sourced you could do to
investigations you analyse someone else’s data. keep yourself safe
online.
●● Investigations need to be carefully planned so that they answer your research question. You
also need to consider safety and possible environmental impacts of your investigation.

1.4  Conducting your investigation

Scientists keep a logbook for each project they work on. The logbook is the primary source of information
when a scientist writes up their work for publication.
A logbook is a legal document for a working scientist. If the work is called into question, then the
logbook acts as important evidence. Logbooks are sometimes provided as evidence in court cases; for
example, in patent disputes. Every entry in a scientist’s logbook is dated, records are kept in indelible
form (i.e. in pen, not pencil), and entries may even be signed. Logbooks include details of experiments,
ideas and analysis. They frequently include printouts of data, photocopies of relevant information,
photos, and other items.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 15

 Your logbook records

iStock.com/SteveStone
It is a good idea to start keeping a logbook as soon as
you begin planning your depth study. Your logbook
may be paper or electronic. Either way, your logbook
is a detailed record of what you did and what you found
Literacy out during your investigation. Make an entry in the
logbook every time you work on your depth study. At
the start of each session, record the date and the names
FIGURE 1.10  Make sure you keep an accurate of all the people you are working with at the time. A
record of what you do as you do it. Keeping a logbook is particularly vital for primary-sourced
logbook is important.
investigations, but is also important for secondary-
sourced investigations.
Always write down what you do as you do it. It is easy to forget what you did if you do not write it down
immediately.
Record the results of all measurements immediately and directly into your logbook, in pen if using
hardcopy. Never record data onto bits of scrap paper instead of your logbook. Results must be recorded
in indelible form. Never write your results in pencil or use white-out. If you want to cross something out,
just put a line through it and make a note explaining why it was crossed out. If you are using an electronic
logbook, do not delete data or any working – instead, label it appropriately and keep it.
A good logbook contains:
◗◗ notes taken during the planning of your investigation
◗◗ a record of when, where and how you carried out each experiment
◗◗ diagrams showing the experimental set-ups, circuit diagrams, etc.
◗◗ all your raw results
◗◗ all your derived results, analysis and graphs
◗◗ all the ideas you had while planning, carrying out experiments and analysing data
◗◗ printouts, file names and locations of any data not recorded directly in the logbook.
It is not a neat record, but it is a complete record.

Literacy Data collection

If you are conducting a secondary-sourced investigation, your literature review will be the basis of your
Numeracy investigation and your data will come from the existing literature. Remember that a literature review is
not simply a summary of what you have read – you need to add meaning. This may come from comparing
and contrasting competing models and constructing an argument, or by analysing and presenting
secondary-sourced data. When using secondary sources, remember to make comparisons between data
and claims in a number of reputable sources, including science texts, scientific journals and reputable
internet sites, and to reference these appropriately.
If you are conducting a primary-sourced investigation, then you will be performing measurements
to gather data yourself. You can collect data by performing experiments or making observations in the
field. You will gain practice at making measurements if you do some of the investigations in the following
chapters. These investigations can form a basis for a depth study.

Data collection for primary-sourced investigations

When conducting an experiment, you need to decide which variables you will measure and which
variables you will control. In an experiment, typically we have an independent variable, which we control
and vary, and a dependent variable, which is what we measure. We assume that the dependent variable

16 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 is in some way dependent on the independent variable. There may also be controlled variables, which are
kept constant so that they do not interfere with the results.
Whenever possible you should make repeat measurements. This allows you to check that your
measurements are reliable. Your results are reliable if repeat measurements give the same results
within experimental uncertainty. If a result is not reproducible, it is not a reliable result. If a result is not
reproducible, then it may be that a variable other than the one you are controlling is affecting its value. If
this is the case, you need to determine what this other variable is, and control it if possible.
You also need to consider how many data points to collect. In general, it is better to have more
data than less. However, you will have limited time to collect your data, and you need to allow time for
analysis and communicating your results. A minimum of six data points is usually required to establish
a relationship between variables if the relationship is linear. A linear relationship is one where if you
plot one variable against the other you get a straight line. If you think the relationship might not be
linear, then take more data points and think carefully about how they will be spaced. You should try to
collect more data in the range where you expect the dependent variable to be changing more quickly. For
example, if you are measuring the temperature of a hot object as it cools, then you should collect more
data early on when cooling is more rapid.
Draw a table to record data in. Label the columns in the table with the name and units of the variables.
If you know that the uncertainty in all your measurements is the same, then you can record this at the top
of the column as well. Otherwise, each data entry should have its uncertainty recorded in the cell with it.
It is a good idea to start your analysis while you are collecting your data. If you spot an outlier while you
are still making measurements, then you have the opportunity to repeat that measurement. If you made a
mistake, then put a line through the mistake, write in the new data, and make a comment in your logbook.
If you have not made a mistake, then plotting and analysing as you go allows you to spot something
interesting early on. You then have a choice between revising your hypothesis or question to follow this
new discovery, or continuing with your plan. Many investigations start with one question and end up
answering a completely different one. These are often the most fun, because they involve something new
and exciting.

Accuracy and precision of measurements

When making measurements, your aim is to be as precise and accurate as possible.
An accurate measurement result is one that represents the ‘true value’ of the measured quantity as
closely as possible. When we take repeated measurements, we assume that the mean of the measurements
will be close to the ‘true value’ of the variable. However, this may not always be the case. For example, if you
have ever been a passenger in a car with an analogue speedometer and tried to read it, your reading will
be consistently different from what the driver reads. This is due to parallax error. The needle sits above the
scale, and when viewed from the side it does not correctly line up with the true speed. Beware of parallax
error with any equipment using a needle. This is an example of a systematic error, in which measurements
differ from the true value by a consistent amount. Note that often we do not know what the ‘true value’ is.
Figure 1.11 compares accurate measurements with inaccurate measurements due to a systematic error.

FIGURE 1.11  In a
a b
plot of number of
Number of measured
Number of measured

measured values
versus reading, results
may: a be accurate
values
values

and cluster close to

the ‘true value’, or
b cluster about some
other value.

Reading Reading
‘True value’ Mean ‘True value’
Mean

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 17

 Precision is a measure of the variability of the measurements, so it affects the spread of the repeated
measurements about the mean value. The smaller the spread, the greater the precision. Figure 1.12a
shows precise measurements, and Figure 1.12b shows less precise measurements. Note that both data
sets are centred about the same average, so they have the same accuracy.

a b

Number of measured
Number of measured

values
values

Reading Reading
‘True value’ ‘True value’
FIGURE 1.12  In a plot of number of measured values versus reading, results may: a be precise and have a small spread
about the mean, or b be imprecise and have a large spread about the mean.

Figure 1.13 shows the difference between accuracy and precision for a game of darts. Accuracy is how
close to the centre your darts hit, and precision is how closely the darts are grouped.

FIGURE 1.13  On a a b c d
dart board, accuracy
is determined by how
close to the centre
(bull’s eye) your dart
lands. Precision is how
closely you can group
your darts.

Low accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy High accuracy

Low precision High precision Low precision High precision

Estimating uncertainties
When you perform experiments, there are typically several sources of uncertainty in your data.
Sources of uncertainty that you need to consider are the:
◗◗ limit of reading of measuring devices
◗◗ precision of measuring devices
◗◗ variation of the measurand (the variable being measured).
For all devices there is an uncertainty due to the limit of reading of the device. The limit of reading is
different for analogue and digital devices.
Analogue devices have continuous scales and include swinging-needle multimeters and liquid-in-
glass thermometers. For an analogue device, the limit of reading (sometimes called the resolution) is half
the smallest division on the scale. We take it as half the smallest division because you will generally be
able to see which division mark the indicator (needle, fluid level, etc.) is closest to. So, for a liquid-in-glass
thermometer with a scale marked in degrees Celsius, the limit of reading is 0.5°C.
Digital devices, such as digital multimeters and digital thermometers, have a scale that gives you a
number. A digital device has a limit of reading uncertainty of a whole division. So, a digital thermometer that
reads to whole degrees has an uncertainty of 1°C. For a digital device, the limit of reading is always a whole
division (not a half), because you do not know whether it rounds up or down, or at what point it rounds.

18 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 The resolution or limit of reading is the minimum uncertainty in any measurement. Usually the
uncertainty is greater than this minimum.
The measuring device used will have a precision, usually given in the user manual. For example, the
multimeter shown in Figure 1.14 may have a precision of 1.5% on a voltage scale. This means if you
measure a potential difference of 12.55 V on this scale, the uncertainty due to the precision of the meter
is 0.015 × 12.55 V = 0.19 V. This is greater than the limit of reading uncertainty, which is 0.01 V in this
case. The precision is a measure of repeatability. If you measured a potential difference of 12.55 V on this
multimeter, you could expect the reading to vary by as much as 0.19 V, even if the potential difference
stayed the same.
Many students think that digital devices are more precise than analogue devices. This is often not
the case. A digital device may be easier for you to read, but this does not mean it is more precise. The
uncertainty due to the limited precision of the device is generally greater than the limit of reading.

a b

Courtesy of Flir Commercial Systems

Function Range Resolution Accuracy
Courtesy of Flir Commercial Systems

DC voltage 400 mV 0.1 mV 6(0.3% reading 1 2 digits)

4V 0.001 V
40 V 0.01 V 6(0.5% reading 1 2 digits)
400 V 0.1 V
1000 V 1V 6(0.8% reading 1 3 digits)
AC voltage 50 to 400 Hz 400 Hz to 1 kHz
400 mV 0.1 mV 6(1.5% reading 1 15 digits) 6(2.5% reading 1 15 digits)
4V 0.001 V
40 V 0.01 V 6(1.5% reading 1 6 digits) 6(2.5% reading 1 8 digits)
400 V 0.1 V
750 V 1V 6(1.8% reading 1 6 digits) 6(3% reading 1 8 digits)
Frequency 5.000 Hz 0.001 Hz
6(1.5% reading 1 5 digits)
50.00 Hz 0.01 Hz
500.0 Hz 0.1 Hz
5.000 kHz 0.001 kHz
6(1.2% reading 1 2 digits)
50.00 kHz 0.01 kHz
500.0 kHz 0.1 kHz
5.000 MHz 0.001 MHz
6(1.5% reading 1 4 digits)
10.00 MHz 0.01 MHz
Sensitivity: 0.8 V rms min. @20% to 80% duty cycle and <100 kHz; 5 V rms min.
@20% to 80% duty cycle and >100 kHz
Duty cycle 0.1 to 99.9% 0.1% 6(1.2% reading 1 2 digits)
Pulse width: 100 ms 2 100 ms, Frequency: 5 Hz to 150 kHz
Note: Accuracy specifications consist of two elements:
(% reading) 2 This is the accuracy of the measurement circuit.
(1 digits) 2 This is the accuracy of the analog to digital converter.

FIGURE 1.14  a A typical small digital multimeter; b A page from the user manual giving the precision on various scales

Finally, the measurand itself may vary. For example, the flight of a water rocket is strongly dependent
knilbeW

on initial conditions, wind and other factors. Even keeping launch conditions as close to identical as
possible, it is unlikely that in repeat experiments you will be able to get a rocket to attain the same height Accuracy,
within the limit of reading or equipment precision. Making repeat measurements allows you to estimate precision and
resolution –
the size of the variation, using the maximum and minimum values. what is the
difference?
Sometimes you will be able to see how the measurand varies during a measurement by watching
a needle move or the readings change on a digital device. Watch and record the maximum and
minimum values.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 19

 The difference between the maximum and minimum value is the range:
Range = maximum value − minimum value
The value of the measurand is the average value for repeated measurements, or the centre of the
range for a single varying measurement:
1
Measurand = minimum value + (range)
2
The uncertainty in the measurement is half the range:
1 1
Uncertainty = (range) = (maximum value − minimum value)
2 2
For example, if you are using a multimeter and you observe that the reading fluctuates between
12.2 V and 12.6 V, then your measurement should be recorded as (12.4 ± 0.2) V. Note that the measurement
and uncertainty are together in the brackets, indicating that the unit applies to both the measurement
and its uncertainty.
When you take repeat measurements, the best estimate of the measurand is the average value. If you
have taken fewer than 10 measurements, then the best estimate of the uncertainty is half the range. If you
have 10 or more measurements, the best estimate of the uncertainty is the standard deviation, given by:
1
 ∑ ( x − x )2  2
Standard deviation =  i i 
 n 
where xi is an individual value of the measurand, x is the average value of the measurand and n is the total
number of measurements. The sum is over all values of xi. Most calculators and spreadsheet software
have built-in statistical functions such as standard deviation.
Remember that repeat measurements means repeating under the same conditions. It is not the same
as collecting lots of data points under different conditions.
Uncertainties can be expressed in two ways: absolute and fractional (also called relative or proportional)
uncertainty. The absolute uncertainty has the same units as the measurement, and is the uncertainty we
have been describing above. The relative or fractional uncertainty is the absolute uncertainty as a fraction
of the measurement, often expressed as a percentage. For example, if you measure your height to be
1 cm
164 cm with an absolute uncertainty of 1 cm, then the fractional uncertainty is = 0.006 or 0.6%.
164 cm

Analysing data
The first step in analysing data (whether primary or secondary) is organising it. This will usually involve
Numeracy
tabulating the data. Tables of data need to have headings with units for each column, and a caption
Information and
telling you what the data means or how it was collected. Tables are used for recording raw data, and also
communication for organising derived data.
technology
capability
Calculating derived data from raw data
Raw data is what you actually measured (with units and uncertainties). Derived data is data that you have
calculated using your raw data. For example, your raw data may be time and distance measurements,
from which you derive average speed and acceleration data.
When you record your data, write down the units for all your measurements. You may need to convert
these to SI units; for example, centimetres to metres (see appendix 1). Include the units with all numbers
as you perform your calculations to ensure you have the correct units on all derived data. It also allows
you to check that any equations you are using are dimensionally correct. It is good practice in general,
not just in investigations, to include units at each step in all your calculations.
Your raw data should be recorded with uncertainties. All your derived results should also have
uncertainties.
Whenever you add or subtract raw data, you simply add the absolute uncertainties.

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 Whenever you multiply or divide raw data, you add the fractional uncertainties in all the values used.
For example, if you are calculating a using the equation
1 b2
a= ×
2 c
then the relative uncertainty in a will be the relative uncertainty in c plus the relative uncertainty in b plus
the relative uncertainty in b again:
∆a ∆b ∆b ∆c
= + +
a b b c

knilbeW
We add the relative uncertainty of b twice because we multiply by b2, which is the same as multiplying
1
by b twice. Note that we do not include the relative uncertainty in because we assume it to be an exact GUM
2
number with no uncertainty. Find out more
about uncertainties
If you have more complicated calculations, then you should refer to a guide such as the Guide to in the GUM (Guide
to Expression
Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement or a book on experimental techniques. of Uncertainty in
Measurement).

Drawing and using graphs

If you look at any physics journal, you will see that almost every article contains graphs. Graphs are not
only a useful way of representing data, but they are also commonly used to analyse relationships between
variables. You should have lots of graphs in your logbook as part of your exploration of the data. It is often
useful to plot your data in different ways, especially if you are unsure what relationship to expect between
your dependent and independent variables.
Graphs should be large and clear. The axes should be labelled with the names of the variables and
their units. Choose a scale so that your data takes up most of the plot area. This will often mean that the
origin is not shown in your graph. Usually there is no reason why it should be. Figure 1.15 shows examples
of a poor graph and a good one.

a L
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

b L vs 1/f for first resonant frequency

0.3

0.25

0.2
L (m)

0.15

0.1

0.05
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
1/f (3 1023 s)
FIGURE 1.15  a A poor example of a graph; b A good example of a graph of the same data. How many problems can you identify on the graph in part a?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 21

 When you are looking for a relationship between variables, use a scatter plot (also called a scatter
graph). This is a graph showing your data as points. Do not join them up as in a dot-to-dot picture. Usually
the independent variable is plotted on the x axis and the dependent variable is on the y axis.
To determine a relationship, you need to have enough data points, and the range of your data points
should be as large as possible. A minimum of six data points is generally considered adequate if the
relationship is expected to be linear (a straight line), but always collect as many as you reasonably can in
the available time.
For non-linear relationships, you need more data points than this. Try to collect more data in regions
where you expect rapid variation. Imagine you are measuring an interference pattern from two slits, as
shown in Figure 1.16. You may need more than a hundred data points to clearly see the sinusoidal pattern
due to the two-slit interference.

a b I vs position for double slits

Getty Images/GIPhotoStock
1.2

I (3 1023 W m22)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
21 20.5 0 0.5 1
Y (cm)
FIGURE 1.16  a Interference pattern from two slits; b Plot of intensity as a function of position for this experiment

A good graph to start with is simply a graph of the raw data. You will usually be able to tell by looking
whether the graph is linear. If it is, then fit a straight line either by hand or using graphing software.
Graphing software has a linear regression tool that calculates an R2 number, which is a measure of
‘goodness of fit’. The closer R2 is to 1, the better the fit. If it is not very close to 1 (typically better than
0.95), then the relationship is probably not linear. Alternatively, you can calculate the uncertainty in
the gradient by using lines of maximum and minimum gradient. If the uncertainty is large, then the
Weblink
relationship may not be linear.
Data points
If you have a hypothesised equation, then use it to generate a fit on a graph of your data. Do not
Some helpful advice
on deciding the substitute your data into your hypothesised equation and try to show that it fits. Note that a line of best fit is
number of data
points. not the same as joining the dots. It is rarely useful or appropriate to join the dots, even though this is often
the default setting in spreadsheet software.
If it is a linear relationship, then finding the equation for the line of best fit will be useful. Remember
that a linear relationship is of the form y = mx + c, where y is the dependent variable plotted on the vertical
Dy
axis, x is the independent variable on the horizontal axis, m = is the gradient of your graph, and c is
Dx
the y intercept from your graph.
Never force a line of best fit through the origin. The intercept gives you useful information. It may even
indicate a systematic error, such as a zero error in calibration of your equipment.
When you plot your raw data, you may find that one or two points are outliers. These are points that
do not fit the pattern of the rest of the data. These points may be mistakes; for example, they may have
been incorrectly recorded or the result of a mistake made during measurement. They may also be telling
you something important. For example, if they occur at extreme values of the independent variable, then
it might be that the behaviour of the system is linear in a certain range only. You may choose to ignore
outliers when fitting a line to your data, but you should be able to justify why.

22 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 Non-linear data and linearising
Relationships between variables are often not linear. If you plot your raw data and it is a curve, then do
not draw a straight line through it. In this case you need to think a little harder. If your hypothesis predicts
the shape of the curve, then try fitting a theoretical curve to your data. If it fits well, then your hypothesis
is supported.
If possible, you should linearise your data based on your hypothesis – that means to write it in the
1
form y = mx + c. For example, if your hypothesis is that h = gt2, try plotting your data as a function of t2.
2
Here, h is the initial height of a falling object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and t is the time taken
for it to fall:
1
h =  g  (t 2 ) + 0
2 
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
y= m x + c
1
Hence, a plot of h vs t2 should be a straight line with gradient of g and a y intercept of zero. So, if
2
1
you plot h vs t2 and get a straight line of gradient g with a y intercept of zero, then your hypothesis is
supported. 2

It is better to linearise your data rather than to try fitting a curve to non-linear data. Often a curve for
an exponential relationship can look very much like a curve for a power law. Linearising your data allows
you to distinguish between the two.

Interpreting your results

Once you have analysed your results, you need to interpret them. This means being able to either answer
your research question or state whether your results support your hypothesis.
You need to consider the uncertainties in your results when you decide whether they support your
hypothesis. For example, suppose you have hypothesised that the maximum range of a rocket occurs at
a launch angle of 45°, but your results show that the maximum range occurs at an angle of 47°. To say
whether the result agrees with the prediction, you need to consider the uncertainty. If the uncertainty is
1°, then the results disagree with the hypothesis. If the uncertainty is 2° or more, then the results do agree
and the hypothesis is supported.
If your hypothesis is not supported, it is not enough to simply say ‘our hypothesis is wrong’. If the
hypothesis is wrong, what is wrong with it?
It may be that you have used a model that is too simple. For example, if you have based your hypothesis
on the kinematics model and ignored the effect of air resistance, the range is likely to be shorter and the
maximum height lower than you predicted. For many projectiles, including rockets, air resistance is not
negligible. If you find this is the case, then you may conclude that your situation is better described by a
model that includes air resistance.
However, before you decide that the model is at fault, it is a good idea to check carefully that you have
not made any mistakes.
It is never good enough to conclude that ‘the experiment didn’t work’. Either a mistake was made or
the model used was not appropriate for the situation. It is your job to work out which is the case.
Experiments that do not support predictions based on existing models are crucial in the progress
of science. It is these experiments that tell us there is more to find out, and that inspire our curiosity as
scientists.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 23

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Logbooks are important working documents for scientists. It is a good idea to record all your
data in a logbook, along with all records of your investigations.
●● Precision is a measure of the variability or spread in repeat measurements.
●● Accuracy is a measure of the difference between the average value of repeat measurements and
the ‘true value’ of the thing being measured. Often, we do not know the true value.
●● The uncertainty in any measurement depends upon the limit of reading of the measuring
device, the precision of the device and the variation of the measurand. The uncertainty in the
measurand is whichever is the greatest of these.
●● Uncertainties can be recorded as absolute uncertainties, which have the same units as the
measurand, or fractional uncertainties, which have no units and are usually expressed as
percentages.
●● Data is usually recorded in tables. Graphs are used to represent and analyse data.
●● Linear graphs are useful for analysing data.
●● If you predict a particular mathematical relationship, you should linearise your data and then
graph it to test your prediction.
●● You must know the uncertainty in your results to be able to test your hypothesis.
●● When your hypothesis is not supported, try to figure out why.

Literacy 1.5 Communicating your understanding

Numeracy If research is not reported on, then no-one else can learn from it. An investigation is not complete until
the results have been communicated. Most commonly a report is written. Scientists also use other
Information and
communication means to communicate their research to each other such as posters and talks. School science fairs may
technology also include posters and oral presentations. Science shows and demonstrations, websites, videos and
capability
blogs may also be used. You need to select the mode that best suits the content you wish to communicate
and your intended audience.

Writing reports
A report is a formal and carefully structured account of your investigation or depth study. It is based
on the data and analysis in your logbook. However, the report is a summary and contains only a small
fraction of what appears in the logbook. Your logbook contains all your ideas, rough working and raw
data. The report typically contains very little of this.
A report consists of several distinct sections, each with a particular purpose:
◗◗ Abstract
◗◗ Introduction
◗◗ Method
◗◗ Results and analysis
◗◗ Discussion
◗◗ Conclusion
◗◗ Acknowledgements
◗◗ References
◗◗ Appendices.
Reports are always written in the past tense because they describe what you have done.

24 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 The abstract is a very short summary of the entire report, typically 50–200 words. It appears at the
start of the report, but is always the last section that you write. Try writing just one sentence to summarise
each part of your report.
The introduction tells the reader why you did this investigation or depth study, and what your
research question or hypothesis is. This is the place to explain why this research is interesting. The
introduction also includes the literature review, which gives the background information needed to
be able to understand the rest of the report. The introduction for secondary-sourced reports is similar
to that for a primary-sourced investigation. In either case, it is important to reference all your sources
correctly.
The method summarises what you did. It says what you measured and how you measured it. It is
not a recipe for someone else to follow. It is always written in past tense; for example, ‘We measured the
temperature every 10 s’, not ‘Measure the temperature every 10 s’. It also briefly explains why you chose a
particular method or technique.
For a primary-sourced investigation, the method describes how you carried out your experiments
or observations in enough detail that someone with a similar knowledge level could repeat your
experiments. It should include large, clear diagrams of equipment set-up, circuits etc. You should have
diagrams in your logbook, but these are generally rough sketches. Diagrams should be redrawn neatly for
a report, as in Figure 1.17.

a b

1 Rvariable
V
2

LED V

FIGURE 1.17  a A circuit diagram from a logbook; b The same circuit diagram redrawn in a formal report

The method section for a secondary-sourced investigation is generally shorter. If you are conducting
a review of the current literature on a topic, then your method will say what literature searches you
carried out and how you decided which sources to use.
The results section is a summary of your results. It is usually combined with the analysis section,
although they may be kept separate.
Tables comparing the results of different experiments or secondary sources are useful, but avoid
including long tables of raw data in your report. Wherever possible, use a graph instead of a table. If you
need to include a lot of raw data, then put it in an appendix attached to the end of the report.
Think about what sort of graph is appropriate. If you want to show a relationship between two
variables, then use a scatter plot. Display your data as points with uncertainty bars and clearly label any
lines you have fitted to the data. Column and bar charts are used for comparing different data sets. Do
not use a column or bar chart to try to show a mathematical relationship between variables. Examples of
these two types of graphs are shown in Figure 1.18.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 25

 a FIGURE 1.18 
Temperature vs time for bark hut a A scatter plot
70 demonstrating
60 a mathematical
relationship;
50 b A column graph

T (8C)
40 comparing results
from different
30
experiments
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (h)

b Thermal efficiency of different building materials

Time for T to drop by 50% (h)

20

15

10

0
Glass house Steel sheet Bark hut Brick house Straw bale
Model building material

Any data and derived results should be given in correct SI units with their uncertainties. If you
performed calculations, then show the equations you used. You might want to show one example
Weblink
Referencing
calculation, but do not show more than one if the procedure used is repeated.
guide The discussion should summarise what your results mean. If you began with a research question,
This guide is designed
to help you with
give the answer to the question here. If you began with a hypothesis, state whether or not your results
referencing your supported your hypothesis. If not, explain why. If your investigation led you to more questions (as is often
sources.
the case), say what further work could be done to answer those questions.
The conclusion is a very brief summary of the results and their implications. Say what you found out
and what it means. A conclusion should only be a few sentences long.
Scientific reports often include acknowledgements thanking people and organisations that helped
with the investigation. This includes people who supplied equipment or funding, as well as people who
gave you good ideas or helped with the analysis. In science, as in other aspects of your life, it is always
polite to say thank you.
The final section of a report is the reference list. It details the sources of all information that were actually
used to write the report. This will generally be longer for secondary-sourced investigations. Wherever a
Weblink
Guide to piece of information or quotation is used in your report, it must be referenced at that point. This is typically
referencing in
different styles done either by placing a number in brackets at the point; for example, [2], or the author and year of
This tutorial will publication; for example, (Smith, 2014). The reference list is then either provided in a footnote at the end of
help you understand
referencing and show each page, or a single complete list at the end of the report. There are different formats for referencing, so
you how to avoid
plagiarism. check with your teacher what format is preferred. There are several online guides to referencing.
Note that a reference list is not the same as a bibliography. A bibliography is a list of sources that
are useful to understanding the research. They may or may not have actually been used in writing the
report. You should have a bibliography in your logbook from the planning stage of your investigation.
The references will be a subset of these sources. A primary-sourced investigation does not include a
bibliography. A secondary-sourced investigation may include a bibliography, as well as references, to
demonstrate the scope of your literature search. For some secondary-sourced investigations, such as an
annotated bibliography, the bibliography itself may be a major section of the report.

26 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 Courtesy R A Gayani Ranawake
Abstract Introduction Method Results and analysis Discussion Conclusion

Summarise your Step 1: Describe and justify Step 1: Step 1: Summarise your
Introduction, Correctly what you did (past Summarise your Explain the results by Results and
Results, Method referenced literature tense). results, using tables highlighting important Discussion.
and Discussion review – general and graphs. results, making
sections. background. comparisons and giving
explanations.

Step 2: Step 2: Step 2:

Explain the Summarise your Answer the
motivation for your analysis, giving research question
investigation. Why example (s) of or hypothesis.
is it interesting? calculations.

Step 3:
Specific Step 3:
information, such Describe any
as equations and limitations or
theories. problems.

Step 4:
State the research Step 4:
question or Suggest future
hypothesis. work.

FIGURE 1.19  The steps in each of the major sections of a formal report

Figure 1.19 is a flowchart showing the steps in each of the major sections of a formal report. It shows
the steps as they appear in the final report to give a logical sequence for your reader, but typically you
would not write your report in this order. For example, students often find it easiest to write the method
section first and the abstract last.

Other ways of communicating your work

You may want to present the results of your investigation in some other way. Look at examples of science
investigations reported in places such as websites, newspapers, television etc. This will give you an idea
of the different styles used in the different media. Think about the purpose – is it to inform, to persuade,
or both? What sort of language is used?
Think about your audience and purpose, and use appropriate language and style. A poster is not
knilbeW

usually as formal as a report. A video or webpage may be more or less formal, depending on your audience.
Posters and websites use a lot of images. Images are usually more appealing than words and numbers, Website
accessibility
but they need to be relevant. Make sure they communicate the information you want them to.
The Royal Society
Consider accessibility if you are creating a website. Fonts need to be large enough and digital images for the Blind has
information on
should have tags. You can follow the weblink for more information on accessibility and website design. making websites
If you plan to make a video, consider who your audience is and what will appeal to them. Think about accessible.

how you will balance content with entertainment.

A formal report uses referencing to show where you found information. Other means of
communicating about your depth study or investigation also need to acknowledge the sources of

9780170409063 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 27

 information you used. You also need to be very careful about using copyright content – for example,
you cannot copy images from other people’s websites without permission unless the site gives that
permission. Talk to your teacher about how they would like you to acknowledge your sources.
However you communicate your work, make sure you know what the message is and who the
audience is. Once you have established that, you will be able to let other people know about the
interesting things you have discovered in your investigation.

Ideas for depth studies

As you progress through this course, you will see investigations in each chapter. Some of these
investigations are described in detail. These detailed investigations are designed to be useful as
training exercises in learning how to perform primary investigations – how to set up equipment, make
measurements and analyse data. Even if your depth study is secondary-sourced, it is important to gain
some experience of conducting investigations as physics is an empirical science.
At the end of each end-of-module review there is a short section called depth study suggestions. Here
you will find ideas for primary- and secondary-sourced investigations, which build on the content of the
preceding chapters. These suggestions are sourced from experienced teachers and university academics,
and the physics education literature. Your teacher will also have ideas and suggestions, and you can
generate your own ideas by reading about topics you are interested in.
Consider what skills from other areas you might bring to a depth study, particularly if you are artistic
or musical, or good at making things. Many physicists combine their love of science with other creative
pursuits.
By carrying out depth studies, not only will you extend your knowledge and understanding in physics,
but more importantly you will also learn how to work scientifically – you will learn how to ‘do’ physics.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● A formal report has the same form as an article written by a scientist. It begins with an abstract
briefly summarising the entire work. It includes an introduction section (with a literature
review), and method, results and analysis, discussion and conclusion sections.
●● All sources need to be referenced correctly.
●● There are many ways of communicating your findings. Choose a method that is appropriate to
your investigation and your intended audience.

28 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409063

 » MODULE ONE

KINEMATICS
2 Motion in a straight line

3 Motion on a plane

Shutterstock.com/Jag_cz

9780170409063 29
 2 Motion in a straight line
INQUIRY OUTCOMES Students:
QUESTION •• describe uniform straight-line (rectilinear) motion and uniformly accelerated motion through:
– qualitative descriptions
How is the motion of
– the use of scalar and vector quantities (ACSPH060)
an object moving in a
straight line described •• conduct a practical investigation to gather data to facilitate the analysis of instantaneous and average
velocity through: ICT
and predicted?
– quantitative, first-hand measurements
– the graphical representation and interpretation of data (ACSPH061) N
•• calculate the relative velocity of two objects moving along the same line using vector analysis
•• conduct practical investigations, selecting from a range of technologies, to record and analyse the motion
of objects in a variety of situations in one dimension in order to measure or calculate: ICT N
– time
– distance
– displacement
– speed
– velocity
– acceleration
•• use mathematical modelling and graphs, selected from a range of technologies, to analyse and derive
relationships between time, distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration in rectilinear motion,
including:
1
– s = ut + at 2
2
– v = u + at
2 2
– v = u + 2a s (ACSPH061) ICT N
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
iStock.com/Cebas

30 9780170409063
 It was once thought that moving objects would slow down and stop when they got tired – their motion
was something that was natural to them. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) believed that heavier objects naturally
fell faster than light objects. He said an ‘efficient cause’ made an arrow travel in a straight line. It moved off
a straight line by reason of violent force. Aristotle developed a sophisticated view about motion that was
used extensively for nearly 2000 years. However, not every observation could be explained using these
ideas. As a result, Aristotle’s ideas came under scrutiny. Galileo and Newton changed the way motion WS
is explained by using the results of many observations and investigations to develop new ideas about
FromHomework
Aristotle to
motion. These ideas are still used today to explain all but the most unusual forms of motion. Einstein’s Galileo to Newton
theories are required to explain the behaviour of objects and particles that are moving at speeds close to
the speed of light. These theories and laws are models for the behaviour of the motion of objects, which are
themselves modelled as point masses. We use graphs and equations as equivalent and complementary
representations of the motion of these model particles.

Shutterstock.com/Denis Babenko

FIGURE 2.1  Relative motion on a railway platform

2.1 Motion along a straight line

Motion can occur in straight lines, on a surface (two dimensions) or in three dimensions. The simplest
type of motion of an object is along a straight line – forward or backward, to the left or right, or up or
down. When we describe motion, we choose a sensible frame of reference. For example, stationary Earth
is a sensible frame of reference for an aeroplane; for Venus, the Sun can be considered to be stationary.
The chosen frame of reference can be used even if it is in motion, such as Earth moving around the Sun
at about 30 km s−1.
A car has many moving parts. However, in our studies we will model a car or other object as having
its entire mass concentrated at one point – its centre of mass. This will simplify calculations about the
motion of the car, even though a real car is not a single point. Such models are often used in physics.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 31

 Simplifications of real situations make it possible to analyse the motion of an object with length, such as
a car, even though it is obviously not a single point. More detailed analysis of the different parts of the car,
such as that undertaken by car designers, might be required to understand car safety and how vehicles
deform in crashes.

Distance and displacement

In order to describe the motion of an object, information about the position of the object and the time
are needed. Position cannot change instantaneously. An object cannot move from one place to another
without taking time to do so. It takes time for the position of anything to change.
B O A
The position of an object is measured as the distance away from some reference point,
240 230 220 210cm 10cm 20 30 such as the starting place, or origin, O. In Figure 2.2, point A is a distance of 25 cm from
O while point B is 40 cm from O. A position can either be to the right or to the left of the
FIGURE 2.2  By defining a starting origin O in this example. A position to the right is given a positive value while a position to
point or origin, opposite directions the left is negative. In a method similar to a number line in mathematics, point A is said to
can be designated positive and
negative. be +25 cm from O while point B is −40 cm from O.

Distance
Distance, d, is the actual length between two points. It has no direction. For example, the distance between
points A and B in Figure 2.2 is simply stated as 65 cm.

Displacement
Displacement is the position of an object relative to the origin, or starting point. In straight-line motion,
displacement must be given a positive or negative value to show which side of the origin the object is
positioned.
In a marathon in which the finish line is the same as the starting line, a runner will have a final
displacement of zero at the end of the race. The distance run will be 42.2  km, but the displacement
measures how far you are from the start or origin. At times during the race, the runner’s displacement
may have been many kilometres, as this is the straight-line distance from the start to the runner. We will

use d as the symbol for distance and s for displacement. Both displacement and distance have the same
SI unit, the metre (m).

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1

A snail starts at a position 20 cm from the origin, and then moves to a new position 40 cm further away
before going back past the origin to a position 20 cm on the other side of the origin. It finally ends up at
the origin. The positions are shown in Figure 2.3a.
Numeracy
b Position
(cm)
60
40
20
0 15
a
C O A B 5 10 Time (s)
220
230 220 210cm 10cm 20 30 40 50 60

FIGURE 2.3  a A snail moves along a straight line from +20 cm to +60 cm, then to −20 cm, and then ends up at the
origin, O. b Cartesian position–time graph of the motion of a snail along a straight line

32 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 The position–time graph of the motion is shown in Figure 2.3b.
1 What was the distance travelled by the snail’s centre of mass on its trip?
2 What was the final displacement of the snail’s centre of mass relative to the:
a starting point?
b origin?

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 d = 40 cm + (60 cm − (−20 cm)) + (20 cm − 0 cm) •• Read data from graph correctly.

= 40 cm + 80 cm + 20 cm •• Calculate the correct answer.

= 140 cm
 •• Identify the appropriate formula.
2 a s = df − di
= 0 cm − 20 cm •• Substitute all known values into the formula.
 •• Calculate the correct answer.
s = −20 cm
(i.e. 20 cm to the left of the starting point)
b The snail is at the origin after the movement. This means •• Interpret the answer correctly.
its displacement is zero relative to the origin.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

Tia lives on a long straight road 250 m from the shops and 400 m from her friend James, who lives in the
opposite direction. Tia walks to the shops, and then goes to see James.
1 Before she goes out, what is Tia’s position relative to:
a the shops?
b James?
2 After the walk:
a what distance did Tia travel?
b what was Tia’s displacement relative to home?

A word about numbers

If we measure a quantity of something, such as marbles in a jar, the number just has a size (magnitude).
An ordinary number such as this is called a scalar. Distance travelled is a scalar. We only care about how
many metres were covered, not what direction we were going in.
With displacement, we care about the magnitude and we also care about the direction. On a number
line, direction is positive or negative. Numbers that require both magnitude and direction are called
vectors. We will represent vectors such as displacement by writing their pronumerals with a small arrow

above them; for example, s .

Time, speed and velocity

The position of an object is measured at a particular time, t. The SI unit for time measurements is the
second, s.
Movement is the change in position as time changes. Any time interval can be shown as Δt, where:
Δ t = t2 − t1 (Unit: s)
Δ t represents the amount of time that has passed from one measurement to the next. Δ t is a single
symbol. It is often replaced by t, but retains the meaning Δt = t2 − t1.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 33

 In everyday speech, the terms speed and velocity may be used to mean the same thing. In physics,
speed relates to the distance covered in a time interval; velocity specifically relates to the change in
displacement during a time interval.
The change in distance, called the distance interval, is given the symbol s (no arrow − it is not a vector).
s = d2 − d1 (Unit: m)
TABLE 2.1  Scalars and vectors
SCALARS VECTORS
Distance, s 
Displacement, s
Speed, v 
Velocity, v

Speed
Speed, v, is a measure of how fast something is travelling. It is the rate at which distance changes
as time changes. Speed can be measured by observing the distance travelled and dividing by
WS
the observed time taken. Speed may be reported as instantaneous, such as the reading on the
speedometer of a car, or it may be average, where a whole trip is measured. Whether it is instantaneous
Distance versus
Homework
or average, speed is always measured by measuring distance intervals, and time intervals and
time graphs:
designing a walk performing the calculation:
s
v=
t
Distance
distance travelled (m)
The SI unit of speed and velocity is the unit of ,
−1
that is, m/s or m s . time taken (s)
Distance
travelled In Figure 2.4, the gradient of the distance–time graph gives the
(rise) speed. For constant speed, the gradient is the same at all points.
The graph is a straight line. In this situation, the average speed would
Time be the same as the instantaneous speed throughout the journey. If the
Time taken
(run)
speed were to vary, the gradient of the line would change too.
rise You cannot measure the speed of a car by taking a single photo.
Gradient 5 slope 5 run
distance travelled You can measure its speed over a very short time interval from a video
5
time taken of its motion, using the frame just before and just after the instant in
5 speed
time in question. Therefore, reference to instantaneous speed is really
FIGURE 2.4  Speed is given by a reference to an average speed that is the same value as all the speeds
the gradient (rise/run) of the in the time interval measured. This is why the time interval needs to be
distance–time graph.
very small.

Velocity

The change in displacement, the displacement interval, is given the symbol s . The arrow above the
symbol is used to signify that this quantity has a direction associated with it.
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement as time changes:

 s
∆v = (Unit: m s−1)
t
Speed is the magnitude of the velocity. It can be found by dividing the straight-line difference between
initial and final displacements by the time interval over which the change takes place. The direction of
velocity is either positive or negative for straight-line motion. In general, the direction of the velocity is
the same as the direction of the change of displacement.

34 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 2.1

The speeds of common objects

We can make objects move at different speeds. Some first-class cricketers can bowl a ball at speeds
Numeracy
approaching 45 m s−1. The mechanical advantage conferred by a bat or racquet can increase or decrease
ball speeds. Information and
communication
AIM technology
capability
To measure the speeds of some human-propelled objects

MATERIALS

•• Stopwatch
•• Measuring tape
•• Various bats, racquets and balls
•• Optional: video camera or motion data-logger

!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
A ball hit with a bat could hit a person or break a window. Perform the experiment in an open space, such as a school
oval, and keep bystanders well back.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Measure out an appropriate length (e.g. 20 m) between two lines on the school oval or in a clear area.
2 By either throwing or hitting a ball with a bat or racquet, reproduce the actions of several different
ball sports (e.g. cricket, tennis, hockey, golf ) that propel a ball from one line past the other.
3 Measure the time it takes for the ball to travel the designated distance. For this, use a stopwatch or you may
be able to video the motion and use the clock on the video. You might also have access to a motion data-
logger that is able to measure speed directly.
4 Repeat step 3 for the same sport several times.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 for a different sport.

RESULTS
Record the results of your timing measurements for each sport in a table.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Find the average speed of the ball for each sport. Include an estimate of the uncertainty in each value.
2 Convert the results from m s−1 to km h−1.

DISCUSSION
Discuss the difficulties encountered during this experiment and suggest ways in which the data collection
could be made to be more accurate.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 35

 Speed Relationship between speed, distance and time
Speed of If you walk steadily taking two paces each second, you are walking at 2 paces per
motion second (i.e. 2 paces s−1). In 10 seconds, you would have moved 20 paces. Using
metres as the unit of length allows any motion to be described in the same way
Area 5 v 3 Dt anywhere. Calculations to find the distance moved can be made:
∆d s
v= =
∆t t
Time taken Time
Area shaded 5 speed of motion 3 time taken s = vt
5 distance travelled
The distance travelled can also be found by calculating the area under a speed–
FIGURE 2.5  A speed versus time graph of an
object moving at constant speed
time graph. This shows that v times t, which equals s (the distance travelled), is the
area under the line, as shown in Figure 2.5.

Motion when speed changes instantaneously

When an object changes speed in a very short amount of time, the change in speed is often regarded as
being instantaneous. Truly instantaneous speed change is impossible for the same reasons that truly
instantaneous distance change is impossible. In Worked example 2.2, we will consider that the runner
changes her speed almost instantaneously (at 15 minutes in Figure 2.6) for practical purposes.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2

20
−1
An athlete runs at 20 km h for 15 minutes. She then
Speed (km h21)

15
gets a stitch and slows to 15 km h−1 for the next hour.
The speed versus time graph is shown in Figure 2.6. 10
1 How far does the runner travel in the first
15 minutes? 5

2 How far does she run in total? 0

0 15 30 45 60 75
Time (min)

FIGURE 2.6

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 Area = s1 •• Identify required area under the graph.

= v1Δ t1 •• Calculate the correct answer.

= 20 km h−1 × 0.25 h
= 5 km
2 Area = s1 + s2 •• Use area under the graph.

= v1Δ t1 + v2Δ t2 •• Calculate the correct answer.

−1
= 5 km + (15 km h × 1 h)
Area = 20 km

TRY THIS YOURSELF

If the runner continues at 15 km h−1 for another hour, how far will she have run in total?

36 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 Average speed, vavg
When you are travelling through the city in a car, your speed changes all the time. If you have travelled
20 km in half an hour, you would say that your average speed, vavg, was 40 km h−1 for that trip. It does
not mean that you were always moving at 40 km h−1; however, if you had been travelling at a constant
40 km h−1, the same trip would have taken the same time. Average speed is the one single speed that
would enable the car to cover the same distance in the same time interval:
∆d s
vavg = = (Units: m s−1)
∆t t

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.3

What was the average speed of the athlete in worked example 2.2?

ANSWER LOGIC

∆d s •• Use the correct formula.

vavg = =
∆t t •• The average speed is found by dividing the total distance
travelled by the total time interval taken for the entire event.
s = 20 km; Δt = 1.25 hours
20 •• Substitute the correct values to find the correct answer and
vavg = = 16 km h −1
1.25 units.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

A car trip involves travelling at 60 km h−1 for 1 hour, and then at 100 km h−1 for the next 30 minutes. Find the
average speed of the car for the entire trip.

Instantaneous speed, vinst

Glancing down at the speedometer of a car will give Position
information about the vehicle’s speed at that moment. This is Tangent
the car’s instantaneous speed, vinst. When observing an object
in motion, it is often very difficult to measure its instantaneous Distance
speed. To find a speed, we need to measure the distance and travelled
the time intervals. This means that every measurement Time interval
of speed is really a measurement of some average speed. In
reality, all measurements are averages. However, if the time
interval is very small, the average speed becomes very close to
Time
the instantaneous speed; vinst ≈ vavg.
If the time interval is made smaller and smaller so that FIGURE 2.7  Instantaneous speed, vinst, is
the value of the gradient of the tangent to
it approaches zero, the value of the vavg being measured the position–time graph.
approaches the gradient of the d versus t graph.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 37

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.4

Refer to the speed versus time graph for an object

shown in Figure 2.8.
Speed
1 Find the distance travelled: (cm s21)
10
a in the first 10.0 s.
b between 10.0 s and 30.0 s.
c between 30.0 s and 35.0 s. 0 10 20 30 40 Time
(s)
2 Find the average speed of the object for the trip.
3 Find the distance travelled in 15 s. FIGURE 2.8

4 How long does the object take to travel 70 cm?

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 a Distance is the area under the graph. •• Identify how to determine distance from the graph.

1 •• Identify the formula required to calculate area under

= × 10 cm s−1 × 10 s the graph.
2
= 50 cm •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate
the area.
b Distance = 10 cm s−1 × 20 s •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate
= 200 cm the area.

1 •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate

c Distance = × 10 cm s−1 × 5 s
2 the area.
= 25 cm
total distance
2 Average speed = •• Identify the formula required to calculate the gradient.
time interval
275 cm
= •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate
35 s the gradient.
= 7.9 cm s−1
1 •• Identify the formula required to calculate the distance.
3 Distance = × 10 cm s−1 × 10 s + (10 cm s−1 × 5 s)
2
= 100 cm •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate
the distance.
4 Somewhere between 10 s and 15 s, the object has •• Identify relevant information from the question and determine
travelled 70 cm. the appropriate formula.
Let t be the time at which the object has travelled 70 cm.
The area under the graph after 10 s is
(t − 10 s) × v and s = 20 cm.
s = (t − 10 s) × v
s •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate
t − 10 s = the answer.
v
s
t = + 10 s
v
20 cm
= + 10 s
10 cm s−1
= 12 s

38 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 TRY THESE YOURSELF
At the school sports, Elle runs the 100 m event in 17.25 s (see 10
Figure 2.9).
8

Speed (m s21)
1 Calculate the distance covered:
6
a in the first 6.0 s.
b from 6.0 s to 8.0 s. 4

2 Calculate the average speed in the first 8.0 s. 2

0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)

FIGURE 2.9

Relative velocity
Suppose you are standing beside a road, and a vehicle is approaching you from the left at 20  m  s−1.
Looking right, another vehicle is approaching at 20 m s−1. From your frame of reference, modelled as the
origin on a number line, both vehicles have a speed of 20 m s−1. However, from the point of view of either
of the drivers, the other vehicle is approaching at 40 m s−1.
Relative velocity depends on the frame of reference. It can be a very useful concept when considering
the consequences of events such as collisions. A crash at 40 m s−1 does considerably more damage than
a crash at 20 m s−1.

To analyse these linear situations, choose one of the moving objects and call it the observer, with vo

as its velocity. Let vd be the velocity of the other object, which we will call the distant object.
The relative velocity is given by:  
vo − vd

Table 2.2 gives the relative velocity of the observer (relative to the distant object), assuming vo is
moving in the positive direction.

TABLE 2.2  Relative velocities and their meaning

SITUATION RESULT INTERPRETATION

  
v o < v d same direction A negative number v o is moving in the negative direction with

respect to v d
  
v o > v d same direction A positive number v o is moving in the positive direction with

respect to v d
Opposite directions A positive number 
v o is moving in the positive direction with

respect to v d


Note that if the objects are travelling in opposite directions, vd is necessarily moving in a negative
  
direction with respect to vo , and so vo − vd will necessarily yield a positive number. Whether they are
closing or separating will depend on their initial positions, but the relative velocity will have the same
magnitude.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 39

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.5

A car is travelling along a road at 22 m s−1. A truck is travelling in the same direction 100 m ahead at
18 m s−1.
1 How long will it take for the car to overtake the truck?
2 How far will the car have travelled in that time?

ANSWERS LOGIC
  •• Identify the appropriate formula to determine the
1 Relative velocity = vcar − v truck
difference in speed.
= 22 m s−1 − 18 m s−1 •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate
= 4 m s−1 relative velocity.
  •• Identify the correct formula to determine the time taken
 s s
v = , so t =  and rearrange to find the unknown.
t v

100 m •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate

= the time taken.
4 m s−1
= 25 s
2 Absolute distance travelled: •• Identify the correct formula to determine the absolute
  distance.
s = vt

= 22 × 25 •• Substitute known values into the formula and calculate

the answer.
= 550 m

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Two vehicles are approaching each other on opposite sides of a motorway. The first is moving at
100 km h−1, while the other is travelling at 85 km h−1. If their initial separation is 2.0 km, how long
will it take them to pass each other?
2 A dog is chasing a postman. The dog sprints at 8.5 m s−1 and starts 10 m behind the postman. The
postman sprints at 6 m s−1. The dog will stop 50 m from its starting point.
a Will the dog reach the postman?
b How long will the pursuit take?
KEY CONCEPTS

●● A frame of reference is a spatial coordinate system for observing physical phenomena that
allows for an origin. It enables the measurement of quantities involved in changing position.
●● The centre of mass is the average (mean) position of all matter in the system, weighted by
mass.
●● A scalar is a number that has only magnitude (size).
●● Distance, d, is the actual length between two points. It has no direction and is therefore a scalar.
●● A vector is a number that has both magnitude and direction.

●● Displacement, s , represents a change of position with respect to the starting point. It has both
magnitude (the distance) and direction, so it is a vector.
●● Movement is the change in position as time changes.
●● Any time interval can be shown as Δt, where: Δt = t2 − t1 (Unit: s).
●● Speed, v, relates to the distance covered in a time interval.

●● Velocity, v , specifically relates to the change in displacement during a time interval.

40 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 ●● Speed is the magnitude of the velocity. Velocity also includes direction.
●● Change in distance, called the distance interval, is given the symbol s, where s = d2 − d1
(Unit: m).
●● Speed is measured as distance travelled over time (Unit: s−1).
●● Average speed is the one single speed that would enable an object to cover a specified distance
in a given time interval.
●● Instantaneous speed is the rate at which distance is covered over a time interval that is so brief
as to be negligible.
●● For constant speed, the gradient on a distance–time graph is the same at all points. The graph is
a straight line.
●● The area under the curve on a speed–time graph shows the distance travelled.
●● A graph of v versus t shows that the area under the line equals s, which is the distance
travelled.
●● Relative velocity depends on the frame of reference.
 
●● Relative velocity is given by: v o − vd .
●● Using vector addition, the resultant vector from the point of view of one object is with respect
to the other object, not the fixed external frame of reference.

CHECK YOUR
1 What is the difference between: UNDERSTANDING
a distance and displacement?
b speed and velocity? 2.1
c average and instantaneous speed?
d average and instantaneous velocity?
2 What does the value of the gradient of a distance versus time graph for an object represent?
3 Explain why instantaneous speed at a time during a journey can be quite different from the average speed
for the whole journey.
4 For a speed versus time graph, show how to find the units of:
a gradient.
b area.
5 Jane averages 80 km h−1 for a 120 km journey. For the first 60 km, she averages 60 km h−1. What must her
average speed have been for the remainder of the journey?
6 A battery-operated car travels 6.0 m north in 2.4 s and then 6.0 m south in 1.8 s.
a What is the displacement of the car?
b What is the average velocity of the car?
c What is the distance travelled by the car?
d What is the average speed of the car?
7 A cyclist travels at 30 km h−1 for 0.5 hours, and then at 50 km h−1 for the next hour until the destination is
reached.
a How fast would a second cyclist, travelling at a constant speed, need to ride to arrive at the destination
in the same time?
b Explain why the answer to part a above is not simply 40 km h−1.
8 The world record for the 100 m sprint is approximately 10 s. At this average speed, in what time would the
record-holder run 1500 m?
9 The Blue Orchid and the Yellow Devil taxi services pick up passengers at an airport at midday to drive to
the same destination. The driver of the Yellow Devil taxi averages 100 km h−1 for 4 h, while the driver of the
Blue Orchid taxi travels more sedately for 3 h at an average speed of 80 km h−1.
At what speed must the Blue Orchid taxi driver travel during the next hour so that the two taxis arrive
at the same place at 4 p.m.?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 41

 2.2 Acceleration along a straight line
The speed of sprinters in a 100 m race increases very quickly in the first few seconds of the race. Once
WS they cross the finish line, their speeds gradually decrease until they stop. In everyday language, this would
be described as acceleration and deceleration. Both involve a change in speed over a time interval, so
Kinematics:
Homework
analysis of data they are both examples of acceleration – the first is positive acceleration and the second is negative
acceleration. When speed in the positive direction is increasing, it is positive acceleration. When the
speed in the positive direction is decreasing, it is negative acceleration.
Acceleration can therefore be positive or negative. A car becoming faster in the negative (reverse)
direction would be undergoing negative acceleration, or acceleration in the negative direction.
Acceleration occurs over a time interval, and is defined as the change in velocity divided by the time
interval:
 ∆v (m s −1 ) v
WS a avg = = (Units: m s−2)
∆t (s) t
Reaction times
Homework
investigation Instantaneous acceleration can be found using the same method as instantaneous speed. As Δt
approaches zero, the value of the acceleration is the value of the gradient of the velocity versus time
  
graph at that time. For constant acceleration, aavg = ainst = a .
As velocity is speed with direction, acceleration will be occurring when there is a change in the
direction of motion, even if the speed is constant. This affects our analysis of projectile motion and
circular motion. However, for the time being, we will concentrate only on motion in a straight line.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.6

The speed of a car increases from 5.0 m s−1 to 15.0 m s−1 in 4.0 seconds. What was the car’s average
acceleration?

ANSWER LOGIC

•• Extract relevant data from the question.

v f = 15.0 m s −1 ; v i = 5.0 m s −1 ; Δt = 4.0 s
•• Identify the appropriate formula.
Dv (m s −1 )
aavg =
   Dt (s)

•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

∆v v f − v i m s −1
=
∆t ∆t s
15 m s −1 − 5 m s −1
=
   4.0 s
   = 2.5 m s−2 •• Calculate the correct answer, and express it with correct
significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

Find the average acceleration, in m s−2, for a car when its speed:
1 increases from 16 m s−1 to 40 m s−1 in 3.0 s.
2 decreases from 75 km h−1 to 40 km h−1 in 5.0 s.

42 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 The area under an acceleration versus time graph has the units of speed, m s−1. Finding the change
in the speed between two values of time will involve finding the rectangular area under the acceleration
versus time graph. This applies to objects with constant acceleration, as shown in Figure 2.10a.
For non-constant acceleration, the change in speed is still found using the area under the acceleration
versus time graph, as shown in Figure 2.10b.

a Acceleration b Acceleration Acceleration

Time ∆t Time ∆t Time

∆t

FIGURE 2.10  a The area under the acceleration–time graph gives the change in speed. b The area under the
acceleration–time graph is the change of speed, even for non-constant accelerations.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.7

A cruise ship accelerates at a constant rate for 10.0 minutes until it reaches a speed of 10 m s−1. It then
continues to travel in a straight line for 20.0 minutes at 10 m s−1.
1 Sketch a speed (m s−1) versus time (s) graph for the ship for the 30 minutes. Note: convert minutes to
seconds so that the time axis goes from 0 to 1800 s.
2 What was the ship’s acceleration, in m s−2, for the first 10.0 minutes?
3 Sketch an acceleration versus time graph for the ship for the 30 minutes.

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 Speed •• Draw the axes and label correctly.

(m s21) •• Plot the line using the information provided.

10

600 1200 1800

Time (s)

FIGURE 2.11

2 Acceleration (m s−2) •• Identify the appropriate formula.

∆v
a=
∆t
10 m s−1 − 0 m s−1
= m s−1 •• Substitute the known values into the formula, calculate the
10 min × 60 s per min answer and express it with correct significant figures and units
= 1.67 × 10 −2 m s−2

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 43

 ANSWERS LOGIC

3 Acceleration •• Draw the axes and label correctly.

(m s22) •• Plot the line using the information provided.

1.67 3 1022

600 1200 1800

Time (s)

FIGURE 2.12

TRY THESE YOURSELF

Velocity north
(m s21)

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (s)

FIGURE 2.13

The velocity versus time graph for a bus travelling along a straight road is shown in Figure 2.13.
1 What distance is travelled by the bus while it is accelerating in a positive direction?
2 What is the distance between the two bus stops?
3 What is the acceleration of the bus in the first 10 s of motion?

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.8

Figure 2.14 shows the velocity–time graph for Velocity

an object as it moves along a straight line. (m s21)
10
1 Find the displacement after 20 s.
5
30
2 Find the acceleration at 17.0 s. 0
10 20 40 Time (s)
3 What is the acceleration at t = 35.0 s? 25
210

FIGURE 2.14

44 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

1 Displacement = area under graph •• Identify the relevant information for the required area,
determine the appropriate formula and substitute the
 1
(
s = 10 m s −1 × 10 s + 10 m s −1 × 5 s
2
) ( ) known values.

1
2
1
(
+ 10 m s −1 × 2.5 s − 10 m s −1 × 2.5 s
2
) ( )
= 50 m + 50 m + 12.5 m − 12.5 m •• Calculate the correct answer.

= 100 m

change in velocity •• Identify the correct formula to determine the

2 Acceleration = acceleration.
time

( ) ( )
−1 −1 •• Substitute the known values and calculate the correct
 −10 m s − +10 m s answer.
a=
20 s − 15 s
= −4.0 m s−2
3 Finding the gradient of the tangent to the graph at t = 35.0 s •• Identify the relevant data from the graph and the
appropriate formula to determine the average
gives
acceleration over the segment, then substitute the
 5 m s −1 − 0 m s −1 known values into the formula.
a=
40 s − 25 s

•• Calculate the correct answer.

5 m s −1
=
15 s

a = 0.3 m s −2

TRY THIS YOURSELF

A motorbike, initially at rest, accelerates constantly at 5 m s−2 until it reaches a speed of 20 m s−1. Sketch a speed
versus time graph for the period before it reaches 20 m s−1. Clearly show the time when this final speed is reached.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity divided by the time interval.

●● Acceleration in a straight line can be positive or negative, depending on whether the object is
speeding up or slowing down.
●● On a speed–time graph, the average acceleration is the gradient of the line drawn covering the
time interval Δt.
●● The instantaneous acceleration is found as the time interval becomes small enough to be negligible.

CHECK YOUR
1 For the motion of the two cars, A and B, in Figure 2.15, explain how it can be deduced that they never travel UNDERSTANDING
at the same speed.
2 The velocity versus time graph for the motion of a sprinter is shown in Figure 2.16. 2.2
12
Velocity (m s21)

B
Displacement (m)

A
8
B C
A
4

0 2 4 6 8
Time (s) Time (s)

FIGURE 2.15 FIGURE 2.16

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 45

 a From the graph, find the acceleration of the athlete at the following points.
i A
ii B
iii C
b Estimate the distance travelled by the athlete in the first 4.0 s.
c At what time is the acceleration of the athlete the greatest?
d What is the maximum velocity reached by the athlete?
3 A car that is accelerating uniformly from rest travels 22.5 m in the eighth second of its motion.
a Calculate the acceleration of the car.
b Calculate how far the car travels in the first 6.0 s.
4 A car accelerates uniformly from rest to 25 m s−1 in 10 s.
a Sketch the graphs for:
i displacement versus time.
ii velocity versus time.
iii acceleration versus time.
b From the velocity versus time graph, state the car’s:
i acceleration.
ii speed at 5.0 s.
iii displacement at 10 s.
5 A driver travelling at 75 km h−1 has a reaction time of 0.31 s. When a hazard occurs 50 m ahead, the driver
slams on the brakes and comes to a stop just a few millimetres from the hazard.
Calculate and show the following on a carefully drawn sketch graph.
a how far the driver travels before the brakes are applied (m)
b how far the driver travels after the brakes are applied (m)
c braking time
d acceleration when braking

 Equations for straight-line motion

2.3
with constant acceleration
Graphs and algebraic formulae can both be used to represent motion. They are equivalent representations
or models of motion. There is no reason why one representation of motion should be taken to be more
important than another. For motion at constant acceleration, the speed versus time graph is a straight
line. The gradient represents the acceleration and the area under the graph represents the distance
covered. From the graph, a number of simple equations can be derived. These equations represent the
same motion as the graph and are, therefore, exactly equivalent to the graphs.
v
So far we have observed that, for uniformly accelerated motion, a = .
t
It follows then that v = at .
This assumes that there is no initial, non-accelerated velocity. To account for this possibility, assume

there is an initial velocity (which could still be zero). Let this initial velocity have the symbol u . The final
velocity will be the sum of this plus the uniformly accelerated portion, and we can write:
◗◗ Equation 1 v = u + at
If we plot this on a velocity–time graph, the distance travelled is given by the area under the curve
(see Figure 2.17).

46 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 Speed is, by definition, the distance travelled divided by the time Speed
s (m s21)
interval: v = , which implies s = vt; that is, distance is speed multiplied
t
by time. On a speed–time graph, the axes are respectively v and t, so the at
height times the base of the rectangle is v × t, which represents distance 1
Area 5 at2
for constant speed. Adding the uniformly accelerated portion, we see 2

there is a triangle on top of the original rectangle, with an area given by

1 u Area 5 uDt
v × t.
2
v Time(s)
By definition, a = , which implies v = at . Therefore, the area of
t
the triangle is: FIGURE 2.17

1 1 1
Area = v × t = at × t = at 2
2 2 2
The total distance travelled is the sum of the rectangle plus the triangle:
1 2
◗◗ Equation 2 s = ut + at
2
Equation 2 can be used to algebraically find distance or displacement in uniformly accelerated
situations, provided we know starting velocity, elapsed time and acceleration.
There is a third equation we can use if we do not know the time interval. By making t the subject of
equation 1 and substituting into equation 2, it can be shown that:
◗◗ Equation 3 v 2 = u 2 + 2a s
This allows us to relate initial and final velocities with acceleration and displacement in a manner
that is independent of time.
Each of these equations involves four variables. When solving problems algebraically, you will need to
know the values of three of the five variables: v, u, a, t or s. The fourth can be found by simple substitution WS
in the appropriate equation. It is then possible to use another equation to find the fifth variable.
Motion summary
Homework
Graphical analysis is often simpler and more obvious than algebraic analysis. Acceleration (gradient)
and distance (area) can often be computed easily once a v versus t graph is sketched and relevant data
points are identified.
Both methods yield the same answers because they are both models of the same motion.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.9

A car is travelling along a straight road at 20 m s−1. It accelerates at a uniform 2 m s−2 for 10 seconds.
1 What is the car’s final velocity?
2 What is the total distance travelled by the car during its acceleration phase?

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 u = 20 m s−1; a = 2 m s−2; t = 10 s •• Identify the relevant data from the question.

v = u + at •• Identify the appropriate formula.

 = 20 m s−1 + 2 m s−2 × 10 s •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the
formula.
 = 40 m s−1 •• Calculate the answer and express with correct
significant figures and units.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 47

 ANSWERS LOGIC

2 u = 20 m s−1; a = 2 m s−2; t = 10 s •• Identify the relevant data from the question.

1 •• Identify the appropriate formula.

s = ut + at 2
2

1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the

= 20 m s −1 × 10 s + × 2 m s −2 × 10 2 s 2 formula.
  2

= 200 m + 1 m s−2 × 100 s2 •• Calculate the answer and express with correct
significant figures and units.
= 300 m

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A motorist driving at 80 km h−1 decelerates to 60 km h−1 in 5 seconds. What was the motorist’s
acceleration?
2 A lead ball is dropped 30 feet from a church tower. If the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m s−2, how
long does it take the ball to fall to the ground?
3 A bus accelerates from 40 km h−1 to 80 km h−1 at a rate of 2.4 m s−2. How much distance did it cover
in that time?

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.10

A car initially travelling at a speed of 4.0 m s−1 accelerates at 2.0 m s−2 for 12 s.

1 Sketch the acceleration versus time graph for the car.

2 Find the velocity, v , of the car after 8.0 s.

3 Sketch the v versus t graph.
4 Find the distance moved by the car in the 8.0 s.

ANSWERS LOGIC

•• Correctly sketch graph and label points using the data

1 provided in the question.
Acceleration (m s22)

2.0

0
2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s)

FIGURE 2.18

2 Change in velocity = area under the a versus t graph •• Identify velocity as the area under the curve.
 •• Calculate the car’s initial velocity.
∆v = 2.0 m s −2 × 8.0 s
= 16 m s −1

48 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

  •• Calculate the answer.
v = 4.0 m s −1 + 16 m s −1
•• Express the final answer with correct significant figures
= 20 m s −1 and units.
3 •• Correctly sketch the graph using the data provided in the
28 question.
24
Velocity (m s21)

20
16
12
8
4
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s)

FIGURE 2.19

4 Distance = area under the v versus t graph using the •• Identify distance as the area under the curve.
trapezium
1 •• Substitute known values and correctly calculate the final
s=
2
( )
4.0 m s−1 + 20 m s−1 × 8.0 s answer.

= 96 m

TRY THESE YOURSELF

A train accelerates uniformly from rest to 8.0 m s−1 in 25 s. It
then travels for 50 s at 8.0 m s−1 before coming uniformly to a
Velocity north (m s21)

stop in 12 s (see Figure 2.20).

1 What is the distance travelled by the train in the first 20 s? 8.0
2 What is the distance between the two stops?
3 What is the acceleration of the train in:
a the first 10 s of the train’s motion? 0 25 50 75 100
b the last 10 s of the train’s motion? Time (s)
4 Sketch the acceleration versus time graph for the motion FIGURE 2.20
of the train.
5 After what time interval had the train travelled 300 m?

Linear acceleration under gravity

Once an object is released or thrown, the only force acting upon it is the gravitational force. Gravitational
force is the force applied by one mass on another mass. Gravity is the common name given to the
force applied by Earth’s rather large mass of 6.0 × 1024 kg on ordinarily rather small masses on and near
Earth. Near Earth’s surface, gravity will cause a force on an object that results in that object accelerating
vertically downwards with an acceleration of 9.8 m s−2. This is known as gravitational acceleration, and
is given the symbol g. Although the value of g varies slightly around the world, using a value of 9.8 m s−2
gives sufficiently accurate answers for our purposes.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 49

 Hammer versus feather

Science Photo Library/NASA

Why does a hammer fall faster than a feather when both are released
together? Mostly this is because air resistance has a greater effect on
lighter, fluffier objects than it does on denser, smoother objects. There
is also a buoyancy force that is more significant for lighter objects.
An experiment to show this was conducted by Apollo 15 astronaut
Commander David Scott. He dropped a hammer and a feather on the
Moon, which has no atmosphere. With no air resistance, the objects fell
at the same rate.
For our purposes, we can ignore air resistance and buoyancy effects.
The only significant acceleration for any projectile motion will be 9.8 m s−2
vertically downwards. Graphs of the motion of an object that is dropped
FIGURE 2.21  Apollo 15 Commander David Scott are shown in Figure 2.22 for displacement, velocity and acceleration
dropped a feather and a hammer on the Moon in 1971.
versus time. Notice that the vertical axis is for downwards values

FIGURE 2.22 Graphs
showing the motion Displacement down Velocity down Acceleration down
of a falling object
Weblink
Commander Dave
Scott dropping
a feather and a
hammer
Use the information in
the video to justify the
theory that different
masses fall at the
same rate.
Time Time Time

The consequence of g
The gravitational acceleration value of 9.8 m s−2 means that anything dropped from a height will reach
a speed of 9.8 m s−1 after the first second. This is about 35 km h−1. After the next second, it will be falling
with a speed of 9.8 + 9.8 = 19.6 m s−1, or about 70 km h−1. For every second it falls, the speed of the object
will increase by 9.8 m s−1. With no air friction, a brick would be falling at 98 m s−1 10 seconds after being
WS
dropped. This is why we say 9.8 m s−2 is ‘9.8 metres per second per second’. It means that the speed is
Revision
Homework changing by 9.8 metres per second every second.

Objects falling directly downwards

When analysing the motion of a falling object, we can make the origin the point at which the object
starts to move. If we let the downward direction be positive, variables s, u, v, a and t will all be positive, so
that a = g = +9.8 m s−2.
Worked example 2.11 uses the same equations of motion as used previously.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.11

A watch falls from a Sydney Harbour Bridge climber’s wrist. The watch falls for 2.5 s before hitting a car
below.
1 Sketch a velocity versus time graph of this motion.
2 With what velocity does the watch hit the car?
3 How far did the watch fall?

50 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

1 Time •• Correctly sketch the graph using the data provided in the
question.

FIGURE 2.23

2 u = 0; a = −9.8 m s−2; t = 2.5 s; v = ? •• Identify the relevant data from the question and identify the
variable required.

v = u + at •• Identify the appropriate formula.

•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula and
v = −9.8 m s −1 × 2.5 s calculate the answer, expressed with the correct significant
= −24.5 m s −1 vertically down figures, units and direction.

3 u = 0; a = 9.8 m s−2; t = 2.5 s; s = ? •• Identify the relevant data from the question and identify the
variable required.

1 •• Identify the appropriate formula.

s = ut + at 2
2

1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula and
= 0 + × 9.8 m s −2 × ( 2.5 s )2 calculate the answer, expressed with the correct significant
2
figures and units.
= 31 m down (correct to two significant figures)

TRY THESE YOURSELF

A rock dropped from a cliff hits the ocean with a speed of 44.1 m s−1.
1 Sketch the velocity versus time graph for this motion.
2 For how long did the rock fall?
3 How high is the cliff ?

INVESTIGATION 2.2

Gravitational acceleration
For a falling object not affected significantly by air resistance, the value of the gravitational acceleration,
Numeracy
g, can be found by collecting first-hand information.

AIM Information and

communication
technology
a To find the value of the gravitational acceleration, g capability

b To investigate average and instantaneous velocities

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 51

 MATERIALS

•• Ruler
•• Ball bearing
•• Electronic timer or timing photogate

!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU SAFELY MANAGE THESE RISKS?
ASSESSMENT
The ball bearing may cause injury if thrown, dropped or stood on. Never throw ball bearings.
Manage the use of the ball bearing carefully.
Never leave the ball bearing lying on the ground.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Set up the electronic timing apparatus.

2 Carefully measure the vertical distance, s, that the ball bearing will fall.
3 Using the timing apparatus, measure the time, t, taken for the ball bearing to fall through the known
vertical height when released from rest from the upper position.
4 Repeat this several times.
5 Change the height of the fall and repeat the procedure.
6 Record sufficient data to plot a graph.

RESULTS

•• Record all raw and derived data in a correctly constructed data table.
•• Plot the data as it is collected.
•• Estimate and record uncertainties in the data.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

 1 Plot s versus tavg, showing uncertainty bars.

 2 Draw a line of best fit.
 3 From the line of best fit, construct a data table of data points, (tavg, s). Add an extra column for (tavg)2 and a
further column for vavg.
 4 Plot s versus (tavg)2.
 5 Draw a straight line of best fit and calculate the gradient.
1
 6 Show that the equation s = ut + at 2 can be used to find the acceleration from the gradient of the s versus
(t )2 graph. 2
avg

 7 Justify the best estimate of the value of the acceleration due to gravity, g, found in this experiment.
 8 Use the least and greatest possible values of the gradient of the s versus (tavg)2 graph to estimate the
uncertainty in the experimental value of g. (Do not use the regression equation from your calculator!)
 9 For each (s, tavg) pair, calculate the average speed, vavg.
10 Plot vavg verus s.
11 Draw a line of best fit.
12 Describe the trend you observe in the data.
13 From the graph, interpolate the instantaneous velocities midway between the first and second, and second
and third, data points.

52 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 DISCUSSION

1 Suggest ways in which this experiment could be made more accurate.

2 Evaluate the reliability of this procedure by analysing the variation in the separate measurements of time
taken by the ball bearing before the average was found.
3 Suggest why a ball bearing was used rather than a tennis ball or other similar object.
4 Provide a precise value for g (best estimate with uncertainty limits).
5 Comment on any difficulties you had when undertaking this experiment. What changes could be made to
overcome these difficulties?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aims of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● On a speed–time graph, the area under the line drawn covering the time interval Δt represents
the distance travelled during that interval.
●● A graph of a versus t shows that the area under the line equals the change in speed, Δv.
v
●● For uniformly accelerated motion, a = , implying v = at .
t
●● If we include an initial velocity u , then v = u + at .
●● If we know the initial velocity, acceleration and time of travel, then the distance covered is given
1
by s = ut + at 2.
2
●● If we do not have the time interval, the relationship between initial velocity, final velocity,
acceleration and distance travelled is given by v 2 = u 2 + 2a s .
●● Graphically,
s
v = = gradient of the s versus t graph
t
s = area under the v versus t graph
Dv
a= = gradient of the v versus t graph.
Dt

CHECK YOUR
1 An object is dropped from a tower 128 m high. UNDERSTANDING
a What is the speed of the object that falls freely from rest for a distance of 128 m?
b How long does it take for the object to reach the ground? 2.3
c What is the speed of the object 2.0 s after being released?
d When is the speed of the object 35 m s−1?
2 Two objects, A and B, are released from a tower 125 m high. Object A is thrown downwards with an initial
speed of 15.0 m−1, while object B is allowed to fall from rest at the same instant.
a Calculate the speed of each object on reaching the ground.
b What is the difference in the time taken for the two objects to reach the ground?
c How far apart are the two objects after 2.0 s?
3 A parachutist is falling vertically downwards with a constant speed of 4.8 m s−1. When 120 m above the
ground, the parachutist drops a small parcel. What is the time difference between the parcel and the
parachutist reaching the ground? (Ignore air resistance on the parcel.)
4 Pelicans tuck in their wings to fall freely when diving for fish. A fish near the surface of the water needs
0.10 s to take evasive action. A pelican 25.0 m above the water starts its dive. The fish first notices the
pelican when the pelican is 5.0 m above the water.
Does the pelican go hungry, or does it catch its prey? Use graphs and calculations to support your
answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 53

 2   CHAPTER
11 SUMMARY

•• A frame of reference is a spatial coordinate system for •• The area under the curve on a speed–time graph shows
observing physical phenomena that allows for an origin. the distance travelled.
It enables the measurement of quantities involved in •• A graph of v versus t shows that the area under the line
changing position. equals s, which is the distance travelled.
•• The centre of mass is the average (mean) position of all •• Relative velocity depends on the frame of reference.
matter in the system, weighted by mass.  
•• Relative velocity is given by v o − v d .
•• A scalar is a number that has only magnitude (size). •• Using vector addition, the resultant vector from the point
•• Distance, d, is the actual length between two points. It has of view of one object is with respect to the other object,
no direction and is therefore a scalar. not the fixed external frame of reference.
•• A vector is a number that has both magnitude and •• Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity divided by
direction. the time interval.

•• Displacement, s , represents a change of position with •• Acceleration in a straight line can be positive or negative,
respect to the starting point. It has both magnitude (the depending on whether the object is speeding up or
distance) and direction, so it is a vector. slowing down.
•• Movement is the change in position as time changes. •• On a speed–time graph, the average acceleration is the
•• Any time interval can be shown as Δt, where Δt = t2 − t1 gradient of the line drawn covering the time interval Δt.
(Unit: s). •• The instantaneous acceleration is found as the time interval
•• Speed, v, relates to the distance covered in a time interval. becomes small enough to be negligible.

•• Velocity, v , specifically relates to the change in •• On a speed–time graph, the area under the line drawn
displacement during a time interval. covering the time interval Δt represents the distance
•• Speed is the magnitude of the velocity. Velocity also travelled during that interval.
includes direction. •• A graph of a versus t shows that the area under the line
•• Change in distance, called the distance interval, is given the equals the change in speed, Δv.
v
symbol s, where s = d2 − d1 (Unit: m). •• For uniformly accelerated motion, a = , implying v = at .
t
•• Speed is measured as distance travelled over time (Unit:
•• If we include an initial velocity u, then v = u + at.
m s−1).
•• If we know the initial velocity, acceleration and time of
•• Average speed is the one single speed that would enable 1
an object to cover a specified distance in a given time travel, then the distance covered is given by s = ut + at 2.
2
interval. •• If we do not have the time interval, the relationship
•• Instantaneous speed is the rate at which distance is between initial velocity, final velocity, acceleration and
covered over a time interval that is so brief as to be distance travelled is given by v 2 = u 2 + 2as .
negligible.
•• For constant speed, the gradient on a distance–time graph
is the same at all points. The graph is a straight line.

54 CHAPTER ONE
MODULE 11 » »CHEMISTRY
KINEMATICS 9780170409063
 2   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 Write down the symbols for acceleration, initial velocity, 9 Show that the unit used for the area under a velocity
final velocity, time interval and displacement. versus time graph is the same as the unit of displacement.
2 Describe the difference between: 10 In a 100 m sprint race, the winning time is 10.6 s.
a distance and displacement. a What was the winner’s average speed?
b speed and velocity. b Do you think that the runner’s average speed was the
same as their instantaneous speed during the race?
3 What is the difference between instantaneous and
Explain your reasoning.
average:
a speed? 11 A robot takes three paces forwards and then two paces
back, taking 6.0 s for this motion. Use calculations to
b velocity?
explain why the robot’s average speed is not the same as
c acceleration? its average velocity.
4 Draw vector diagrams to show change of:

Shutterstock.com/Early Spring
a displacement.
b velocity. Total time 5 6.0 s

5 For a velocity versus time graph, what quantity is found by

calculating the:
a area under the graph?
b gradient?
6 Consider how the speed of an object that is dropped from
a height changes over time.
a Describe this in words.
b Describe this on a v versus t graph.
7 Explain the positive horizontal line for the acceleration
versus time graph shown in Figure 2.18 on page 48.
8 Explain why the position versus time graph in Figure 2.24
cannot be a completely true graph of an object’s actual
3 paces
motion.

2 paces

12 As a blue car moving at a constant 18 m s−1 passes a

1ve stationary red car, the red car begins to move in
the same direction with a constant acceleration
Displacement

of 3.0 m s−2.
a Show the motion of the two cars on a velocity versus
0 time graph.
Time
b From your graph in part a, find the time when the two
cars are next to each other again.
2ve
c Check your answer to part b using appropriate
equations of motion.
FIGURE 2.24

9780170409063 CHAPTER 2 » MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 55

 13 A builder drops a hammer from scaffolding 25 m above 18 A diver jumps from the 10-metre platform with a vertically
the footpath. upwards speed of 3.0 m s−1, rising for 0.31 s before
a How fast will the hammer be moving just before it hits slowing to a stop. The diver then falls back down for 0.31 s
the ground? and will be moving at 3 m s−1 by the time they are back
level with the board.
b How long will it take the hammer to fall?
a Sketch the diver’s velocity versus time graph.
14 Discuss why using the ground around us is a useful
b Use the graph to find the:
frame of reference for analysing motion, even though
we know that Earth is rotating on its axis and revolving i distance travelled by the diver for the entire dive.
around the Sun. ii diver’s displacement.
15 Sketch a velocity versus time graph that shows the iii time the diver has to execute their manoeuvres
motion of a car that starts from rest and reaches a before hitting the water.
speed of 15 m s−1 after the first 5.0 s of motion. It then
maintains this speed for 10 s before the brakes are
applied and the car stops in 2.0 s. Add appropriate
scales to the axes.
16 From a standing start, an XY Ford Falcon GTHO Phase 3
1
could cover a mile (400 metres) in 14.4 seconds. What
4
is its acceleration, assuming it is constant?
17 The acceleration due to gravity on the Moon is 1.6 m s−2,
and the acceleration due to gravity on Earth is 9.8 m s−2.
a How long would it take the following items to fall from
a 200 metre cliff on the Moon?
i a hammer
ii a feather
b How long would it take the following items to fall from
a 200 metre cliff on Earth?
i a hammer
ii a feather

56 CHAPTER ONE
MODULE 11 » »CHEMISTRY
KINEMATICS 9780170409063
 3 Motion on a plane

OUTCOMES
INQUIRY Students:
QUESTION •• analyse vectors in one and two dimensions to:
How is the motion of an – resolve a vector into two perpendicular components
object that changes its – add two perpendicular vector components to obtain a single vector (ACSPH061) N
direction of movement •• represent the distance and displacement of objects moving on a horizontal plane using:
on a plane described? – vector addition
– resolution of components of vectors (ACSPH060) ICT N
•• describe and analyse algebraically, graphically and with vector diagrams, the ways in which the motion of
objects changes, including: ICT
– velocity
– displacement (ACSPH060, ACSPH061) N
•• describe and analyse, using vector analysis, the relative positions and motions of one object relative to
another object on a plane (ACSPH061)
•• analyse the relative motion of objects in two dimensions in a variety of situations, for example:
– a boat on a flowing river relative to the bank
– two moving cars
– an aeroplane in a crosswind relative to the ground (ACSPH060, ACSPH132) ICT N
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

Alamy Stock Photo/Buzz Pictures

9780170409063 57
 The previous chapter explored motion in a straight line.

Shutterstock.com/Eugene Sergeev
It also introduced the idea of a vector, which is a quantity
with a magnitude (a size or length) and a direction. This
modern idea of a vector was developed independently by
Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925) and J. Willard Gibbs (1839–
1903) late in the 19th century. They also showed how to
work with vectors mathematically. Gibbs in particular
developed much of the notation we use today. Although
the use of vectors may at times seem complicated and
difficult, their invention was an improvement over earlier
approaches. Today, vectors are used in most branches
of physics, and are common in engineering, computer
science and elsewhere.
FIGURE 3.1.  A radar plot shows how far away
Many quantities
 can be represented as vectors,
something is and the direction it is in. Vectors are where if A is a vector then A is its magnitude.
used to describe quantities with magnitude and
direction.
Displacement, velocity and acceleration were presented
in chapter 2. Later chapters will explore concepts
Weblink
Willard Gibbs such as force (chapters 4 and 5), momentum (chapter 6), electric field (chapter 12) and magnetic field
Find out what other (chapter 14). All these are vector quantities. In fact, vector mathematics was first invented to deal with
contributions Gibbs
made to physics and electromagnetism. Because they are so widespread, being able to manipulate vectors is a useful skill.
mathematics.

Analysing vectors in one

3.1
and two dimensions
Quite often, motion is not restricted to a single direction. If a car is driven 100 km north and then 100 km
WS west, it is easy to see that it has gone a total of 200 km. For one thing, the odometer will read 200 km more
Worksheets
Some useful
Homework
than it did at the start. But how far from the starting point is it? It might be 200 km by road, but how far
background is that ‘as the crow flies’? Simple addition will not work. We need to add up the two legs of the journey
allowing for direction. The way to do that is to treat the two legs as vectors. Vectors can be added to form
new vectors, or subtracted to obtain the difference between two vectors. A single vector can be resolved
into its components.
Vectors can also be multiplied (or divided) by a scalar. In chapter 2, a velocity was calculated from
  
a displacement. One vector, s , was divided by a scalar, t, to obtain another vector, v . The vector s is the

displacement, t is the time over which the displacement occurred and v is the average velocity during the
 
displacement. The scalar, t, has units (seconds), which means that v has different units from s . However,
 
because t is a scalar, the division does not change the direction of the vector, so v is parallel to s .

Resolving a vector into perpendicular components

It is possible to take a vector that lies in a two-dimensional plane and break it up into two perpendicular
vectors. This is called resolving the vector into components.
When a vector is to be resolved into components, it is important to think about what coordinates
should be used. If the motion is along the ground, such as the car, it may make sense to use the compass
directions (north, south, east and west). Other motions, such as a ball being thrown, may take place in a
vertical plane. In that case, the two directions would be horizontal and vertical. Perpendicular axes can
be represented on paper as an x axis whose positive arm points to the right, and a y axis whose positive
arm points up the page. This is known as the x–y-plane.

58 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 We try to choose axes that will help us solve the problem most easily. Chapters 4 and 5 look at
objects sliding down slopes. In that case, we choose one component parallel to the slope and another
perpendicular.
In every case, the two axes are perpendicular. There are some useful tools for working with vectors at
right angles: Pythagoras’ theorem and trigonometry.

Say we have a vector, s . It can be expressed as the sum of two vectors, one pointing along x and one
along y, as shown in Figure 3.2.
  
s = sx + s y
The magnitudes of these vectors are related. (Remember, when we take the arrow off the top of a
vector we are talking about magnitudes.)
sx = s cos θ
s y = s sin θ
 
where s is the magnitude of s and sx and sy are the magnitudes of the component vectors. sx is sometimes
 
referred to as the projection of s onto the x axis; similarly for s y.
Figure 3.2 shows that sy is opposite the angle, so sine is used to find its length. The side sx is adjacent
to the angle, and so cosine is used. This may vary, depending on how the angles and sides are defined. In
this case, θ is measured relative to the x axis and positive angles are anticlockwise. This is the convention
 
for x and y coordinates. The vector sx is a vector of length sx in the x direction. In Figure 3.2, sx points
along the positive x direction. With θ defined as shown, the equation for sx given above will give a positive
answer.

y FIGURE 3.2 A
vector, s , and its

components,
 sx
and s y. The angle is
measured from the
x axis. It is a positive
angle because it is
 anticlockwise from
s  the x axis.
sy

u x

sx

It is always important to think about the signs of quantities. A vector of length −12 m in the +x

knilbeW
direction is the same as one of +12 m in the –x direction.
Angles will not always be defined as anticlockwise from the x axis. In situations that use the compass Vectors in two
points, angles increase as they go clockwise. An angle may be written like this: θ = N30°E. This means the dimensions
Watch the video to
angle is 30° east of north. An angle of N45°E is the same as north-east. Sometimes the important angles help visual vectors
will be angles between vectors themselves. Because there is no one way to define an angle, it is important in two dimensions.

to draw a diagram of the situation. A diagram can help in working out which angles are relevant, which
trigonometric functions to use, which quantities are positive and which negative.
Once you have drawn a diagram, the components of a vector can be found using trigonometry or a
careful scale drawing.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 59

 WORKED EXAMPLE 3.1

An orienteer is at a position, d, which is 600 m N30°W from the origin.

Use trigonometry to find the magnitudes of the northward and westward components, dN and dW, of the
orienteer’s position. Take 600 m as having three significant figures.

ANSWER LOGIC

N •• Draw a diagram showing the position as a vector.

d5
600 m
dN
308

W E
dW

S
FIGURE 3.3  The position of the orienteer,
shown on a set of compass axes

d N = d cos θ •• Use your diagram to work out which angle is sine, and which is cosine.
d W = d sin θ

d N = (600 m)cos30° •• Substitute the known values with units into the equations, calculate the answers
and state them with correct units and appropriate significant figures.
= 520 m
d W = (600 m)sin 30°
= 300 m

TRY THIS YOURSELF

The orienteer now moves to a point 600 m N60°E from the origin. What are the north and east components of
their position now? What are the north and west components of their position?

y Adding vector components

The reverse of resolving a vector into components is
Weblink
Vector adding components to obtain a vector. Mathematically,
components   
Change a vector’s s = sx + s y . Assuming the components are
magnitude and  
sx perpendicular along x and y, then the length of s , s, is
direction and see how
the components vary.
x obtained from Pythagoras’ theorem,
u

 s = sx 2 + s y 2
 sy
s
where sx and sy are the magnitudes of the components.

However, s is a vector, so its direction must also be

found. Figure 3.4 shows the component vectors, sx and
  
FIGURE 3.4  Adding components
 
s x and s y to s y , as well as s , and the angle s makes to the x axis, θ.

obtain the resultant vector, s

60 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 From Figure 3.4 it can be seen that
sy
tanθ =
sx
So, by using Pythagoras’ theorem and some trigonometry, it is possible to find the length and direction
of the resultant vector.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.2

Figure 3.5 represents the journey of a car. The  FIGURE 3.5  A car
journey begins at the bottom right-hand side of sw
drives north and
the picture, where the tails of the black and red then west. The two
perpendicular black
arrows meet. The black arrows represent the vectors combine
actual path the car took. The red represents the to give a third, the
resulting displacement away from the starting  diagonal red vector.
 sn Conversely, it could
point. First the car drives 125 km north (up the s
be said that the
page) then 125 km to the left (west). black vectors are
components of the
u red vector.

Find the magnitude and direction of the


resultant vector, s , in Figure 3.5.

ANSWER LOGIC

sN = 125 km; sW = 125 km •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

The two paths are at 90° to each other. •• Recognise that the paths are perpendicular.

s = sN 2 + sW 2 •• Apply Pythagoras’ theorem to find the distance from the origin.

•• Substitute the known values with units into the equation.
= (125 km )2 + (125 km )2
= 177 km •• Calculate the answer. State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
significant figures.
 •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
That gives s, the length of the vector s .
Next, its direction must be established.
sN = 125 km; sW = 125 km
sW •• Identify the appropriate formula. In this case sW is opposite θ, sN is adjacent.
tan θ =
sN
•• Substitute the known values with units.
125 km
tan θ = =1
125 km •• Calculate the answer. State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
θ = 45° significant figures.
The total (or net) result is the same as if the
car had driven 177 km north-west.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Repeat the calculation, but with a northward component of 200 km.

2 Copy Figure 3.5 onto a sheet of graph paper at a scale of 1 cm = 10 km. Measure the resultant vector
with a ruler. Does it agree with the calculation? Compare the precision of the methods.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 61

 Note that in Worked example 3.2, the hypotenuse was found in the first part of the question. It could
have been used to find the angle. By using tan, we avoided relying on a quantity that we had to calculate
ourselves. That removed one possible source of error from the angle. When working out the angle, the
units (km) cancel out. This is a useful test, because it does not make sense to put a number with units
into a trigonometric function. Lastly, a diagram is very useful when working out where the vector is
actually pointing. The maths gives a 45° angle, but the diagram shows what that means.

INVESTIGATION 3.1

Displacement vectors
Critical and AIM
creative
thinking To investigate how displacement vectors can be decomposed into components, and to practise calculating
experimental uncertainties
Numeracy Write an appropriate inquiry question or hypothesis for this investigation.

MATERIALS

•• 20-m tape measure

•• Marker pegs
•• Coin
•• 2 dice
•• Set square
•• Open space, such as the school oval
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Excess sun exposure is dangerous. Wear a hat, and any other appropriate sun protection.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Place a marker peg in the starting position.

2 Stand at the start position and throw the dice. Take as many steps forward in a straight line as the total
shown on the dice. Take the dice with you.
3 Place a marker peg at your position.
4 Toss the coin. If it comes up heads, turn left 90°. If it comes up tails, turn right 90°. Use the set square to help
you turn through the correct angle.
5 Throw the dice. Take as many steps forward in a straight line as the total shown on the dice. Place a marker
peg at your final position.
6 The pegs should make a right-angled triangle, if you have been careful. Measure the distances (side
lengths) between the pegs.
7 Repeat steps 2–6, either with the same person or different people.

RESULTS

•• Record the distances measured and the number of steps each time.
•• Record the uncertainty in each measurement.

62 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Draw a diagram for each set of results.

2 Based on the two perpendicular sides, calculate the length of the hypotenuse.
Compare the calculated length to the measured length.
The uncertainty in the calculated length can be found using the range method:
1
∆d = ( dmax − dmin )
2
where
dmax = ( xmax )2 + ( ymax )2 and dmin = ( xmin )2 + ( ymin )2

xmax is the maximum possible value of the first distance walked allowing for the measurement uncertainty,
xmin is the minimum possible value of the first distance walked allowing for the uncertainty. ymax and ymin are the
corresponding values for the second distance walked.
3 Was there a consistent relationship between number of steps taken and distance travelled for an
individual? What about between different people?

DISCUSSION

1 Did the calculated and measured values of the displacement agree, within the uncertainties? If not, can you
explain why? Was there a source of uncertainty that you did not take into account?
2 Give the answer to your inquiry question or state whether your hypothesis was supported.
3 How could you improve or extend this experiment?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

●● Vectors can be resolved into perpendicular components. These are aligned with the axes on a
sketch or the cardinal directions on a compass.
●● Trigonometry and Pythagoras’ theorem are useful tools for resolving vectors into components
and for combining components into vectors.
    
●● If s is a vector in a plane, it is possible to write s = s x + s y where s x is a vector parallel with the

x axis and s y is a vector parallel with the y axis.
  
●● If s is the magnitude of s , and sx and sy are the magnitudes of s x and s y , then s x = s cos θ,
s y
s y = s sin θ, s = s x 2 + s y 2 and tan θ = .
sx
●● Compass directions (north, south, east and west) can be used as axes when resolving vectors.
●● Vectors can be represented as arrows on scale diagrams. This is very useful in interpreting the
results of calculations.

CHECK YOUR
1 Describe the difference between a scalar and a vector. UNDERSTANDING
2 Identify examples of scalars and vectors.
3 A rider on a horse rides 28 km N25°E. Calculate the perpendicular components of the journey – one 3.1
component pointing east, and one pointing north.
4 Calculate the components of the journey in question 3, except now one component points north-east, and
one points north-west.
5 For the journey in question 3, sketch the two different sets of components on a single drawing.
6 Gayani takes a piece of chalk and a tape measure, and goes onto the outdoor basketball court. She faces
south and draws a straight line 3.5 m long. She turns east and draws another line, 4.5 m long. Calculate
Gayani’s net displacement, including direction.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 63

 7 Two children push a shopping trolley. Marcus pulls it 4 m along the aisle. Laurence pushes it sideways by 2 m.
a On graph paper, accurately draw the two components to the same scale. Assume ‘along the aisle’
means up the page and ‘across’ means to the right. Use a ruler to obtain the magnitude, and a
protractor to determine the angle relative to the aisle.
b Calculate the net displacement of the trolley and the direction relative to the aisle. Compare with your
result from part a.

3.2 Distance and displacement in a plane

Two important quantities are distance and displacement, as described in chapter 2. Displacement
means how far the object is from where it started and in what direction. It may or may not have started
on the origin of the coordinate system.

In two dimensions, it is important to remember that displacement
 is a vector.
  The displacement, s ,

is the difference between initial and final positions, d i and df . Therefore, s = df − d i. The path used does
not matter.
A displacement can begin anywhere, but a position is measured relative to the origin. It is an
important difference.

FIGURE 3.6 The
150 km
road distances and
displacement (orange North
dotted straight line)
between town A and
town B 130 km
Town B

100 km

170 km
Town A

Cars travelling from Town A to Town B in Figure 3.6 would, when they get to B, have the same
displacements (100  km in an approximately north-easterly direction). But they would have travelled
different distances. Someone who drove from A to B and back again might have driven a distance of over
300 km, but their displacement would be zero. When they were at B, their displacement was 100 km NE,
but when they got home it was zero. So, the displacement depends on when the measurement is made.
Chapter 2 introduced the idea that displacement can depend on time. The constant acceleration
1
kinematics equations, such as s = ut + at 2 , allow calculation of the magnitude of the displacement, s,
2
as a function of time. This chapter examines displacements in a two-dimensional plane. We have to be
aware of their vector nature as well as their time dependence.

64 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 Adding displacements using vectors
In section 3.1, two components were combined to make a single vector. It is a logical extension of that to
put two vectors together to make a third one. In fact, the components of a vector are vectors themselves.
They are just vectors that point along a convenient set of perpendicular axes. When adding the vectors
together, we are effectively putting them head-to-tail and seeing where they point to. When using a
graphical method like this, it is important that all the vectors are drawn to the same scale and the angles
are correct.

a b  c 
B B

 
A 1 B
  
A A Resultant (R)

   
FIGURE 3.7   a Vector A and vector B are to be added. b Vector B is moved  so that its tail is made to connect with the head of vector A . c The resultant
vector, R , is found as the arrow running from the tail of A to the head of B .

Figure 3.7 shows the process of adding two vectors to find the resultant vector. The same idea works
for any number of vectors. If all vectors to be summed are drawn head-to-tail, then the resultant is found
by drawing an arrow from the tail of the first vector
 to the tip of the last. The result of vector addition
does not depend on whether B is added to A , or A to B . This is known as the parallelogram rule, and is
illustrated in Figure 3.8.
 Subtracting
 
vectors can be thought of as adding the negative of one vector to another, because

A − B = A + (− B ) . This is illustrated in Figure 3.9 (page 66). The negative of a vector is obtained by
swapping the head and the tail. The parallelogram rule still works, as long as the negative of the second
vector is taken before the construction is drawn. In mathematical terms,
     
A − B = A + (− B ) = (− B ) + A
but
   
A − B ≠ −A + B

a b c

 
A 1 B
 
A A

Resultant (R)

 
B B
   
FIGURE3.8  a Vector A andvector B are to be added. b Vector B is moved so that its tail is made
 to contact the tail of vector A, and a copy is put on the
 connects the heads of the copies of vector B (these copies are shown by the dashed orange lines). This
head of A. A copy of vector A is added so that it
draws a parallelogram. c The resultant vector, R , is the diagonal of the parallelogram. It runs from the tails of the two vectors to the opposite corner.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 65

 FIGURE
 3.9  a Vector
B is to be subtracted
 c
from vector  A.
b Vector
 B is changed
to ‘ − B ’ by flipping the
arrow to point in the 
oppositedirection. a b A
c Vector A is then  
R
added to vector − B
using the head-to-tail
method.  
 2
 A 1 2B
A B 
–B

Vector subtraction is very useful. Velocity is the change in displacement divided by the change in
time. Displacement is a vector, so the change in displacement is the difference between two vectors. We
obtain it by subtracting the initial displacement from the final displacement. If we divide that by the time,
we get the average velocity for the journey.

Resolving and adding vectors

The previous section demonstrated vector addition and subtraction using diagrams. Here, a more
WS mathematical approach is described.
TheWorksheets
graph paper
Homework
First, each vector is resolved into its components. The same set of axes must be used for both vectors.
game The parallel components can then be added. This gives the components of the resultant vector. These

can be combined to obtain the final vector. Similar to the discussion of Figure 3.2, we might say that if s
 
is the vector sum of s1 and s2 , then
  
s = s1 + s2
where each of the three vectors can be resolved into x and y components:
  
s = sx + s y
  
s1 = s1, x + s1, y
  
s2 = s2, x + s2, y
The x and y terms can be collected to make two equations,
     
sx = s1, x + s2, x and s y = s1, y + s2, y
and these can be combined to give the final vector:
    
s = ( s1, x + s2, x ) + (s1, y + s2, y )
This process would work equally well when adding more than two vectors.

Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to obtain the magnitude, s, of s :

s = (s1, x + s2, x )2 + ( s1, y + s2, y )2

  
and trigonometry gives the direction, since s , sx and s y make a right-angled triangle. The process is best
illustrated with an example. In Worked example 3.3, it may help to think of east as the x component and
north as the y component.

66 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 3.3

A number of orienteers run two legs of a course. First, they run 600 m S30°E, back to the origin. This first
 
displacement can be referred to as s1. Then they run 400 m N60°E. That is s 2. Their final position is at the

tip of s 2.

What is their final displacement, s , relative to where they started? Take 400 m and 600 m as having three
significant figures. Note that the runner is not starting on the origin.

ANSWER LOGIC

N •• Draw a diagram using the information in the question.

•• Resolve vectors into components, add them, and determine the resultant.
SEast
u

s SNorth

s1
u1
u2 
s2
W E

FIGURE 3.10

 •• Identify relevant data in the question.

s1 = 600 m S30°E

s 2 = 400 m N60°E

s = resultant

s1 = 600 m; θ1 = 30°

s2 = 400 m; θ2 = 60°
East is positive horizontal; north is •• Define coordinates.
positive vertical
  
s = s1 + s 2 •• Write an expression for the total displacement.

s1East = s1 sin θ1 •• Write the expressions for the east–west components (magnitudes).

s 2East = s 2 sin θ2

s1North = s1 cos θ1 •• Write the expressions for the north–south components (magnitudes).

s 2North = − s 2 cos θ2

s1East = ( 600 m) sin 30° = 300 m E •• Substitute the known values with units (written as vectors, with units and
 directions included).
s 2East = ( 400 m) sin 60° = 346 m E

s1North = ( − 600 m) cos30° = −520 m N

s 2North = ( 400 m) cos60° = 200 m N

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 67

 ANSWER LOGIC
   •• Add components. Remember that north and south are negative of each other.
s East = s1East + s 2East

= 300 m E + 346 m E •• We can see from the vector resolution of s2 that the runner’s final position
(compared to the origin) is 346 m E, 200 m N. Relative to where they started, their
= 646 m E final position is 646 m E, 320 m S. A pair of components like that is a valid way
  
s North = s1North + s 2North of expressing the answer. The direction is implicit in the relative lengths of the
= −520 m N + 200 m N components. However, the more standard form is to give a direction and a length.

= −320 m N

s = ( s North )2 + ( s East )2 •• Apply Pythagoras’ theorem to the magnitudes to find the net length.

s = ( −320 )2 + ( 646 )2 = 721 m •• Substitute the known values with units and calculate the answer.

s North •• Write the relationship between the angle and the distances.
tan θ =
s East
−320 m •• Substitute the known values with units.
tan θ = = −0.495
646 m
θ = –26° •• Calculate the answer.

s = 721 m E26°S •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
   = 721 m S64°E.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 If the orienteer is to have the maximum possible displacement, at what angle should the second leg
of their run be if we keep the length fixed but let the angle vary?
2 If the orienteer runs at the angles in the example above, but both legs have a length of 600 m, what is
their final displacement from their starting position?

INVESTIGATION 3.2

Adding vectors
Weblink
Adding vectors
Explore how the
resultant of adding AIM
two vectors changes
as you change the
To investigate the addition of more than two vectors
vectors. Write an inquiry question for this investigation.

MATERIALS
Critical and
creative •• Computer with internet access
thinking
METHOD
Numeracy 1 Open the weblink ‘Vector addition simulator’.
2 Add three vectors (not necessarily of the same length) to the simulation to create a resultant vector of
Information and length 20 at an angle of 30°. There are many possible ways of doing this – compare your method with
communication
technology other people’s. Sketch your own arrangement, and at least two others.
capability

68 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 3 Clear the simulation. Select three vectors of the same length, l. Arrange them to give the resultant vector of

knilbeW
maximum possible length. What is this maximum possible length in terms of l? Now arrange the vectors to
give the minimum possible length. What is this length? Sketch a vector diagram for each arrangement.
Vector addition
4 Clear the simulation. Select three vectors of different lengths. Arrange them to give the resultant vector of simulator
maximum possible length. Now arrange the vectors to give the minimum possible length. Sketch a vector This simulation of
vector additions will
diagram for each arrangement. be used for your
investigation.
5 Clear the simulation and add three vectors of equal length to create a resultant of length 0. Sketch a vector
diagram for your arrangement. Can you find more than one way of getting a resultant of zero?
6 Repeat step 4 with four, five, six and seven vectors of equal length. Sketch a vector diagram for each case,
and note whether there is more than one way of making a resultant of zero length.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Record your vector diagrams with the length of the resultant in each case.

DISCUSSION

•• Describe a general method for adding vectors to give the resultant vector of maximum and minimum
possible lengths.
•• Describe a general method for adding vectors to give a resultant vector of zero.

CONCLUSION
Summarise your results and answer your inquiry question for this investigation.

 
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Displacement, s , represents a change of position (d ) with respect to the starting point, which
may or may not be the origin. It has both magnitude (the distance) and direction, so it is a
vector.
  
●● The displacement is the difference between the final and initial positions, s = d f − d i .
●● We can add displacements by resolving them into components and adding the components:
    
s = ( s1,x + s 2,x ) + ( s1, y + s 2, y )
●● We can add displacements graphically by drawing vectors head-to-tail.
 Subtraction
  is  
performed by reversing the second vector, and then adding them. A − B = A + ( − B ) = ( − B ) + A
●● We can work using compass directions, x and y coordinates, or any other sensible set of axes.

CHECK YOUR
1 a On paper (preferably graph paper), construct
 the vector triangles needed to add the pairs of vectors UNDERSTANDING
shown in Figure 3.11. Label the resultant R in each case.
3.2
a b

A 
B

A 
B

c d

  B
A B 
A

FIGURE 3.11  Pairs of vectors to be graphically added and subtracted

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 69

 b Repeat part a, but this time subtract the second vector from the first in each pair. Again, label the
resultant in each case.
2 On the screen of a GPS map, each grid square is 10 km wide (east–west) and 10 km tall (north–south). Rosa
follows a road north for seven grid squares and west for four grid squares.
a Calculate Rosa’s displacement.
Rosa now drives north-west for 50 km.
b Calculate Rosa’s total displacement.
3 When going from one to two dimensions, describe what extra factors need to be considered when
working with positions, distances and displacements.
4 Describe the axes of a coordinate system (perpendicular axes) that would be suitable for analysing the
motion of a bowling ball along a lane.
5 A boat is tacking into a wind that is blowing from north to south. First, the boat sails for 5.2 km N40°E. Then
it sails 4.8 km N45°W. Calculate the boat’s displacement.
6 A triathlete swims 5.5 km due south, runs 25.0 km S30°E, and cycles 30 km N25°W.
a Find the distance they have run after 1, 2 and 3 legs of the triathlon.
b Calculate their displacement after 1, 2 and 3 legs of the triathlon.
c If the triathlete took a total of 2 hours, calculate their average speed and average velocity.

3.3 Describing motion using vectors

In chapter 2, we saw that the velocity vector is found by dividing the displacement vector by the time over
which the displacement occurred. This remains true when the motion is in a two-dimensional plane.

Velocity is a vector
y When an object moves, at any moment it is going in a particular
 direction with a particular speed. To describe the motion, we need to
vx
specify the magnitude (size) of the speed and its direction. For example,
a car may be going south at 60 km h−1 but the car might be speeding
 up (accelerating) or slowing down. Just like the displacement, the
v 
velocity, v , sometimes changes with time. When it does so, there is

vy u an acceleration.
Just like displacement, a velocity vector can be resolved into
components. It may have a component along x and a component
along y, or a component to the east and one to the north. If a car
x
is heading north-west at a speed of 60 km h−1, it has a velocity
component to the north and one to the west. Trigonometry can be
used to resolve a velocity into components. Components can be
combined to obtain a resultant velocity.

Figure 3.12 shows a velocity vector, v , and its components (in this
case along the x and y directions). In vector notation, we write
  
v = vx + v y
where the magnitudes are related by Pythagoras’ theorem:
FIGURE 3.12  Using trigonometry, velocities can be resolved
into components along perpendicular axes. v = vx 2 + v y 2

70 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 As previously for displacements, the angle is obtained from trigonometry:

knilbeW
vy
tan θ =
vx Velocity
components
When drawing displacement vectors on graph paper, it is necessary to specify a scale, such as ‘1 cm Watch how
represents 100 m’. Velocities can be illustrated in exactly the same way. The difference is the scale might velocities are
broken into
now read ‘1 cm represents 100 m s−1. As long as the units are correct, all the results pertaining to vectors components
still apply. Because the units are different, velocities and displacements cannot be added together.
WS

Adding and subtracting velocities Worksheets

Adding velocities
Homework
on a wheel
It is possible to think of a situation where a motion has two perpendicular components; for example,
people moving around on a train or bus. The net (total) velocity of a passenger is the vector sum of the
passenger’s movement within the vehicle and the movement of the vehicle itself.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.4

−1
Mario is on a train that is going east along a straight track at 60.0 km h . The train is nearly empty. He
decides to change seats, from a left window to a right window. He moves from one side of the carriage to
the other in 1.0 s. The carriage is 3.0 m wide. What is Mario’s net velocity while he is moving?

60.0 km h21 N

3.0 m s21 E

− −
FIGURE 3.13  The train carriage is moving east at 60.0 km h 1 and Mario is walking across the carriage at 3.0 m s 1. What is
Mario’s total velocity relative to the train tracks? Arrows show directions of velocities, but not magnitudes.

ANSWERS LOGIC

  
v East = v Train = 60.0 km h −1east •• Identify relevant data and define variables. vMario to train is Mario’s velocity relative to
  his seat.
vSouth = v Mario to train = 3.0 m s −1 south

   •• Write the relationship between the net velocity and the components.
v Mario, total = v East + vSouth

•• Convert to SI units.
1000 m km−1
v East = 60.0 km h −1 ×
3600 s h −1
v East = 16.7 m s −1

•• Recognise that the velocities are perpendicular, so we can apply Pythagoras’

v Mario, total = (v East )2 + (vSouth )2 theorem to obtain the net magnitude.

= (16.7 m s −1 )2 + (3.0 m s −1 )2 •• Substitute the known values with units.

•• Calculate the answer.
= 17.0 m s −1

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 71

 ANSWERS LOGIC

•• Find the expression for the angle. Substitute the known values with units.
vSouth 3.0 m s −1
tan θ = = = 0.18 
v East 16.7 m s −1 •• Since vSouth ( vMario to train ) was the ‘opposite’ side of the triangle we used to obtain
the angle, θ is measured away from the direction of the train (east).

θ = 10.2° •• Calculate the answer.

 •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate significant figures.
v Mario, total = 17.0 m s −1 E10°S
= 7.0 m s −1 S80°E

TRY THIS YOURSELF

−1
Mario now runs back to his original seat at a speed of 6 m s . What is his net velocity as he does this?
Give the magnitude and direction.

 
When two velocities are perpendicular, one can be equated with v x and the other with v y . This
allows the total to be found from Pythagoras’ theorem. When they are not perpendicular (the more

general case), we resolve the vectors and add the components. This adds steps to the calculation. If v is
 
the vector sum of v1 and v 2 , then
  
v = v1 + v 2
where the velocities can be resolved into their components:
     
v1 = v1, x + v1, y and v 2 = v 2, x + v 2, y

v can also be resolved into its components:
  
v = vx + v y
We then collect the x components into one equation and the y into another:
     
v x = v1, x + v 2, x and v y = v1, y + v 2, y

Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to obtain the magnitude, v, of v :

v = (v1, x + v 2, x )2 + (v1, y + v 2, y )2
  
By definition, v , v x and v y make a right-angled triangle. That means trigonometry can be used to

obtain the direction of v .
With that in mind, what if Mario from Worked example 3.4 is still fidgeting about on the train, and has
seen a seat somewhere in front of him that he likes? See Worked example 3.5.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.5

Continuing on from Worked example 3.4, Mario moves from the left to the right of the train carriage, but
also moves two seats forward. He moves a total of 3.6 m in 1.0 s, in a direction 56° south of east, relative
to the carriage (see Figure 3.14). What was Mario’s resultant velocity relative to the tracks while he was
−1
moving? Give the magnitude and direction. The train is still moving at 60.0 km h .

72 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 a 60.0 km h21 N

3.6 m s21
E

16.7 m s21
b u 56°
 3.6 m s21
vMario, total

FIGURE 3.14  a A schematic diagram of the situation. The vectors are not to scale, but it shows how Mario is moving in
−
the carriage. b A vector diagram with vectors to scale. It illustrates the train’s velocity relative to the tracks (16.7 m s 1 to
−
the east) and Mario’s velocity relative to the train (3.6 m s 1 56° south of east).

ANSWER LOGIC

 •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

v Train = 16.7 m s −1 to the east

v Mario on train = 3.6 m s −1 56° south of east
   •• Define variables, and use them in the vector equations.
v Mario, total = v Train + v Mario to train
  
v Mario total = v East + vSouth

v East = v Train, east + v Mario to train, east •• Write an appropriate equation for each component. (We are now
vSouth = v Train, south + v Mario to train, south working with magnitudes.)


v Mario to train, east = ( v Mario to train ) cos θ •• Break v Mario to train up into its components.

v Mario to train, south = ( v Mario to train ) sin θ

v Train, east = v Train 

•• Break v Train up into its components. (It is going east, so the other
v Train, south = 0 component is zero.)

•• Substitute the known values with units into the equations for each
v East = 16.7 m s −1 + 3.6 m s −1 cos 56°
component and calculate the answers.
= 18.7 m s −1 east
vSouth = 0 m s −1 + 3.6 m s −1 sin 56°
= 3.0 m s −1 south

•• Apply Pythagoras’ theorem to find the magnitude of the total velocity.

v Mario, total = (v East )2 + (vSouth )2

= (18.7 m s −1 east)2 + (3.0 m s −1 south)2

•• Substitute the known values and calculate the answer.
= 18.9 m s −1

•• Find the expression for the angle. Substitute the known values with
vSouth 3.0 m s −1
tan θ = = = 0.16 units.
v East 18.7 m s −1
•• Calculate the answer.
θ = 9.1°
 •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate significant
v Mario, total = 18.9 m s −1 S81°E figures.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 73

 TRY THIS YOURSELF
What if Mario went across the carriage, but two seats backwards instead? Without doing any maths,
would you expect v Mario, total to become bigger or smaller, or stay the same? What about v Mario on train, east
and v Mario on train, south? What about θ?

Change in velocity
Weblink
We have looked at adding velocity vectors to obtain the resultant velocity. The change in a vector is found
How fast are you
moving now? by subtracting ‘before’ from ‘after’ (or ‘initial’ from ‘final’). The change in velocity of a body may be referred

Earth is spinning and to as ∆v (‘delta-vee’). It is worked out by subtracting the initial velocity from the final:
going around the Sun.   
Find out just how fast ∆v = v f − v i
you’re really moving.

If ∆v is then divided by the time taken for the change in velocity, the result is the average acceleration.
This can be positive or negative, and since it is a vector subtraction, it need not be in the direction of the

initial or final velocity. The magnitude of ∆v is written as ∆v .
We will look at two kinds of velocity subtraction. The first is the case of a single object before and after
some event (see Worked example 3.6). The second looks at two bodies moving relative to each other (see
the next section).

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.6

−1
A tennis ball strikes the wall at an angle of 30° to the wall, with a velocity of 6.0 m s , and bounces off at
the same speed and angle. Determine the change in the velocity of this tennis ball.

ANSWER LOGIC

•• Draw a diagram based on the information given in

the question.
30° 30° •• The first step is to take the negative of the
  initial
  vf vector ( vi ) and then add it to the final, v f , and draw
vi Dv 
in the resultant, ∆v. This is shown in Figure 3.15.
2
The angles are marked in carefully. We can see 
from
 the drawing that the components of −vi and
 30°
Dv v f that are parallel to the wall will cancel out. This
30°
is because the vectors have the same magnitude
and the angles have  the same
 magnitudes. The

2vi components of −vi and v f perpendicular to the
wall are the same.

FIGURE 3.15  A ball bouncing off a wall. The red arrow


 ∆v
gives the change in velocity, ∆v . Half that length is , as
shown in green. 2

   •• Write the vector equation for subtraction.

∆v = v f + (− v i )

∆v •• Identify a right-angled triangle and use

= v f sin 30° trigonometry to relate the magnitudes.
2

∆v •• Substitute the known values with units and

= 6.0 m s −1 sin30° = 3.0 m s −1 calculate the answer
2

74 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

•• State the final answer with correct units and

∆v = 6.0 m s −1
appropriate significant figures.
Since the component of velocity parallel to the wall does not
change, the change in velocity is 6.0 m s−1 perpendicular to the wall
and away from the wall.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

This time, imagine the ball is a bit squishy. When bounced off the wall, the ball came off with half the

speed but in the same direction. What is ∆v in this case?

In Worked example 3.6, the initial and final velocities were different in direction but the same in
magnitude. In other worlds, the ball’s speed did not change, but its velocity did.
If the time for the ball to collide with the wall and bounce off is known, the acceleration could be

 ∆v
determined from a = .
t

INVESTIGATION 3.3

Measuring velocity vectors and components Critical and

creative
thinking
In this experiment, you will roll a ball at various speeds to derive a relationship between the components of
the velocity, the total velocity, and the angle at which the ball is rolled. Numeracy

AIM Information and

communication
Write a hypothesis for this investigation. technology capability

MATERIALS

•• Tape measure •• Stopwatch

•• Chalk •• Ball
•• Large protractor •• Basketball court or tennis court

!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
Excess sun exposure is dangerous. Wear a hat, and any other appropriate sun protection.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Measure the width and length of the court – these are dx and dy . Use the chalk and protractor to measure
the angle between the long side and the diagonal.
2 One person stays at a corner of the court with a ball. A second person stands at the opposite corner from
them with the stopwatch, and measures times. The experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 3.16.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 75

 3 The first person slowly rolls the ball to the second
person. The second person measures the time taken for
the ball to reach them.
4 Repeat step 3 at least 10 times, rolling the ball a bit faster
each time.

RESULTS

• Record the distances dx and dy.

• Record your time measurements in a table similar to the
one shown.

− − −
TRIAL TIME (S) vx (m s 1) vy (m s 1) vtotal (m s 1) dy

2 
v
…

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS dx
1 
Complete the table by:
FIGURE 3.16  Experimental arrangement
d showing distances to be measured
calculating vx for each time using v x = x
t
dy
calculating vy for each time using v y =
t
calculating vtotal for each time using vt = v x 2 + v y 2 .

2 Use a spreadsheet to plot a graph of vx vs vtotal. Display a line of best fit and the equation for the line on your
graph. Record the gradient.
3 Use a spreadsheet to plot a graph of vy vs vtotal. Display a line of best fit and the equation for the line on your
graph. Record the gradient.

DISCUSSION

1 Did your calculated gradient agree with what you would expect from your measurements of the court? If
not, can you explain why?
2 State whether your hypothesis was supported.
3 How could you improve or extend this experiment?

CONCLUSION
Summarise your results and write a statement of whether your hypothesis was supported or disproved by your
results.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Velocities are vectors. Speeds are scalar.

   
●● A velocity, v , can be resolved into perpendicular components, v = v x + v y .
  
●● If v is the magnitude of v , and v x and v y are the magnitudes of v x and v y, then v x = v cos θ,
vy
v y = v sin θ, v = v x2 + v y2 and tan θ = .
vx
●● We can add and subtract velocities by resolving them into components.
●● As with displacements, we can add velocities graphically by drawing vectors head-to-tail.
●● Change in velocity, ∆v , is found by subtraction of initial velocity from final velocity.

76 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 CHECK YOUR
1 Describe the difference between speed and velocity. UNDERSTANDING
−
2 An aeroplane has a velocity of 500 km h 1 S50°E. Calculate the velocity’s components to the north, east,
west and south. A sketch may be useful. 3.3
3 A passenger on the aeroplane in question 2 takes 6.0 s to run 40 m along the aisle towards the tail of the
plane. Calculate the average velocity of the passenger during their run.
4 A rider on a horse takes an hour to ride 28 km N25°E.
a Calculate their average speed.
b Write down their average velocity.
c Calculate the northward and eastward components of their velocity.
−
5 A child throws a ball of plasticine horizontally at a vertical wall. Initially, it is travelling at 10 m s 1 at an angle
−
of 35° to the wall. It does not bounce very well, so when it comes off the wall it is travelling at 3.0 m s 1,
again at 35° to the wall.
a Suggest the coordinate system you might use to tackle this problem. Draw a sketch, noting labels and
quantities. Also draw a vector diagram.

b What is the change in velocity, ∆v , of the ball of plasticine?

c If the plasticine hit the wall and stopped (i.e. stuck to it), what would ∆v be then?

3.4 Relative motion in a plane


The relative position of  an object depends on the position of the observer. If an object is at position d1
and an observer is at d2 , then
  
s1 relative to 2 = d1 − d 2
 
For example, if a dog is at d1, 3 m from a wall, and a cat is at d2, 6 m from the wall in the same
direction, then the dog is (3 − 6) = −3 m from the cat. The minus sign comes in because the distance
away from the wall is positive. From the cat’s point of view, the dog is towards the wall, which is the
negative direction.  

s1 relative to 2 is also the displacement that needs to be applied to the cat at d2 to bring it to d1 . This is a
one-dimensional example. We have already looked at subtraction of displacement vectors ( for example,
 
Worked
 example 3.3), and this is another application. Sometimes, s1 relative to 2 may be written as s1,2 or
d1,2, but this notation does not make it very clear what is relative to what. It is generally preferable to be
as clear as possible, even if it means using more words.
The relative motion of an object depends on the motion of the observer. It might be said that it
depends on what the object’s velocity is being measured against. In Worked example 3.4, when Mario
was sitting down, his velocity relative to the carriage was zero. Relative to the tracks, his velocity was
60 km h−1. A passenger in the same carriage (the ‘carriage frame of reference’) saw Mario as stationary. A
passenger standing beside the tracks (‘track frame of reference’) would see Mario moving. When Mario
changed seats, the passenger in the carriage saw his movement relative to the carriage – they saw only
one aspect of his motion.
In Figure 3.17 (page 78), car A is moving 2 m s−1 faster than car B. To an observer standing still on the
roadside (looking into the page), both cars are moving to the right. If the observer was seated in car B, still
looking into the page, car A would seem to be moving to the right at 2 m s−1. Car B would be stationary
relative to the observer. If the observer was a passenger in car A, car B would seem to be moving to the
left. This shows that the situation looks different for different frames of reference. The cars are in motion
relative to each other and relative to the road. They have positions, velocities and accelerations relative
to each other and relative to the road. For now, we are looking at velocities.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 77

 FIGURE 3.17 Two
cars with different Car A
velocities relative to
the road, but in the
same direction
v 5 4 m s21

v 5 2 m s21

Car B

For this one-dimensional example,

v1 relative to 2 = v1 − v 2
where v1 relative to 2 is the velocity of object 1 relative to object 2. In this case, v1 is the velocity of object 1
relative to the ground, and v 2 is that of object 2 relative to the ground. In the more general case, when
the velocities are not parallel,
  
WS v1 relative to 2 = v1 − v 2
Worksheets
Change in velocity
Homework
and relative
where the velocities are now vectors. The vectors could be parallel, perpendicular or somewhere in
motion between.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.7

−1
Aditya (A) and Belinda (B) are riding motorbikes. Aditya is riding north at 15 m s . Belinda is riding east
−1
at 20 m s , as shown in Figure 3.18. What is Aditya’s velocity relative to Belinda? Take north as positive y
and east as positive x.

FIGURE 3.18 Vector
diagram for Belinda’s
and Aditya’s relative
velocities. The
 horizontal vector has
 vA relative to B been reversed for
15 m s21 (va) subtraction.

u

20 m s21 (2vb)

ANSWER LOGIC

v A = 15 m s −1 north •• Identify relevant data from the question.

v B = 20 m s −1 east
   •• Identify the appropriate vector equation.
v A relative to B = v A − v B

78 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC
  
v A relative to B = v A + ( − v B ) •• Subtract by adding the negative.

•• Velocities are perpendicular, so apply Pythagoras’ theorem to find the

v A relative to B = ( v A )2 + ( − v B )2 magnitude of the resultant.
= (15 m s−1 )2 + ( −20 m s−1 )2 •• Substitute the known values with units and calculate the answer.
−1
= 25 m s
vA •• Use trigonometry to determine the angle.
tan θ =
vB
15 m s −1 •• Substitute the known values with units.
tan θ = = 0.75
20 m s −1
•• Calculate the answer.
θ = 37°
 •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate significant figures.
v A relative to B = 25 m s −1 N53° W

TRY THIS YOURSELF

What is Belinda’s velocity relative to Aditya? Is there a really quick way of working this out from your
first answer?

In Worked example 3.7, the velocity of one motorbike relative to another was calculated. It may be
desirable to work the other way around. If a particular relative velocity is required, what components
need to go into it? This is a common situation. An aeroplane travels through the air, which is moving. But
what is important to the passengers is its speed relative to the ground. Similarly, a swimmer or a boat
moves through flowing water, but ultimately it is their movement relative to the land that is important.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.8

−1
Imagine a boat (B) on a river. The river flows from south to north at 0.400 m s (relative to the shore).
−1
What must the boat’s velocity be relative to the water (W) if it is to go due west at 2.00 m s relative to
the shore?

ANSWER LOGIC

•• Identify the relevant data from the question.

v B = 2.00 m s −1 west
v W = 0.400 m s −1 north

•• Draw the vector diagram based on the relevant

2.00 m s21 information.
u
0.400 m s21 
vB relative to W

FIGURE 3.19  Vector diagram for the boat crossing the river. The boat must
−
have a velocity component to the south of 0.400 m s 1. The remaining velocity
−
component must be westerly at 2.00 m s 1.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 79

 ANSWER LOGIC
   •• Identify the appropriate vector equation.
v B relative to W = v B − v W

   •• Subtract by adding the negative.

v B relative to W = v B + (− v W )

•• Velocities are perpendicular, so apply

v B relative to W = (v B )2 + (− v W )2 Pythagoras’ theorem to find the magnitude of
the resultant.
= (2.00 m s −1 )2 + (−0.400 m s −1 )2 •• Substitute the known values with units and
= 2.04 m s −1 calculate answer.

vW •• Use trigonometry to determine the angle.

tan θ =
vB
0.400 m s −1 •• Substitute the known values with units.
tan θ = = 0.2
2.00 m s −1
•• Calculate the answer.
θ = 11.3°
•• State the final answer with correct units and
v B relative to W = 2.04 m s −1 S79° W
appropriate significant figures.
So the boat has to aim at an angle of 11° south of west to end up
travelling perpendicularly across.

TRY THESE YOURSELF


1 As the river flows faster, what happens to the magnitude and angle of v B relative to W ?
2 Calculate the velocity of the boat relative to the water to still go due west at 2.00 m s−1 if the water
−1
flows at 1.00 m s .

The example of an aeroplane in a crosswind may be treated much like the boat in Worked example 3.8.
However, in real life, the aeroplane will not be dragged sideways at the same speed as the crosswind, but
at some lesser velocity. When it comes to aeroplanes, the assumption that the air and the plane have the
same crosswise velocity is an approximation.
Worked examples 3.7 and 3.8 both look at velocities that are perpendicular. This may not always
  
be so. The vector equation v1 relative to 2 = v1 − v 2 still works if the velocities are not perpendicular, but
it is necessary to resolve the vectors into components. Worked example 3.9 brings together vector
subtraction, resolving vectors into components, and the Red Baron.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.9

The Red Baron (R) is flying at 100 km h−1 S35°W. He spots a Sopwith Camel (S). It is at the same height,
but flying at 120 km h−1 N72°E. What is the velocity of the Sopwith relative to the Red Baron’s Fokker
triplane?

ANSWERS LOGIC

•• Identify the relevant data; remember one vector has to be

v R = 100 km h −1 S35° W
reversed when drawing the diagram.
vS = 120 km h −1 N72°E

80 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

•• Draw a labelled diagram, showing angles and vector lengths.

 
vS relative to R  2vR, north
2vr
R


 2vr, east
s  
vs vs, north

vs, east

FIGURE
  3.20 
 Vector diagram for  the relative velocities,
v S, vR and v S relative to R. Note that vR has been reversed to do the
subtraction.

     •• Identify the appropriate vector equation.

vS relative to R = vS − v R = vS + (− v R )

vS, east = vS sin θS •• Write an expression for each component. Note that signs are
important.
vS, north = vS cos θS
− v R, east = v R sin θR
− v R, north = v R cos θR

vS relative to R, east = vS, east + (− v R, east ) •• Write the expressions for the vector components of the
solution.
vS relative to R, north = vS, north + (− v R, north )

vS relative to R, east = vS sin θS + v R sin θR •• From these derive expressions for the scalar components of the
solution.
vS relative to R, north = vS cos θS + v R cos θR

•• Substitute the known values with units and calculate the

vS relative to R, east = 120 km h −1 sin 72° + 100 km h −1 sin 35° answers.
= 171.5 km h −1
vS relative to R, north = 120 km h −1 cos 72° + 100 km h −1 cos 35°
= 119.0 km h −1
vS relative to R = (171.5 km h −1 )2 + (119.0 km h −1 )2 •• Apply Pythagoras’ theorem to find the net magnitude.

vS relative to R = 209 km h −1 •• Calculate the answer.

vS relative to R, east •• Use trigonometry to determine the angle.

tan θ =
vS relative to R, north

171.5 km h −1 •• Substitute the known values with units.

tan θ = = 1.44
119.0 km h −1
θ = 55.2° •• Calculate the answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 81

 ANSWERS LOGIC

 •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate

vS relative to R = 209 km h −1 N55°E
significant figures.
Relative to the Red Baron the Sopwith is moving at
−1
209 km h and appears to be travelling in a direction 55°
east of north. Because the angles were measured from
north, cosine is used to obtain the northerly components.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

If we let the Sopwith's direction (but not the speed) vary, what is the maximum possible magnitude of
vS relative to R ? What is the minimum? Thinking about aspects such as these can help you to check your
mathematical answers.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● The relative position of an object depends on the position of the observer.

●● The displacement
 of object
 1 relative to object 2 is found from subtraction of position
vectors, d 1 relative to 2 = d 1 − d 2.
Weblink
Relative velocities ●● The relative motion of an object depends on the motion of the observer.
Watch these
animations and work ●● The velocity of object 1 relative to object 2 is found from subtraction of velocity
  
through the examples. vectors, v1 relative to 2 = v1 − v 2 .

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Describe what is meant by ‘frame of reference’.
2 An ant is on a chessboard. It is in the centre of the fourth square up in the third column from the left.
3.4 A beetle is in the centre of the second square up in the seventh column from the left. Calculate the
displacement of the beetle relative to the ant, in units of squares. (Hint: drawing a diagram may be useful.)
3 A passenger on a bus walks from the back to the front. It takes them 2.0 s to walk 10 m. The bus is moving
−
south at 30 km h 1 relative to the road.
a Calculate the passenger’s velocity:
i relative to the bus.
ii relative to the road.
b What is the bus’s velocity relative to the passenger?
−
4 A spider is near the top of a vertical water spout. If rain is washing down the spout at 2.0 m s 1 relative to
−
the spout, and the spider is climbing up at 5.0 cm s 1 relative to the water, what is the spider’s velocity
relative to the spout? How long will it take for the spider to get washed out if it is 2.2 m above the bottom
of the spout?
−
5 An aeroplane is flying north at 200 km h 1 relative to the ground. There is a crosswind blowing from west to
−
east at 55 km h 1 relative to the ground.
a Calculate the velocity of the aeroplane relative to the wind. Include a sketch in your working.
−
The wind now swings around and blows towards the north-east at 55 km h 1 relative to the ground.
b Calculate the velocity of the aeroplane relative to the wind, assuming its velocity remains unchanged.

82 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 3   CHAPTER SUMMARY

◗◗ Motion can occur in one, two or three dimensions.  

◗◗ Displacement is the vector, s ,from an initial position, d , to a
    i
◗◗ When motion occurs in more than one dimension, it is final position, df . This means df = di + s or s = df − di.
useful to express displacements and velocities as vectors.
◗◗ When calculating displacement, the path followed does not
◗◗ Vectors can be represented as arrows, where the length of matter.
the arrow gives the magnitude and the angle of the arrow 
◗◗ Velocity is a vector (v ). Its magnitude is the speed.
relative to some axis gives the direction.   
◗◗ Velocity can be resolved into components: v = v x + v y ,
◗◗ We use a variable with an arrow on top to represent a
where v x = v cos θ and v y = v sin θ.
vector. If A is a vector, then A (no arrow) is its magnitude.
◗◗ Vector magnitude and direction can be calculated from the
◗◗ A vector can be resolved into components. These are
vectors along useful directions (perpendicular axes) that magnitudes of the components: v = v x 2 + v y 2 and
vy
add to give the original vector. tan θ = .
 vx
◗◗ The vector s can be written as the sum of components in ◗◗ Two velocities can be added or subtracted by resolving
  
the x and y directions: s = s x + s y . them into components. Just like displacements, they can
 also be added and subtracted using diagrams.
◗◗ If the direction of the vector s is given by an angle to the
 
x axis, θ, then the magnitudes of s x and s y are given by ◗◗ The change in an object’s velocity after an event, such as
s x = s cos θ and s y = s sin θ. 
a collision or acceleration, is denoted ∆v (‘delta-vee’). It is
  
◗◗ If constructing a vector from its components, the angle calculated from the vector equation ∆v = v f − vi .
sy 
can be found from tan θ = and the magnitude from ◗◗ If ∆v is divided by the time taken for the change in
sx 
2 2  ∆v
s = sx + sy . velocity, the result is the average acceleration: a = .
t
◗◗ Vectors can be added graphically by putting vector arrows ◗◗ The velocity of object 1 relative to that of object 2 is given
head-to-tail.   
by the vector equation v1 relative to 2 = v1 − v 2.
◗◗ Vectors can be subtracted by reversing the second
vector (exchanging head and tail) and then adding:
   
A − B = A + ( −B ).

3   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 Name four areas in physics where vectors are used. 6 A basketball court is 28 m long and 15 m wide. Calculate
the length of the diagonal and the angle it makes to the
2 Explain why it is useful to represent some quantities as
long side.
vectors.
7 Draw vector diagrams to show two-dimensional
3 Explain what happens to a vector when it is multiplied or
changes in:
divided by a scalar quantity with units.
a displacement.
4 The second hand of a wall clock is 11 cm long. If the x axis
b velocity.
points from the centre to the ‘3’ and the y axis points from
the centre to the ‘12’, then: 8 Find the change in displacement and average velocity for
a calculate the angle to the x axis if the second hand is the following movements. For each case, give your answer
−1
pointing to the ‘2’. in both m and km for the displacement and m s and
−1
km h for the average velocity.
b calculate the x and y components of the position of the
tip of the second hand. a 100 km, N to 240 km, W in 2.0 h
b 250 km, N45°E to 550 km, N45°W in 88 min
5 A dog runs away from its kennel 332 m S28°W. Calculate
how far south and how far west it is of the kennel. c 350 m, S35°E to 475 m, S20°E in 17.5 min

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 83

 9 Draw the following to scale. 12 In an orienteering event, a runner moves from a
a The change of displacement of a body that moves from checkpoint at 200 m N30°E from the start to another
10 m N25°W to 20 m N25°E checkpoint at 400 m S60°E. What is the change of
displacement of the runner?
b The change of velocity of a body that has an initial
−1
velocity of 20 m s S40°W, and a final velocity of 13 An ant walks 34 cm north-west, and then 52 cm east.
−1
20 m s S65°W Calculate its total displacement.
10 Use vector diagrams to add thepairs of vectors shown in 14 After a walk consisting of two segments, an ant has a
Figure 3.21. Label the resultant R . displacement from its starting point of 1.25 m N25°E.
The first part of its journey was a walk 2.00 m north-west.
Calculate the length and direction of the second part of
a the walk.
−1
15 A car is heading north-west at a speed of 60 km h .
  Calculate the northerly and westerly components of its
A 1 B
velocity.
−1
16 A car is heading north-west at a speed of 60 km h .
Calculate the north-easterly component of its velocity.
Explain your logic.
−1
b 17 A car is heading S35°E at a speed of 75 km h . Draw
a scale vector diagram representing the car’s velocity.
  Indicate the scale and label the axes. Work out the
A 1 B southerly and westerly velocity components using your
diagram.
18 A toy car rolls the length of a corridor. The corridor is
2.0 m wide and 22.0 m long. The car goes from one end
c to the other, and also goes sideways by 1.2 m. If the toy
−1
car’s speed is 10 m s , what are the velocities parallel and
 perpendicular to the length of the corridor?
 B
1 −1
A 19 A girl is riding her bike north at 35 km h . At the
−1
same time, she throws a tennis ball east at 20 m s .
Calculate the velocity of the tennis ball just after it leaves
her hand.
  −1
FIGURE 3.21  Add the vectors A and B . Label
 20 A bird flies at 25 km h in a north-easterly direction.
−1
the resulting vector R . It sees a cat and turns and flies at 56 km h S35°W.

Calculate ∆v for the bird.
−1
11 Use vector diagrams to subtract the pairs of vectors 21 A girl (G) is sitting in a train travelling north at 35 km h .
shown in Figure 3.22. Label the resultant R . She throws a tennis ball (B) to a friend across the aisle
−1 
(east) at 20 m s . Calculate vB relative to G.
a
 
A 2 B

b
 
A 2 B

 
FIGURE 3.22 Subtract
 B from A . Label the
resultant vector R .

84 CHAPTER ONE
MODULE 11 » »CHEMISTRY
KINEMATICS 9780170409063
 » END-OF-MODULE REVIEW MODULE 1  : KINEMATICS

Answer the following questions.

−1
1 A vehicle travels west at 100 km h for 45 minutes. It 6 Chen has ridden his bike east for 30 km and north
stops for 15 minutes, and then resumes its journey west at for 12 km.
−1
80 km h for 20 minutes. After stopping for another half a Explain why it is necessary to provide distance and
−1
an hour, it returns to its first rest stop at 85 km h . direction information to describe his movements.
a What distance did the vehicle travel? b If the first leg of his journey took 1 hour and the
b What is its final displacement? second leg took 20 minutes, calculate the average
c What is its average speed? speed for each leg of the journey.
d What is its average velocity? c Given the times in part b, calculate the average
velocity for the entire ride, including the direction.
2 A spacecraft accelerates from 0 to 1000 km h−1 at 9.8 m s−2.
a How far does the spacecraft travel while doing this? 7 A student is adding vectors by plotting them on graph
paper.
b How long does it take?
a Explain why the student has to draw the vectors all to
3 At exactly 3:00 p.m., a stationary motorcycle begins to the same scale.
−1
accelerate to 110 km h , achieving this velocity in 15 s. b Explain the parallelogram rule and how it can help
−1
A car that had been travelling at a constant 90 km h avoid errors when adding vectors graphically.
was 0.6 km in front of the motorcycle at 3:00 p.m., and c Explain how you would use a vector diagram to
travelling in the same direction as the motorcycle. subtract one vector from another.
a How long does it take for the motorcycle to pass the car? d Explain how a diagram can be used to add and/or
b How far had the motorcycle travelled at this point? subtract any number of vectors, not just two.
c What was the velocity of the car relative to the −1
motorcycle? 8 An aeroplane has a velocity of 950 km h N35°W.
d What was the velocity of the motorcycle relative to a Sketch the velocity vector on a suitable set of axes and
the car? add in its components to the north and west. Note the
angle.
4 A stone is dropped from the top of an 80-m cliff. After b What is the northerly component of the aeroplane’s
2 s, the stone meets a helium-filled balloon that had velocity? What is the westerly component?
previously been released from the bottom of the cliff. The c For how long must the plane keep flying to travel
−1
balloon is ascending at a constant 2 m s . 2000 km north?
a What is the relative velocity of the stone from the d For how long must the plane keep flying to go
balloon’s point of view? 2000 km to the north-west (that is, N45°W)? (Hint –
b What is the relative velocity of the balloon from the resolve the plane’s velocity into components different
stone’s point of view? from those you used in part b.)
c How far from the bottom of the cliff did this encounter −1
take place? 9 A dog is running north-east at 10 m s . It then turns and
−1
runs due north at 6.0 m s .
d At what time, relative to the stone’s release, was the
balloon released? a For how long was the dog running north-east if it ran
150 m before turning?
5 Two ships pass in the night, travelling in opposite b If the dog ran north for 20 s, what was the total
directions (t = 0). Ship A is travelling at 20 knots, and ship distance the dog ran?
B at 25 knots. After they have travelled for another two c Draw a vector diagram of the distances involved in the
minutes, ship A blasts its horn. The speed of sound in air dog’s journey, including the net displacement. Draw a
−1
under prevailing conditions is 341 m s , and 1 knot = second diagram of the velocities.
−1 
1.852 km h . d What is ∆v , the change in velocity (magnitude and
a How far apart are the two ships when the horn blasts direction), between the first leg and the second leg of
(t = 2 minutes)? the run? What was the average velocity for the whole
b How far apart are the two ships when ship B hears the journey?
horn?
c At what time does ship B hear the horn?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 3 » MOTION ON A PLANE 85

 10 Two girls are misbehaving on a train (train 1) and throwing this tell us about the velocities of train 1, train 2 and
a basketball back and forth along the aisle of a carriage. the basketball?
While they do this, the carriage passes under a bridge c From the frame of reference of the bridge, are the two
and another train (train 2) passes them, going the same trains moving in the same or different directions?
direction but faster. d From the frame of reference of train 1, are the two
a List four frames of reference that might be used to trains moving in the same or different directions? Are
describe this situation. they moving at all?
b An observer in train 2 looks across at train 1, and for a
moment sees the basketball as stationary. What does

▻▻ Research engine design for chemically-propelled spacecraft. When are constant-thrust engines
appropriate, and list three spacecraft that have used them. When might variable-thrust engines be
deployed?

▻▻ The Centre for Plasmas and Fluids at the Australian National University developed the Dual-Stage
4-Grid (DS4G) thruster. What is its purpose, how is it accomplished, and what performance could it
achieve?

▻▻ Bullets, artillery shells and cannon balls all use chemical propulsion. What are the strengths and
weaknesses of chemical propulsion in this context, and how does it compare to electrical propulsion
of ammunition?

▻▻ Drag racing uses a standard quarter-mile course. Research the final velocities of dragsters since the
1960s.

▻▻ Research the value of the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon and the planets in the solar
−1
system. In each case, if a projectile is fired straight upwards at 300 m s , draw a table of the distance
it would travel to the point where its velocity is zero.

▻▻ Investigate vectors in three dimensions. Vector decomposition becomes a bit trickier, but show some
examples of how it can be done.

▻▻ Using GPS, maps, and actual journeys, compare the distance you actually travel to the net
displacement for some journeys you commonly take, such as the trip to your school or the shops.

▻▻ Trace the use of vectors back through the history of science, looking at other attempts to tackle
quantities with magnitude and direction.

▻▻ Assemble a spreadsheet that can plot two vectors and their sum, or can resolve a vector into
components.

▻▻ Using skateboards, tennis balls tossed back and forth, and an open space such as a basketball court,
explore some aspects of relative motion.

86 MODULE ONE » KINEMATICS 9780170409063

 » MODULE TWO

DYNAMICS
4 Forces

5 Forces, acceleration and energy

6 Momentum, energy and simple systems

Shutterstock.com/diy13

9780170409063 87
 4 Forces
INQUIRY OUTCOMES Students:
QUESTION •• using Newton’s Laws of Motion, describe static and dynamic interactions between two or more objects and
How are forces produced the changes that result from:
– a contact force
between objects and
– a force mediated by fields
what effects do forces
•• explore the concept of net force and equilibrium in one-dimensional and simple two-dimensional contexts
produce?
using: (ACSPH050) ICT N
– algebraic addition
– vector addition
– vector addition by resolution into components
•• solve problems or make quantitative predictions about resultant and component forces by applying the
following relationships: ICT N
 
– FAB = −FBA

– Fx = F cos θ , Fy = F sin θ
•• conduct a practical investigation to explain and predict the motion of objects on inclined planes
(ACSPH098) CCT ICT
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
Shutterstock.com/homydesign

88 9780170409063
 In the previous two chapters, we described the motion of objects

Getty Images/Bettmann
and explored what happens when an object accelerates. In this
chapter, we will look at the cause of acceleration, which is force.
Forces make things move, stop and change direction. Whenever
the state of motion of an object is changing, there must be a force

knilbeW
acting on it. This means every time you move, a force is acting on
you, and every time you move something, you exert a force on it. All
Sir Isaac
your interactions with the world, from tapping a screen to making Newton
the air vibrate when you speak, involve forces. Find out what
other contributions
Our current understanding of forces was largely developed Newton made
by Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Newton’s three laws of motion to physics and
mathematics.
describe how objects interact via forces, and what happens when
an object experiences one or more forces. The unit of force, the
newton, N, is named in honour of Newton. We will describe how FIGURE 4.1  Sir Isaac Newton

forces are produced between objects and use Newton’s laws to

describe and predict the effects that forces produce.

4.1  Forces are interactions

When objects interact, they do so by exerting forces on each other. Forces are not ‘contained’ in an object,
so we do not say that an object ‘has’ a force. Forces are an interaction, and they are exerted on one object WS

by another object. When we write the symbol for a force, it is a good idea to use subscripts that say General
Homework
which object is exerting the force, and which object
 the force is exerted on. For example, if an object A is knowledge

applying a force to object B, this is written as FA on B .

Forces can be categorised into two types: contact forces and field forces. Contact forces act when objects
are touching each other (in contact). Field forces act whenever objects interact without touching. When
you hold a book in your hand, you exert a contact force on the book with the skin of your hand. The book
also experiences a gravitational force due to Earth, even though it is not touching it. This is a field force.

Contact forces
Everyday pushes and pulls are examples of contact forces. When you pick something up with your hand,
or push on something, you are exerting a contact force on it. When you walk, you are exerting a contact
force on the ground.
When you exert a contact force on a surface, such as pushing your foot against the ground to walk (as
shown in Figure 4.2), we consider that force as having two components: the normal force and the friction
force. You saw in chapter 3 how to resolve vectors into perpendicular components.

a b FIGURE 4.2 The
contact force can be
considered as the sum
of a normal force and
a friction force. a The
total contact force;
b The contact force
broken up into normal
force (perpendicular
to the surface) and
F foot on ground, friction F foot on ground, normal friction force (parallel
F foot on ground, contact to the surface)

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 89

 The normal force acts perpendicular to the surface (normal means perpendicular in mathematics),
and prevents your foot from moving into the ground. The normal force is due to interactions between
atoms on the two surfaces – the sole of your foot and the surface of the ground. The normal force acts to
prevent solid surfaces from moving into each other.
The friction force acts parallel to the two surfaces, and prevents your foot from sliding along the ground.
The friction force is also due to interactions between atoms on the two surfaces. The friction force acts
to prevent relative movement, or slipping, of two surfaces which are in contact. Note that friction doesn’t
prevent movement. Without friction, you couldn’t walk or drive a car. Friction opposes the sliding of one
surface against another.
Friction is described Static friction acts to prevent sliding of one surface against another. Kinetic friction occurs when two
in detail in chapter 5.
surfaces are already sliding relative to one another, and it slows down the sliding.
Note that there is a limit to how large a normal or friction force a surface is capable of applying. If
the limit of the normal force is exceeded, then one surface will move into the other. For example, a sharp
stone may pierce your foot. If the limit of the static friction force is exceeded, then one surface will slide
relative to the other. For example, if you try to run on wet slippery grass, you may skid and slide.
Contact forces are also exerted by liquids and gases. When you swim, you exert a contact force on the
Weblink
Terminal velocity water. Air resistance (drag) is the friction force of air on an object moving through the air.
Find out what Often we make the assumption that air resistance is very small, and ignore it. However, in many
terminal velocity is,
and how cats can everyday situations (such as driving a car), air resistance is important. Knowing when to make
survive falls from high
windows. approximations, such as ignoring friction or air resistance, and knowing when not to do this, is an
important skill in physics.

Field forces
WS
Objects that are not in contact can still interact and exert forces on each other. They do so by forces
Contact and field
Homework that are mediated by fields. Three fields will be described: the gravitational field, the electric field and the
forces magnetic field.
If you hold a pencil and let it go, it will accelerate towards Earth. It does so because of the
gravitational force that Earth exerts on it, as shown in Figure 4.3. This force is mediated by the
gravitational field of Earth. The pencil is not in contact with Earth, but it is within the gravitational field
of Earth. Earth creates the field, and exerts a force via this
field. Hence, we say the force is mediated by the field. When
you talk to someone on your phone, your communication is
g mediated by the phone – you are doing the talking, but the
communication is enabled by the phone.
All objects with mass have a gravitational field – the bigger
Pencil
Weblink
Measuring Earth’s the mass is, the stronger the field. You have already met the
gravitational field 
acceleration, g , due to the gravitational field in the previous
The GRACE project is 
measuring variations chapter. In chapter 3, we expressed g in units of m s−2. We
in Earth’s gravitational 
field. How do the two can also write g in units of N kg−1, which is a useful way to
satellites do this? 
remember that g is also the gravitational field strength close
F gravitational
to the surface of Earth. The gravitational force, FEarth on object,
on an object close to the surface of Earth, is:
  
Fgravitational = FEarth on object = mg
where m is the mass of the object.

The units of g are N kg−1 and the units of mass are kg,
FIGURE 4.3  A pencil released above the
so this gives the correct units for force. N N kg−1 is the same
ground will accelerate downwards due to as m s−2. It is very useful to be able to convert between units
the gravitational force. The gravitational
force is mediated by the gravitational field.
when you are solving problems.

90 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 If you rub a balloon on your hair, charged particles are transferred from your hair to the balloon.
The electric field
The hair and balloon both end up being charged. Charged objects have an electric field. This electric and electrostatic
field exerts a force on any charged object. Hence, the electric field of the balloon exerts a force on your forces are
discussed in detail
hair. When you hold the balloon close to your hair, you can feel (and see, if your hair is long enough) the in chapter 12.
hair pulling towards the balloon. You can see this happening in
Figure 4.4. This is because the hair and balloon have opposite

Getty Images/Digital Light Source

charges and exert an attractive force on each other via the
electric field. Like charges exert a repulsive force, also via a field.
Moving charged objects and magnetic materials have a
magnetic field. Magnetic fields exert force on moving charged
objects and on magnetic materials. If you bring the north and
south poles of a magnet close together, they will pull together.
If you try to bring two north poles or two south poles together,
they will push apart.

Newton’s laws of motion

The effects of forces can be described and predicted using
Newton’s laws of motion. Newton’s laws apply in both static
and dynamic situations. Statics is the study of systems where
the objects are not moving. Dynamics refers to systems where
one or more components are moving, and often accelerations
are involved. FIGURE 4.4  The person’s hair is attracted to the balloon because
the hair and balloon are both charged. This force is mediated by the
electric field.
Newton’s first law
Newton’s first law states that, in the absence of external forces, an object at rest remains at rest and an
object in motion continues in motion with a constant velocity. In other words, when no force acts on an The magnetic
object, the acceleration of the object is zero. field is described
in detail in
This statement was enormously important for two reasons. chapter 14.
1 Newton’s first law tells us that if there is no force acting, there will be no acceleration. It explicitly
links the idea of force to acceleration. This leads us to the definition of force as something that causes
acceleration. Hence, Newton’s first law is fundamental to our understanding of what forces are.
2 Newton’s first law contradicted the writings of Aristotle. This lead to a revolution in our understanding
of the laws of nature.
For nearly 2000 years, the writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) were taught in
schools and universities. Their significance was such that they came to be considered fundamental to the
understanding of the natural world. The Aristotelian view of motion was that an object ‘contained’ force
or ‘impetus’, and it moved until the ‘impetus’ ran out.
Newton and others, including Galileo, disagreed with the Aristotelian view. Newton’s first law
contradicts this Aristotelian view, and was a direct response to it.
One of the reasons the Aristotelian view was considered correct for so long was that it appears to
knilbeW

match our experience. We observe that moving objects on Earth do not keep moving forever – they
slow down and stop. In the Aristotelian model, they ‘run out of impetus’ and so stop moving. In the Newton’s laws
Newtonian model, if an object is slowing down, it is accelerating, so there is a force acting on it to cause and road safety
Explain how
this acceleration. Usually, this force is friction. seatbelts and
Note that Newton’s first law deals with the case of a single object with no forces acting on it. Newton’s airbags work in
terms of Newton’s
second law, which we will discuss next, tells us what happens when one or more forces are acting. first law.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 91

 Newton’s second law
Newton’s second law tells us what happens when one or more forces act on an object. It quantifies the
relationship between force and acceleration that was introduced in the first law.
Newton’s second law tells us that, when a force acts on an object, the acceleration of the object as a
result of that force is:

 Fon A
aA =
mA

where mA is the mass of the object. Or, as it is often written:

 
Fon A = mA a A

Note that both force and acceleration are vectors, and the direction of the acceleration is the same
as that of the force.  
Newton’s second law also tells us about the units of force, N. For the equation Fon A = mA a A to be
dimensionally correct, then the units on each side must be the same:
Weblink
Measuring mass [N] = [kg][m s−2]
What is inertial
mass? Is it different
So, in fundamental units, 1 N = 1 kg m s−2.
to gravitational We will apply Newton’s second law to solve a range of problems involving equilibrium situations
mass? Find out what
it is, and how it is (including static equilibrium) in the next two sections, and to solve problems in dynamic situations in
measured.
the following chapter.

Newton’s third law

Newton’s third law reminds us that forces are interactions between objects. Both objects are affected by
WS an interaction. If you push the tips of your two index fingers together, you will see the skin compress on
Newtonʼs third law
Homework
both fingers and you will feel the force on both fingers.
Newton’s third law states that, whenever an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts
an equal and opposite force on object A. We write this mathematically as:
 
FA on B = − FB on A
or sometimes more simply as
 
FAB = − FBA
 
These two forces, FA on B and FB on A , are called a Newton’s third law force pair. Also they are
sometimes referred to as an action–reaction pair. As the two forces are part of a single interaction, either
one could be the action or the reaction. When you push your two index fingers together, both push and
both are pushed.
There are some important things to remember about Newton’s third law force pairs.
1 The forces act on different objects. If a pair of forces are acting on the same object, then they cannot
be a Newton’s third law force pair. Always writing forces with subscripts will help you remember this,
and help you identify whether two forces are a Newton’s third law force pair or not.
2 The forces are of the same type, because they are the two parts of a single interaction. The Newton’s
third law force pair to a gravitational force is always a gravitational force. The Newton’s third law force
pair to a contact force is always a contact force. A contact force can never be the Newton’s third law
force pair to a gravitational force.
3 As already stated, the two forces are equal in magnitude but act in opposite directions.
Weblink
Newton car Figure 4.5 shows two Newton’s third law force pairs. The satellite and Earth exert equal and opposite
Build your own gravitational forces on each other. The gravitational force is due to the gravitational fields created by
‘Newton car’ and
use it to investigate the masses of Earth and the satellite. Even though the masses of the two objects are very different, both
Newton’s third law.
experience a force of the same magnitude. Similarly, the man pushing on the wall experiences an equal

92 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 and opposite push by the wall. The man pushes the wall to the right, and the wall pushes the man to the
left. In this case, both forces are contact forces – they are experienced by the two different objects, and
act in opposite directions.

Earth
pulls the
a F by mass of satellite  
satellite on F by wall on person F by person on wall
The satellite mass of Earth
pulls Earth

F by mass of
Earth on mass
of satellite

A pair of gravitational forces

FIGURE 4.5  Two Newton’s third law force pairs. a A pair of field forces: the gravitational force of Earth on a satellite, Fby mass of Earth on mass of satellite, and its
Newton’s third law force pair, the gravitational force of the satellite on Earth, Fby mass of satellite on mass of Earth; b A pair of contact forces: the person pushes
on the wall, Fby person on wall, and the wall pushes on the person, Fby wall on person

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.1

F by table on cup, normal
Figure 4.6 shows a cup sitting on a table. The forces acting on the cup
are the gravitational force of Earth pulling downwards on the cup, and
the normal force of the table pushing upwards on the cup. Identify the
Newton’s third law force pairs to each of these forces.

F by Earth on cup, gravitational

FIGURE 4.6  The forces acting on a cup

sitting at rest on a table

ANSWER LOGIC
  
Fgravitational = FEarth on cup •• Write the gravitational force in the form FA on B.

  •• Write Newton’s third law using the forces involved in

FEarth on cup = − Fcup on Earth
the question.
 •• Identify the Newton’s third law pair.
Fcup on Earth is the Newton’s third law force pair to the gravitational
force of Earth on the cup. This must be a gravitational force.
  
Fnormal = Ftable on cup •• Write the normal force in the form FA on B.

  •• Write Newton’s third law using the forces involved in

Ftable on cup = − Fcup on table
the question.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 93

 ANSWER LOGIC
 •• Identify the Newton’s third law pair.
Fcup on table is the Newton’s third law force pair to the normal force
of the table on the cup. This must be a normal (contact) force.
 •• State your final answer.
The gravitational force Fcup on Earth is the Newton’s third law force
pair to the gravitational force of Earth on the cup, and the contact
force Fcup on table is the Newton’s third law force pair to the normal
force of the table on the cup.
TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 The cup described above is pushed along the table. It experiences two horizontal forces: the push
from someone’s hand, and friction from the surface of the table. Identify the Newton’s third law force
pair to each of these forces.
2 Explain why the normal force and the gravitational force on the cup cannot be a Newton’s third law force pair.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Objects interact via forces.

●● Forces can be contact forces (objects are touching) or field forces (objects are not touching).
●● Newton’s first law says that if no force acts on an object, it will not accelerate. It will move in a
straight line with constant speed, or remain at rest.
●● Newton’s first law relates force to acceleration, and so provides a definition of force.
 
●● Newton’s second law quantifies the relationship between force and acceleration: F = ma . The
direction of force and acceleration are the same.
●● Newton’s third law says that when object
 A exerts
 a force on object B, then object B exerts an
equal and opposite force on object A: FAB = − FBA
●● Newton’s third law force pairs act on different objects, and are always the same type of force.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Describe the difference between field forces and contact forces.
2 Identify three different field forces.
4.1 3 Identify the two components of the contact force that one solid surface exerts on another. Draw a diagram
to explain your answer.
4 A rolling ball gradually slows down and comes to a stop. How would Aristotle have explained this
observation? How would Newton have explained it?
5 Is a force caused by an acceleration? Explain your answer with reference to Newton’s second law.
6 Explain the following with reference to Newton’s first law.
a An object at rest does not spontaneously move.
b A person standing on a bus stumbles forwards when the bus stops suddenly.
c A seated person not wearing a seatbelt is not ‘thrown forwards’ towards the windscreen in a car crash,
but they do hit the windscreen.
7 Apply Newton’s second law to explain why it takes longer for a car towing a trailer full of gravel to come to
a stop than the same car without the trailer.
8 Which applies the greater gravitational force: Earth on you, or you on Earth? Explain your answer.
9 Identify
 the
 Newton’s third law force pairs to the following forces, and write the force pairs in the form
FA on B = −FB on A .
a A car’s tyres push backwards against the road.
b A charged balloon is repelled by a second charged balloon.
c The tip of a compass needle is attracted towards the north pole of Earth.
10 When you take a step forward, you push your foot down and backwards against the ground. Identify the
reaction force to the contact force that you exert against the ground. In what direction does it act?

94 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4.2 Net force in one and two dimensions
In this section, we will look at how to solve problems and make quantitative predictions about resultant
and component forces. To do this we will need to be able to add forces in one and two dimensions. In one
dimension, we can add forces algebraically. In two or more dimensions, we must add forces vectorially.

 s second law was introduced in the previous section as F = ma , which can be rearranged
Newton’
 F
as a = . This is the case when only a single force acts on an object. However, in almost all situations,
m
there are at least two forces acting, and often more. In these situations, we need to consider the net force
(total force) that acts on an object.
The more general form of Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object depends upon
the net force that acts on that object:
 
 F ∑ Fon A
a A = net on A =
mA mA

Adding forces to find the net force

The net force that acts on an object is the vector sum of all the forces that are acting on that object:
 
Fnet, A = ∑ FA
Consider the case of the block shown in Figure 4.7. This block is subject to two forces,
both acting towards the 4.0 N
 right. If we call the right the positive direction, then the net force 3.0 N
acting on the block is Fnet = (+ 4.0 N) + (+ 3.0 N) = 4.0 N + 3.0 N = + 7.0 N. Usually we drop
the + sign, and just write this as 7.0 N. This block will accelerate to the right. FIGURE 4.7  A block subject to two
Now consider the block shown in Figure 4.8. This block is also subject to two forces, forces acting in the same direction
one acting towards the right and the other to the left. If right is the positive direction,
then the3.0 N force that acts left must be negative. The net force now acting on the
3.0 N 4.0 N
block is Fnet = (+ 4.0 N) + (−3.0 N) = 4.0 N − 3.0 N = +1.0 N. This block will also accelerate
to the right, but at a much lower rate than the block shown in Figure 4.7.
Imagine that the block is again subjected to the same two forces, but now the forces
are acting at right angles to each other, as in Figure 4.9. FIGURE 4.8  A block subject to two
forces acting in opposite directions
We cannot simply add the forces algebraically now – we need to treat them as
vectors. However, because these forces are at right angles, we can treat them as the two
perpendicular components of the net force, as shown in Figure 4.10. The net force (the
3.0 N
sum of the forces) can be found using Pythagoras’s theorem or using trigonometry.
Using Pythagoras’s theorem:
 2 2
Fnet = ( 3.0 N ) + ( 4.0 N ) = 5.0 N
4.0 N

FIGURE 4.9  A block (seen from

3.0 N 3.0 N above) subject to two forces, acting at
right angles to each other
u

4.0 N SF on box 5 5.0 N 4.0 N

SF on box 5 5.0 N

FIGURE 4.10  Vector addition of forces acting at right angles

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 95

 Note that the net force now is less than when the two forces were acting in the same direction, but
greater than when they acted in opposite directions.
Using trigonometry, we can find the angle, θ, at which the force acts:
4.0 N
tan θ =
3.0 N
so
 4.0 N 
θ = tan −1   = 53°
 3.0 N 

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.2

Two tugboats apply forces on a barge through ropes, as shown in Figure 4.11. What is the resultant force
due to the two barges?

4.0 3 103 N
Tugboat A

458
Barge
458

Tugboat B
4.0 3 103 N

FIGURE 4.11  Two tugboats pull on a barge

ANSWER LOGIC
  •• Identify the relevant data in the question
FA = 4.0 × 10 3 N ; FB = 4.0 × 10 3 N
The two forces are acting at 90° to each other. •• Recognise that the forces are perpendicular.
•• Apply Pythagoras’s theorem to find the net force and write an
Fnet = FA2 + FB2 appropriate equation.

•• Substitute the known values with units and calculate the

= (4.0 × 10 3 N)2 + (4.0 × 10 3 N)2 answer.

= 5.66 × 103 N •• Calculate the answer.

3
Fnet = 5.7 × 10 N •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

What would the magnitude and direction of the net force be if tugboat B doubled the force with which
it pulled?

Force diagrams
Force diagrams, such as those in Figures 4.7 and 4.8, are very useful for helping us to understand the
forces acting on an object. This is particularly true in two dimensions, as shown in Figures 4.9 and 4.10.
When you draw a force diagram, a force is drawn so the tail is at the point at which the force acts.
The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the force. The direction of the arrow is in the
direction of the force. Look again at Figure 4.9 to see how this is done.

96 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Only the forces acting on the object of interest are shown. Forces exerted by the object on other things
are not shown. This means you cannot show a Newton’s third law force pair on the force diagram for a
single object. In Figure 4.11, the forces of the tugboats acting on the barge are shown, but not the forces
exerted by the barge on the tugboats. WS
The net force is not an actual force (like gravity or friction) – it is a sum of forces. The net force is not
Vector
Homework
generally drawn on a force diagram. If you do include it, make sure it is a different sort of arrow so it is decomposition
not confused with the actual forces acting. Look again at Figure 4.10 and see how the net force arrow is a and addition

different style to the arrows representing actual forces. Note that this net force arrow is not shown on the
force diagram for the block in Figure 4.9.

knilbeW
Resolving
Resolving forces into components forces into
components
When we are adding forces that are not perpendicular, we generally need to resolve them into perpendicular Use this physics
applet to
components. Recall that you have already done this for velocities when you studied kinematics. investigate what
happens to the
Sometimes we break forces into vertical and horizontal components. Sometimes we break forces into net force when
components parallel and perpendicular to a surface. Which we choose will depend on the problem we you vary the angle
between the two
are trying to solve. forces being added.
Figure 4.12 shows a person pulling a suitcase. The person
exerts a force of magnitude F at an angle θ to the horizontal. Using
trigonometry, we can decompose this force into horizontal and
vertical components. The horizontal component, Fx  , is given by:
Fx = F cos θ

se
tca
sui
and the vertical component by: 

on
F u

on
Fy = F sin θ Fy

ers
yp


Fb
The two components add to give the total force, F , which has
u
magnitude F. Using Pythagoras’s theorem, we can find the magnitude
Suitcase Fx
of the force from the magnitudes of the components:
FIGURE 4.12  The force exerted by a person on a suitcase,
F = Fx2 + Fy2 decomposed into components

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.3

Phil is racing to get to the airport luggage check-in before his flight closes. He is dragging his heavy
suitcase, as shown in Figure 4.12, and is wishing he’d just packed carry-on luggage instead. He exerts a
force of 30 N at an angle of 60° to the horizontal on the suitcase. Calculate the horizontal and vertical
components of this force.

ANSWER LOGIC

 θ = 60°; F = 30 N •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

Fx  = F cos θ •• Write the expression for the horizontal component of the force.
 = 30 N cos 60° •• Substitute the known values with units.
   = 15 N •• Calculate the answer.
Fy = F sin θ •• Write the expression for the vertical component of the force.
    = 30 N sin 60° •• Substitute the known values with units.
    = 26 N •• Calculate the answer.
Fx = 15 N; Fy = 26 N •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate significant figures.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 97

 TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the force Phil exerts if the magnitude of the
force is 50 N and it acts at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
2 Describe what happens to the two components of the force if Phil gradually increases the angle at
which he pulls until he is pulling directly upwards.

Adding forces using perpendicular components

Once we have decomposed the forces into components, we can add them to find the net force. All the
x components are added to find the total x component, and all the y components are added to find the
total y component of the net force.
We first break each force into its component parts, as described above:

F1 x = F1 cos θ1 , F2 x = F2 cos θ2 

F1 y = F1 sin θ1 , F2 y = F2 sin θ2 

Then we add all the x components to get the x component of the net force:

Fnet, x = F1 x + F2 x + 

and add all the y components to get the y component of the net force:

Fnet, y = F1 y + F2 y + 

We can then find the magnitude of the total force from:

Fnet = ( Fnet, x )2 + ( Fnet, y )2

and find the angle at which it acts using trigonometry:

Fnet, y
tan θnet =
Fnet, x

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.4

Eleanor is taking her boat out on the river to do some fishing. Due to the river current, she has to
steer the boat at an angle to the direction she actually wants to go. The propeller
 exerts a force, FP, on
the boat, with magnitude 250 N pointing N40°E. The water exerts a force, FW , with magnitude 400 N
pointing directly west. What is the magnitude of the force exerted on the boat?

98 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

a •• Draw force diagrams to visualise the situation.


408 F p 5 250 N


F w 5 400 N


b F w 5 400 N


 F p 5 250 N
F net

508

c F wx 5 Fw

 
F net Fp
F net, y F py 5 F p sin 508

F net, x F px 5 F p cos 508

FIGURE 4.13  a A force diagram showing the two forces;

b Vector addition of the two forces; c Breaking the forces
into components and adding the components

North is y direction and east is x direction. •• Choose coordinate axes.

FPx = FP cos θ = 250 N cos 50° = 161 N •• Decompose the two forces into x and y components.
FPy = FP sin θ = 250 N sin 50° = 192 N
FWx = FW cos θ = 400 N cos 180° = −400 N
FWy = FW sin θ = 400 N sin 180° = 0 N
Fnet, x = FPx + FWx = 161 N − 400 N = −239 N •• Add the components to find the x and y components of the
net force.
Fnet, y = FPy + FWy = 192 N + 0 N = 192 N
•• Use Pythagoras’s theorem to find the magnitude of the
( Fnet, x ) + ( Fnet, y )
2 2
Fnet = net force.

•• Substitute known values with units.

= (−239 N )2 + (192 N )2
= 307 N •• Calculate the final answer.
Fnet = 310 N •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
significant figures.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 99

 TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 For the situation in Worked example 4.4, calculate the angle at which the net force acts.
2 A wedge-tailed eagle is swooping. It experiences a gravitational force of 45 N directly downwards,
and a force due to the air of 25 N at an angle of 45° above the horizontal. Calculate the net force
acting on the eagle, and the angle at which it acts.

Applying Newton’s third law

Remember that forces are interactions, so forces come in pairs. Whenever an object exerts a force on
something, it experiences an equal and opposite force.
Newton’s third law explains how a propeller can make a boat move. In Worked example 4.4, the
propeller is turned by the engine. The turning blades of the propeller push on the water, pushing it
backwards away from the boat. According to Newton’s third law, the water exerts an equal and opposite
force on the propeller, pushing it forwards. As the propeller is attached to the boat, this pushes the boat
forwards. The propeller doesn’t work unless it has something to push against.
Newton’s third law also helps us understand why we need friction between our feet and the ground
to walk. When you push backwards against the ground with your foot, you exert a friction force against
the ground. From Newton’s third law, the ground exerts an equal and opposite friction force forwards on
you. It is this friction force that pushes you forwards when you walk. Without friction between your feet
and the ground, you wouldn’t be able to walk.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.5

The foot in Figure 4.14 exerts a normal force of 600 N downwards on the ground and a friction force
of 300 N to the left on the ground. Calculate the total contact force exerted by the ground on the foot,
assuming the foot does not slip.

b FIGURE 4.14 The
a
contact force can be
considered as the sum
of a normal force and
a friction force. a The
total contact force;
b The contact force
broken up into normal
force (perpendicular
to the surface) and
F foot on ground, friction F foot on ground, normal friction force (parallel
F foot on ground, contact to the surface)

ANSWER LOGIC

We take the positive x direction to be right and the positive y •• Choose coordinate directions.
direction to be up.
 •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
Ffoot on ground, friction = F = −300 N
 x
Ffoot on ground, normal = F = −600 N
y
  •• Write Newton’s third law for the situation in the question.
Fground on foot = − Ffoot on ground

100 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC
 •• Apply Newton’s third law.
Fground on foot, friction = −Fx = +300 N

Fground on foot, normal = −F = + 600 N
y
•• Write the expression for the total contact force.
Fcontact = Fx2 + Fy2

•• Substitute the known values with units.

= ( 300 N )2 + ( 600 N )2
= 670.8 N •• Calculate the answer.
Fcontact = 671 N •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
significant figures.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 For the situation in Worked example 4.5, calculate the angle at which the contact force exerted by
the ground on the foot acts.
2 Repeat Worked example 4.5 for a normal force of 450 N and a friction force of 450 N.


KEY CONCEPTS

●● When more than one force acts on an object, its acceleration is determined by the net force, Fnet .
 
●● The net force on an object is the vector sum of all forces acting on that object: Fnet on A = ∑ Fon A.

 F
●● Newton’s second law states that aA = net on A .
mA
●● Forces are vectors with magnitude and direction.
●● Forces can be broken into components: Fx = F cos θ and F y = F sin θ.
●● Forces can be added by adding them up component-wise: Fnet, x = F1x + F2x +  and
Fnet, y = F1 y + F2 y + 
(Fnet, x )2 + (Fnet, y )
2
●● The magnitude of the net force is found using Pythagoras’s theorem: Fnet = .
Fnet, y
●● The net force acts at an angle tan θnet = .
Fnet, x
●● Newton’s third law says if object
 A exerts
 a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal and
opposite force on object A: FA on B = − FB on A.
●● Force diagrams are a useful way of representing forces on an object. They show all the forces,
and only the forces, acting on the object.

CHECK YOUR
1 In a tug-of-war competition, team A exerts a force of 200 N to the left on the rope, and team B exerts a UNDERSTANDING
force of 300 N to the right. Calculate the net force acting on the rope, and give its direction.
2 A force of 30 N acts in a direction N30°E on an object with mass 100 kg at rest on a smooth horizontal surface. 4.2
a Calculate the northerly component of the force.
b Calculate the easterly component of the force.
3 A naughty dog is trying to pull a sock off a washing line. The dog exerts a force with a horizontal
component of magnitude 100 N and vertical component of 50 N.
a Draw a diagram showing the force and its components.
b Calculate the magnitude of the force.
c Calculate the angle to the horizontal at which the force acts.
4 When vacuuming the living room, you need to clean under the couch. You exert a force on the couch of
500 N, at an angle of 65° above the horizontal. Describe the force that the couch exerts on you. Give its
magnitude and direction.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 101

 5 Two forces, of magnitudes 5 N and 15 N, act on an object.
a What is maximum possible net force on the object?
a
b What is the minimum possible net force?
c Draw a diagram for each case. 4.0 N 5.0 N
6 Two children push a shopping trolley. Marcus pushes forwards with a force of 100 N, and Laurence pushes
to the right with a force of 150 N. Calculate the net force acting on the trolley.
7 When an aeroplane flies, its engines provide a forwards force called thrust, and its wings provide an
upwards force called lift. The lift force acts perpendicular to the wings. It is also subject to drag from the air
when flying, which acts in the opposite direction to the motion of the plane.
b
Draw force diagrams for an aeroplane in each of the following situations.
a Sitting on the tarmac as passengers board
5.0 N
a b Ascending at an angle θ at constant velocity
c Cruising at constant speed at a fixed altitude
4.0 N 5.0 N a
d Descending at an angle θ at constant velocity
4.0 N
Remember that the lengths of the force arrows should indicate relative sizes of forces.
4.0 N 5.0 N
8 Three dogs are fighting over a frisbee. One dog is pulling in a northerly direction with a force of 100 N, the
second dog is pulling in an easterly direction with a force of 250 N, and the third dog is pulling south-east
with a force of 150 N. Calculate the net force acting on the frisbee and give its direction.
b 9 Determine the net force acting on the object in each of the situations shown in Figure 4.15.
c
a b
5.0 N
4.0 N 5.0 N 458N 5.0 N
5.0

4.0 N 4.0 N

4.0 N

c 5.0 N
d

c
458 5.0 N 458 5.0 N
4.0 N
458 5.0 N
4.0 N
308
4.0 N
4.0 N
c
FIGURE 4.15  What is the net force on the object in each of these situations?
d
458 5.0 N
d
458 5.0 N
4.0 N
458 5.0 N

308

4.0 N 308
d
4.0 N

458 5.0 N

102 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

308
  Zero net force: equilibrium in one
4.3
and two dimensions
Once we have found the net force acting on an object, we can calculate its acceleration using Newton’s
second law. When all the forces acting add to zero, the acceleration is zero. This is called equilibrium.
When an object is at rest or moving with constant velocity, it has no acceleration. If the acceleration
of an object is zero, then the net force acting on the object must also be zero. We call this condition
equilibrium. Note that an object in equilibrium is not necessarily static.
An object can be in equilibrium if no forces at all are acting, but usually it is because all the forces
acting on it balance to produce a zero net force.
Consider a cup sitting on a table, as shown in Figure 4.16a. The cup is at rest, so the forces acting it
must balance:
 
Ftable on cup + FEarth on cup = 0
or  
Ftable on cup = − FEarth on cup

The two forces, the normal force and the gravitational force, are equal in this case and act in opposite
directions, but they are not a Newton’s third law force pair. We can see this immediately from the
subscripts – both forces act on the same object, the cup. Furthermore, the forces are of different types –
one is a gravitational force (a field force), and the other is a contact force.

a F by table on cup, normal b F by table on cup, normal

F by table on cup, normal

1 F by Earth’s mass on cup 5 0
F by table on cup, normal
1 F by hand on cup
F by Earth’s mass on cup 1 F by Earth’s mass on cup 5 0
F by hand on cup
F by Earth’s mass on cup

FIGURE 4.16  The cup is at rest, and so it is in equilibrium. The net force acting on the cup is zero. a The gravitational force
and normal force balance each other. b The normal force increases so that it balances the gravitational force and the push by
the hand.

Now consider what happens if you push down on the cup, as shown in Figure 4.16b. The total
downwards force has increased. The gravitational force has not changed, but there is an additional force
due to the hand. Now:
  
Ftable on cup + FEarth on cup + Fhand on cup = 0
or   
Ftable on cup = − ( FEarth on cup + Fhand on cup )

We can see that the normal force has increased, as it must now balance the combination of the
gravitational force on the cup and the push downwards by the hand.
An object that is moving at constant velocity is also in equilibrium. Consider the person in Figure 4.17
(page 104) who is dragging a rock at constant speed along the ground. The rock is subject to three forces,
as shown in Figure 4.17b. In order for the forces to add to zero, their vertical (y) components must add to
zero, and their horizontal (x) components must also add to zero. The gravitational force due to Earth and
the normal force due to the surface of the ground both act vertically. The friction force acts horizontally,

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 103

 and opposes the sliding of the rock relative to the ground. The force by the person acts at an angle θ to
the ground. The vertical and horizontal components of each force are shown in Figure 4.17c.
In the horizontal direction:
Fnet, x = Fperson on rock, x − Fground on rock, friction = Fperson on rock cos θ − Fground on rock, friction = 0
In the vertical direction:
Fnet, y = Fperson on rock, y + Fground on rock, normal − FEarth on rock
= Fperson on rock sin θ + Fground on rock, normal − FEarth on rock = 0

a b c

F by person on rock F by person on rock, y

F by ground on rock, normal
F by ground on rock
F by person on rock, x
u
F by ground on rock, friction

F by Earth on rock
F by Earth on rock

FIGURE 4.17  a A person drags a rock at constant speed; b Force diagram showing forces acting on the rock; c Forces acting on the rock broken into
horizontal (x) and vertical (y) components

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.6

Draw force diagrams to show the forces acting on a car when it is:
1 stationary.
2 moving along a straight stretch of road at a constant 60 km h−1.
Remember that the lengths of the arrows represent approximately the magnitudes of the forces and  show
whether a force is equal to, larger than, or smaller than other forces. Label the forces in the form FA on B .

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 When a car is stationary, the forces acting on the car are: •• Identify the forces acting from the information in
• the normal force of the ground surface on each tyre the question.
• the gravitational force of Earth on the car.
•• Draw a diagram.
F by surface on tyre F by surface on tyre •• The contact forces of the ground on the tyres should
sum to be the same length as the gravitational force
downwards.

F by Earth on car
Velocity 5 0

FIGURE 4.18  Forces acting on a

stationary car.

104 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

2 When a car is moving at constant velocity, the forces acting •• Identify the forces acting from the information in the
on the car are: question.
• the normal force of the ground surface on each tyre
• the friction force of the surface on the car ( forwards)
• air resistance (backwards)
• the gravitational force of Earth on the car
•• Draw a diagram.
F by surface on tyre F by surface on tyre
F by air on car •• The contact forces of the ground on the tyres should
sum to be the same length as the gravitational force
downwards.

F by surface on tyre, friction •• The friction force by the ground must be the same length
as the force due to air resistance backwards.

F by Earth on car

FIGURE 4.19  Forces acting on a car moving

at constant velocity.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1  Draw a force diagram for a car parked on a hillside.

2 Draw a force diagram for the cup shown in Figure 4.16b, but with the hand instead applying an upwards force to the cup,
where that force is less than the gravitational force on the cup.

Note that in Worked example 4.6, we have put the direction of the friction force of the road surface
on the car pointing forwards. Remember that a car drives forwards by pushing backwards against the
road. According to Newton’s third law, if the car pushes backwards against the road, the road must push
forwards against the car. Therefore, it is the friction force of the road on the tyres that pushes the car
forwards. Opposing this force is the force of air resistance, which can be very large, and increases as the
speed of the car increases. At equilibrium, when the car is moving at constant velocity, these two forces
are equal.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.7

Rob is dragging a rock through his garden to make it the centrepiece of his new water feature. The rock
has a mass of 75 kg. Rob exerts a force of 240 N at an angle of 60o to the horizontal. The rock moves at a
constant speed. Calculate the magnitudes of the two components of the contact force that the ground
exerts on the rock. Figure 4.17 will help you.

ANSWER LOGIC

FRob on rock = 240 N; θ = 60° •• Identify the relevant data from the question.
 mrock = 75 kg
Fnet = 0 because constant speed •• Recognise that the rock is in equilibrium.
Fnet, x  = FRob on rock, x − Fground on rock, friction •• Write the equation for equilibrium in the horizontal (x)
direction ( Fnet, x = 0) (refer to Figure 4.17c).
    = FRob on rock cos θ − Fground on rock, friction
=0

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 105

 ANSWER LOGIC

Fground on rock, friction = −FRob on rock cos θ •• Rearrange the equation to find the unknown force.
= −240 N cos 60° •• Substitute known values with units.
= −120 N •• Calculate the answer.
Fnet, y = FRob on rock, y + Fground on rock, normal − FEarth on rock •• Write the equation for equilibrium in the vertical (y) direction
(Fnet, y = 0) (refer to Figure 4.17c).
= FRob on rock sinθ + Fground on rock, normal − FEarth on rock
=0
Fground on rock, normal = FEarth on rock − FRob on rock sin θ •• Rearrange the equation to find the unknown force.
FEarth on rock = mrockg •• Write an expression for the gravitational force acting on the rock.
−1
= (75 kg)(9.8 N kg ) •• Substitute known values with units.
= 735 N (down) •• Calculate the answer.
Fground on rock, normal = 735 N − 240 N sin 60° •• Substitute values into the expression for Fground on rock, normal.
= 530 N (two significant figures) •• Calculate the final answer.

Fground on rock, friction = −120 N in the opposite direction to the motion •• State the final answer with correct units and significant
figures.
Fground on rock, normal = 530 N

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Explain what will happen to the force exerted by the ground on the rock if Rob increases the force he
applies.
2 Refer back to Figure 4.11, showing two tugboats pulling on a barge. If the barge moves at constant
velocity, what is the drag force due to the water acting on the barge?

INVESTIGATION 4.1

Static equilibrium
When an object has zero net force acing on it, it is in equilibrium. When the object is also at rest, we
Critical and call it static equilibrium.
creative thinking

AIM
Numeracy To show that the net force on a stationary, non-accelerating object is zero, within uncertainty limits
Our hypothesis is that the net force on the stationary ring is zero.

MATERIALS

•• Wooden board and 3 nails

•• Hammer
•• String
•• Protractor
•• 3 spring balances
•• Small rigid ring
•• Paper
•• Pencil
•• Tape

106 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 !
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
The spring balances may flick back or flick an object into a Wear safety glasses when working with springs.
person’s eye.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Tape the piece of paper to the middle of the board and place the ring on top.
2 Hammer the three nails into the board, each near an edge of the board but well separated from each other
(see Figure 4.20).
3 Hook one spring balance
over each nail.
4 Use a piece of string to
tie each spring balance to
the hook. Do not double-
knot it until you have
adjusted the length!
5 Adjust the lengths of each
piece of string so that the
ring is over the piece of
paper, and each balance is
reading within its limits.

RESULTS

1 Trace the ring and the

direction of each string on
the paper.
2 Record the force
measured by each
balance against the
tracing of the correct FIGURE 4.20  Experimental set-up
string.
3 Estimate the uncertainty
in each spring balance reading.
When you have recorded your results, you can remove the ring and spring balances, and make measurements
on your paper.
4 Draw a set of axes on your paper with the origin at the position where the ring was.
5 Measure and record the angle of each force (string line) to one or both axes.
You now have a force diagram for your ring.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Calculate the net force acting on the ring.

2 Calculate the uncertainty in the net force.

DISCUSSION
Was your hypothesis supported, within the uncertainty in your net force? Explain any discrepancies.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 107

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● When the net force acting on an object is zero, the object is said to be in equilibrium.
●● An object in equilibrium has zero acceleration.
●● An object in equilibrium has constant velocity, which may or may not be zero velocity.
●● An object at rest with zero net force acting on it is said to be in static equilibrium.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Is it possible for an object in equilibrium to be moving? Explain your answer.
2 What is the magnitude of the net force acting on an aeroplane flying horizontally at a constant speed of
4.3 400 km h−1? Explain your answer.
3 A child is pulling a toy truck behind her over level ground at constant speed. How do you know that all the
forces acting on the toy truck are balanced?
4 For each of the situations in Figure 4.21, what additional force would need to be added for the object to be
in equilibrium? Calculate the magnitude and direction.

a b c

3.0 N
458 3.0 N 458 3.0 N
4.0 N
4.0 N
4.0 N 308

FIGURE 4.21

F F
4.0
5 A heavy, 10.0 kg painting is suspended from N
two cables in a gallery. Each cable applies the 308 308
same force to the painting, at an angle of 30°
above the horizontal (Figure 4.22). What is the 10.0 kg
force applied by each cable on the painting?
FIGURE 4.22  A heavy painting suspended by two cables

Investigating the motion of objects

4.4
on inclined planes

An object on a slope is always affected by (at least) three forces – the gravitational force, FEarth on object ,
acts vertically downwards; the normal force, N, acts perpendicular to the surface of the slope; and the
friction force, Fsurfact on object, friction, acts parallel to the slope. These forces are shown in Figure 4.23a.
In previous examples, we have found it convenient to decompose vectors into vertical and horizontal
components. When dealing with inclined planes, it is usually more convenient to use axes parallel and
perpendicular to the slope.
Consider an object on a slope, as in Figure 4.23a. We assume the object can only accelerate parallel
to the slope – that is, it will not sink into the slope, or lift off above it. If acceleration can only occur
parallel to the slope, then the net force perpendicular to the slope must be zero. Acceleration is possible
parallel to the slope, so the net force parallel may not be zero. Hence it makes sense to choose our x axis
as parallel to the slope and our y axis as perpendicular to the slope. When we do this, two of the three

108 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 forces are already acting along one axis or the other. The friction force acts along the x axis (parallel to
slope), and the normal force acts along the y axis (perpendicular to slope). The gravitational force can be
decomposed into a component along each axis, as shown in Figure 4.23b.

a F surface on block, normal b F surface on block, normal

F surface on block, friction F surface on block, friction

y
F Earth on block, x

u u x
F Earth on block F Earth on block, y

FIGURE 4.23  a The forces acting on an object on an inclined plane; b The forces decomposed into components parallel (x) and
perpendicular (y) to the slope

We can then use Newton’s second law in component form to analyse the behaviour of the object.
In the y direction (perpendicular), where the net force is zero:
Fnet, y = ΣFy = Fsurface on object,normal − FEarth on object, y = Fsurface on object,normal − FEarth on object cos θ = 0
In the x direction, where the net force may be non-zero:
Fnet, x = ΣFx = Fsurface on object, friction − FEarth on object, x = Fsurface on object, friction − F(Earth on object) sin θ = mobject a
There are two things that can happen when we place an object on an inclined plane such as this − it
can stay in place, or it can slide down. If it stays in place, then the object is in equilibrium, and Fnet, x =
ΣFx = 0. In this case,
Fsurface on object, friction = −FEarth on object sin θ = mobject g sin θ
This occurs if the maximum static friction force is greater than or equal to the component of the
gravitational force acting down the slope.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.8

Harriet sits on a slide so that her brother Laurence can’t use it. Harriet has her bare feet against the slide,
and there is enough friction to prevent her moving. If Harriet has a mass of 21 kg and the slide makes an
angle of 35° to the horizontal, calculate the magnitude of each force acting on her.

ANSWER LOGIC

m = 21 kg; θ = 35° •• Identify the relevant data, and recognise that Harriet is
in equilibrium.
Fnet = 0, because not moving
Figure 4.23 shows the forces acting, but in this case they act on
Harriet, rather than a block.
The three forces acting on Harriet are the gravitational force of
Earth, and the normal and frictional forces due to the surface.
FEarth on Harriet = mg •• Write the expression for the gravitational force.
–1
= (21 kg) (9.8 N kg ) •• Substitute known values with units.
= 205.8 N downwards •• Calculate the value (do not round at this stage).

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 109

 ANSWER LOGIC

Fnet, x = FEarth on Harriet, gravitational, x − Fslide on Harriet, friction = 0 •• Write the equation for equilibrium in the parallel (x)
direction (Fnet, x = 0) (refer to Figure 4.23b).
Fslide on Harriet, friction = FEarth on Harriet, x •• Rearrange to find the unknown force.
= FEarth on Harriet sin θ •• Expand the expression.
= (205.8 N) sin 35° •• Substitute known values with units.
= 118 N •• Calculate the value.
Fnet, y = FEarth on Harriet, gravitational, y − Fslide on Harriet, normal = 0 •• Write the equation for equilibrium in the perpendicular (y)
direction (Fnet, y = 0) (refer to Figure 4.23b).
Fslide on Harriet, normal = FEarth on Harriet, y •• Rearrange to find the unknown force.
= FEarth on Harriet cos θ •• Expand the expression.
= (205.8 N) cos 35° •• Substitute known values with units.
= 169 N •• Calculate the value.
Fslide on Harriet, normal = 170 N •• State the final answer with correct units and significant
figures.
Fslide on Harriet, friction = 120 N
FEarth on Harriet = 210 N

TRY THESE YOURSELF

Continuing on from Worked example 4.8, Laurence tries to get Harriet out of his way by pushing her
down parallel to the slide with a constant force of 150 N.
1 If the friction force acting on Harriet is unchanged, what is the net force acting on her? Describe her
motion while this force is exerted.
2 If this extra force causes Harriet to slide down at a constant speed, calculate the magnitude of each force
acting on Harriet now. What must have happened to the friction force? What is the net force in this case?

Chapter 5 If the object sitting on an inclined plane slides down, this tells us that the maximum static friction
section 5.2 gives
more details and
force was less than the component of the gravitational force acting down the slope. So, in the x direction
includes worked we have:
examples showing Fnet, x = ∑ Fx = Fsurface on object, friction − FEarth on object sin θ = mobject a
how to do this.
and the object accelerates down the slope at a rate of:
Fsurface on object, friction − FEarth on object, gravity sin θ
a=
Weblink
Forces on a box mobject
on an inclined
plane Fsurface on object, friction − mobject g sin θ
Watch the video, and =
work along with it mobject
to decompose the
gravitational force. Hence, we can measure acceleration of an object sliding on an inclined plane to calculate the kinetic
friction force acting between the object and the surface of the plane.
If we vary the angle between the plane and the horizontal, we can find the maximum static friction
force between the surfaces. If the angle at which the object just starts to slide is θc, which is called the
Weblink
IgNobel award: critical angle, then
the physics of
sheep-dragging
Fstatic friction max = mobject g sin θc
Read this article about
Australian research on Note that here we have discussed the case of an object at rest subject to the static friction force, or an
sheep-dragging. Draw
a force diagram for a object sliding and subject to the kinetic friction force. The case of an object rolling, such as a ball rolling
sheep being dragged
up a rough ramp.
down a slide, is more complicated. The simple analysis described here for objects at rest or sliding is not
a good model for a rolling ball.

110 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 4.2

Motion of objects on inclined planes

Critical and
The measurement of the acceleration of objects on inclined planes can be used to deduce the frictional creative
force that acts between the plane and an object sliding on it. The frictional force will be different for different thinking
surfaces and for different angles. You can also use an inclined plane that can be adjusted to different angles
Numeracy
to measure the maximum static frictional force between the plane and the object. Reading ahead to the
next chapter where friction is discussed in more detail, and dynamics is presented, may help you with this Information and
investigation. communication
technology
capability
AIM

•• Write an aim for an investigation using objects sliding on inclined planes.

WS
•• Write an inquiry question or hypothesis.
Skiing the
Homework
MATERIALS super_G: the
ulitmate inclined
•• An inclined plane plane

•• One or more objects to slide down the inclined place

What else will you need? Write your own equipment list. For example, you might need timing equipment,
motion-sensors, a range of different surface materials, a protractor, and various weights. What you need will
depend on your inquiry question or hypothesis. Remember to talk to your teacher about what equipment
is available.

!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT

What risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

•• Write a detailed method for your investigation. Check it with your teacher before you proceed.
•• Remember to include what will be measured, and think about how you can minimise uncertainties.

RESULTS
An investigation
Record your results as you measure them. A table is often a good way of organising your results. Remember to involving motion
include units and uncertainties! on inclined
planes could be
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS extended to a
depth study by
How will you analyse your results so that you can answer your inquiry question or test your hypothesis? using it to study
friction in detail,
DISCUSSION or comparing
rolling with
•• Have you answered your inquiry question? Did your results support your hypothesis? sliding motion
using objects of
•• If other groups were working on similar investigations, did their results agree with yours? different shapes
•• Are there ways you could improve your investigation? and surface
materials.
CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion summarising the outcomes of your investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 111

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● An object on an inclined plane is subject to the contact force due to the plane (normal and
WS
friction) and the gravitational force.
Important theory
Homework ●● It is usually convenient to decompose the forces acting on an object on an inclined plane into
components parallel and perpendicular to the plane.
●● Objects on inclined planes are generally in equilibrium (zero net force) perpendicular to the
plane, but may be accelerating (non-zero net force) parallel to the plane.
●● The kinetic friction force that the surface of a plane exerts on an object can be found by
measuring the acceleration of the object sliding down the plane.
●● The maximum static friction force that the surface of a plane exerts on an object can be found
by measuring the angle at which the object begins to slide.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Why is it usually more convenient to decompose forces into components parallel and perpendicular to the
plane for objects on inclined planes, than into horizontal and vertical components? Explain your answer.
4.4 2 A 1200 kg car is parked on a slope at an angle of 15° to the horizontal.
a Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on the car.
b Calculate the magnitude of each force.
3 A 1200 kg car is travelling at constant speed up a slope at an angle of 15° to the horizontal.
a Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on the car.
b Calculate the magnitude of each force.
4 In an experiment to measure the static friction force, students are using a plate sliding down an inclined
plane. If the plate has a mass of 1.0 kg and the maximum static friction force that the inclined plane can
exert on it is 4.2 N, calculate the minimum angle of the plane such that the plate will begin
to slide.
5 In an experiment to measure the kinetic friction force, students are using a 1.0 kg plate sliding down an
inclined plane. The plane is at an angle of 60° to the horizontal. The time taken for the plate to slide a
distance of 30 cm, starting from rest, is measured to be 0.32 s.
a Calculate the acceleration of the plate.
b Calculate the net force acting on the plate.
c Calculate the kinetic friction force that the plane exerts on the plate. You may wish to review kinematics
in chapter 3.
6 Describe how you could calculate the uncertainties in the experiment described in question 5. What
information would you need?

112 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4   CHAPTER SUMMARY

◗◗ Objects interact via forces. ◗◗ Forces can be added by adding them up component-wise:
Fnet, x = F1x + F2 x +  and Fnet, y = F1y + F2 y + 
◗◗ Forces can be contact forces (objects touching) or field
forces (objects not touching). ◗◗ The magnitude of the net force is found using Pythagoras’s

(Fnet, x ) + (Fnet, y )
2 2
◗◗ Newton’s first law says that if no force acts on an object, theorem: Fnet = .
it will not accelerate. It will move in a straight line with
constant speed, or remain at rest. Fnet, y
◗◗ The net force acts at an angle given by tan θnet = .
Fnet, x
◗◗ Newton’s first law relates force to acceleration, and so ◗◗ Force diagrams are a useful way of representing forces on
provides a definition of force. an object. They show all the forces, and only the forces,
acting on an object.
◗◗ Newton’s second law quantifies the relationship between

 Fon A   ◗◗ When the net force acting on an object is zero, the object is
force and acceleration: aA = or F = ma . The direction said to be in equilibrium.
mA
of force and acceleration are the same. ◗◗ An object in equilibrium has zero acceleration and
constant velocity.
◗◗ Newton’s third law tells us that when an object A exerts
a force on object B, then object
 B exerts
 an equal and ◗◗ An object at rest with zero net force acting on it is in
opposite force on object A: FA on B = −FB on A . static equilibrium.
◗◗ Newton’s third law pairs act on different objects, and are ◗◗ An object on an inclined plane is subject to the contact
always of the same type of force. force due to the plane (normal and friction) and the
gravitational force.
◗◗ When more than one force acts on an object,its
acceleration is determined by the net force, Fnet . ◗◗ We decompose the forces acting on an object on an inclined
plane into components parallel and perpendicular to the plane.
◗◗ The net force on an object
 is the vector
 sum of all forces
acting on that object: Fnet on A = ∑ Fon A . ◗◗ Objects on inclined planes are generally in equilibrium
(zero net force) perpendicular to the plane, but may be
◗◗ Forces can be broken into perpendicular components: accelerating (non-zero net force) parallel to the plane.
Fx = F cos θ and Fy = F sin θ

4   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 State: 5 Draw a diagram to show:

a Newton’s first law. a the vertical and horizontal components of a force
b Newton’s second law. vector directed at an angle θ to the horizontal.
c Newton’s third law. b the parallel and perpendicular components of the
gravitational force on a mass sliding on a frictionless
2 Explain why Newton’s third law force pairs can never be surface inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal.
shown on a single force diagram.
6 Two people have a tug-of-war competition that
3 When adding up the forces acting on an object, should results in a tie. Sketch a diagram to show all the forces
you include the Newton’s third law force pairs to the acting on:
forces acting on the object? Explain your answer.
a each person.
4 An elephant pulls on a rope with a force of 500 N. With what b the rope.
force does the rope pull on the elephant? Explain your answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 113

 7 Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on a ball 16 In a static equilibrium experiment, a ring is connected
in each of the following situations. to three strings, each of which exerts a force on the ring
a When you hold it at rest in your hand. as shown in Figure 4.24. Calculate the magnitude of the
unknown force, F, and the angle, θ, at which it acts.
b As you throw the ball upwards.
c After the ball has left your hand and is moving up.
d When the ball reaches the top of its path.
e When the ball is on the way back down. F
12 N
8 A physics textbook is resting on the rear parcel shelf of a
car moving at 50 km h−1. The book becomes a dangerous
308 u
missile when the car comes to a sudden stop. Explain why.
9 A book is sitting at rest on a table. Marcus puts his 608
hand on the book and pushes downwards, with slowly
increasing force. Describe what happens to:
a the gravitational force acting on the book. 15 N
b the normal force of the table acting on the book as
Marcus increases the force with which he pushes.
FIGURE 4.24  Three forces act on a
10 A ball sits at
 rest on the ground. In the form of stationary ring
FA on B = −FB on A , identify the Newton’s third law force
pair to:
a the gravitational force acting on the ball. 17 Rob is pushing a shopping trolley with wonky wheels. He
b the normal force of the ground acting on the ball. exerts a force of 90 N in a direction N45°E on the trolley,
and at the same time the ground exerts a friction force of
11 A ball has been
 thrown  and it is flying through the air. In 30 N N10°W on the trolley. Calculate the magnitude and
the form of FA on B = −FB on A , identify the Newton’s third direction of the net force on the trolley.
law force pair to:
18 A toboggan and child of combined mass 67 kg slide down
a the gravitational force acting on the ball.
a frictionless snowfield inclined at 15° to the horizontal.
b the drag (friction) of the air acting on the ball.
Calculate the magnitude of:
12 Calculate the net force acting on a boat when the force by a the component of the weight force perpendicular to
the wind on the sails is 500 N to the west, and there is an the snowfield.
additional force due to a motor of 400 N to the north.
b the force down the slope of the snowfield on the
13 Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the toboggan and child.
following force vectors.
19 A toboggan and child of combined mass 67 kg slide down
a 25 N at 30° above the horizontal, pointing right. a grassy slope inclined at 15° to the horizontal. The force of
b 25 N at 30° below the horizontal, pointing right. friction exerted by the slope on the toboggan is 50 N.
c 25 N at 30° above the horizontal, pointing left. Calculate the magnitude of:
d 25 N at 30° below the horizontal, pointing left. a the component of the weight force perpendicular to
the snowfield.
14 A 40 kg block is on a frictionless plane inclined at 42°.
b the net force down the slope on the toboggan
a Calculate the component of the gravitational force
and child.
that is:
i parallel to the surface. 20 A crowded school bus enters a left-hand corner while
maintaining a constant speed. The younger pupils standing
ii perpendicular to the surface.
say that they were pushed to the right of the bus. Explain
b i What is the resultant force on the block? why they are incorrect, and give a proper explanation for their
ii What is the normal force on the block? apparent motion from within the bus.
15 Two children run in and kick a soccer ball at exactly the 21 It is often observed that a force is required to maintain the
same moment. Anna kicks the ball with a force of 150 N motion of an object, such as a car along a straight, level
west, and Belinda kicks it with a force of 220 N north. road. Does this mean that Aristotle was correct after all?
Calculate the net force on the ball at this moment. Justify your opinion.

114 CHAPTER TWO

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» DYNAMICS 9780170409063
 22 A rocket launch involves engines expelling large a Identify the forces acting on each book and draw a
quantities of gas downwards with high speed. Explain separate force diagram for each.
how this results in the rocket moving upwards. b Apply Newton’s third law to identify equal and
23 Three books sit in a pile on a student’s desk: a maths book opposite forces in your diagrams (remember that a
on top, a chemistry book in the middle, and a physics Newton’s third law force pair cannot be shown on a
book on the bottom (Figure 4.25). single force diagram).
c Apply Newton’s second law to write a relationship
between the forces acting on the chemistry book.
24 The anchor chain of a large ship exerts a force on the ship
of 6.0 × 103 N in a direction N30°E at an angle of 60° to
the horizontal.
a Sketch a diagram to show this situation.
b For this force, calculate the magnitude of the
component in each of the following directions.
i Horizontally
ii Vertically up
iii North
FIGURE 4.25  A pile of books on a student’s desk
iv East

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 115

 Forces, acceleration
5 and energy

OUTCOMES
Students:
INQUIRY QUESTION •• apply Newton’s first two laws of motion to a variety of everyday situations,
 including both static and
dynamic examples, and include the role played by friction (friction = µFN ) (ACSPH063) CCT
How can the motion of
objects be explained and •• investigate, describe and analyse the acceleration of a single object subjected to a constant net force
and relate the motion of the object to Newton’s second law of motion through the use of: (ACSPH062,
analysed?
ACSPH063)
– qualitative descriptions CCT
– graphs and vectors ICT N  
– deriving relationships from graphical representations including Fnet = ma and relationships of uniformly
accelerated motion ICT N
•• apply the special case of conservation of mechanical energy to the quantitative analysis of motion
involving: ICT N
– work done and change in kinetic energy of an object undergoing accelerated rectilinear motion in one
dimension (W = F||s = Fscos θ )
– changes in gravitational potential energy of an object in a uniform field ( ∆U = mg∆h )
•• conduct investigations over a range of mechanical processes to analyse qualitatively and quantitatively the
 ∆E 
concept of average power  P = , P = F||v = Fvcos θ  , including but not limited to: ICT N
 ∆t 
– uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
– objects raised against the force of gravity
– work done against air resistance, rolling resistance and friction
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
iStock.com/DaveAlan

116 9780170409063
 In the previous chapter, we began our

iStock.com/MarioGuti
investigation of forces. Newton’s laws
were described, and we applied Newton’s
second and third laws to objects in
equilibrium. In this chapter, we will apply
our understanding of forces to objects that
are not in equilibrium. We will see how
the movement of cars, trains, aeroplanes
and any other accelerating object can be
explained and analysed using Newton’s laws.
This chapter also introduces another
of the central concepts in physics: FIGURE 5.1  A train accelerates away from the platform. It is the
energy. Energy can change forms, and be friction force between the train,s wheels and the rails that causes
the acceleration.
transferred from one object to another, but
the total energy of the universe is constant.
Energy is what allows us to apply forces and do work. Fuels such as petrol provide energy to power our
cars, and most of our electrical energy in Australia comes from coal. Energy security is an important
issue in the modern world. Here we shall see how the law of conservation of energy may be applied to
analyse motion, and how force is related to energy.

5.1 Newton’s laws and friction

Newton’s first and second laws revisited
Recall that Newton’s first law says that in the absence of external forces, an object at rest remains at rest and
an object in motion continues in motion with a constant velocity. This second part of the statement, that
an object in motion continues in motion with a constant velocity seems to contradict our everyday experience.
If you slide a book along the table (Figure 5.2), it will not continue with constant velocity – instead
it will slow down and stop. To apply Newton’s first law to this situation, we first need to recognise that
there is an acceleration. The book is moving forwards, but it is slowing down, therefore the book has
an acceleration backwards. This acceleration, from Newton’s first law, means that there must be a
force acting on the book.

FIGURE 5.2  A book

slides across the table,
slowing down as it
moves

Remember that forces are interactions. To identify the force causing the acceleration, we look to
see what other objects the book is interacting with. The book is in the gravitational field of Earth, so it
is subject to the gravitational force. The gravitational field of Earth exerts a force directly downwards,
but this is not the direction of acceleration of the book, so it is not the gravitational force that is causing

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 117

 the acceleration of the book. The only object the book is in contact with is the table. The contact force
of the table on the book has components parallel and perpendicular to the surface. The perpendicular
component (normal force) is vertical, so it cannot be causing the acceleration. The parallel component
of the contact force acts horizontally, so we conclude that it is this force that is acting to slow down the
book. Recall that the parallel component of the contact force is called friction.
Note that we have ignored any force due to the air that the book moves in. The air will also be exerting
WS
forces both horizontally and vertically on the book – the horizontal force is drag or air resistance, and the
vertical force is the buoyant force that acts upwards. Both forces are very small compared with the force
ForceHomework
and friction exerted by the table, so we choose to ignore them.
Whenever we want to analyse the motion of an accelerating object, we use this process to identify
the forces acting:
◗◗ First, consider any fields that may be exerting a force on the object. If the object has mass and is in a
gravitational field, it will experience a gravitational force. If the object has charge and is in an electric
field, it will experience an electrostatic force (see chapter 12). If the object has charge and is moving,
or is magnetic, it will experience a force in a magnetic field (see chapter 14). Ask yourself which fields
need to be included in the analysis and which can be ignored.
◗◗ Second, consider everything that the object is in contact with. All surfaces exert a contact force, as do
air, water and other fluids. Ask yourself which contact forces need to be included. Sometimes friction
or air resistance is very small and can be ignored, but often it is significant and should be included in
your analysis.
◗◗ Once you have identified all the forces that are acting, draw a force diagram for the object showing
all the forces acting on it. The object’s acceleration will tell you the direction of the net force. This will
help you determine the direction of the forces acting on the object and their relative sizes.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.1

Identify the forces acting, and draw a force diagram, for a book sliding across a table, slowing down as it
moves to the right.

ANSWER LOGIC

The book is subject to the gravitational force of Earth •• Identify all the forces acting and their directions.
downwards, the normal force of the table upwards and the
friction force of the table horizontally.
Assume the forces due to the air are negligible, so can be •• State any assumptions or approximations.
ignored.
The net force is horizontal and to the left. •• Identify the direction of the net force.

The net force is due to the friction force. The friction force •• Relate the net force to the acting forces.
is to the left.

Ftable on book, normal •• Draw the diagram.

•• Remember that the force arrows on a force diagram should
have lengths that indicate their relative sizes. As there is no
vertical acceleration, we know that there is no net force in the
vertical direction. Hence, the normal force must be equal to
Ftable on book, friction the gravitational force, so their arrows are the same length.
FEarth on book, gravitational

FIGURE 5.3

118 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 TRY THESE YOURSELF
Identify the forces acting on, and draw a force diagram for:
1 a book being pushed across a table at constant velocity.
2 a book being pushed across a table at increasing velocity.

Once we have identified all the forces acting, we can use Newton’s second law to relate the acceleration
to the net force. Recall that Newton’s second law tells us that the acceleration is proportional to the net
force, and is in the same direction as the net force:

 Fnet
a=
m

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.2

Ranji asks Phil if she can borrow his maths textbook. Phil slides the textbook along the table towards
−1
Ranji with an initial speed of 1.0 m s . The book, with a mass of 1.5 kg, slides along and comes to rest in
2.0 s. Calculate the frictional force acting on the book.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
m = 1.5 kg; u = 1.0 m s ; v = 0; t = 2.0 s •• Identify the relevant data.

Fnet = Ffriction = ma •• Write Newton’s second law.

v = u + at •• Relate acceleration to given data.

(v − u ) •• Rearrange the equation for acceleration.
a=
t
m(v − u ) •• Substitute the expression for a into Newton’s second law.
F=
t
1.5 kg (0 − 1.0 m s −1 ) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
=
2.0 s
−2 •• Calculate the final value.
= −0.75 kg m s
Ffriction = −0.75 N •• State the final answer with correct units, sign and significant figures.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 If the friction force acting on the book was only 0.25 N, calculate how long it would take the book
to stop.
−1
2 Calculate the friction force acting on the sliding textbook if it has an initial speed of 1.0 m s and
slides a distance of 1.5 m.

Static and kinetic friction

Friction is a significant force in almost all everyday situations. When you slide a book along a table to
a friend, it slows and stops because of friction. When you ride a bicycle or drive a car, the wheels rotate
and grip the road, accelerating you forwards because of friction. Every step you take, the friction force is
what enables you to walk.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 119

 The friction force is the component of the contact force that prevents one surface from sliding over
another surface. It always acts parallel to a surface. The friction force acting on an object may be in the
direction of motion of the object, or it may be in the opposite direction. Friction, acting in the direction
of motion, allows you to walk. Friction, acting in the direction opposite to motion, causes sliding to be
reduced; for example, slowing down the sliding book. The important thing to remember is that friction
always opposes the relative motion of one surface against
Book another.
Recall that friction is one component of the contact force
that one surface exerts on another. The contact force is due to
Table
interactions of atoms at the surfaces of the two materials as
FIGURE 5.4  A very close-up view of the their electrons get closer, and is electrostatic in nature. If you
surfaces of a book and a table
could look very, very closely at any surface, you would see that
it is bumpy, as shown in Figure 5.4.
Where there are bumps on the two surfaces, they can catch as one surface tries to slide along the
other. They can also bond at those points. The more one surface pushes into another, so that more atoms
are interacting, the greater the friction force is.
Imagine you are going to slide a book along a table. You must apply a force to get the book
moving. Try pushing very, very gently on a book. If you start by applying a very small force, the
book does not move. It does not move because the static friction force is acting. If the book is not
moving, then the friction force must be equal to the applied force to give a zero net force, as shown in
Figure 5.5a. If you slowly increase the applied force (Figure 5.5b), the friction force will also increase,
always remaining equal to the applied force, up to some maximum value. This maximum value
is called the maximum static friction force.
It is the maximum friction force that the a Ftable on book, normal
two surfaces can exert on each other – an
Fhand on book
applied force greater than this breaks the
bonds between the surfaces and pushes
Ftable on book, static friction
the bumps past each other. If you do the FEarth on book, gravitational
experiment very carefully, you will feel
when this happens and you will notice that
suddenly the force that the book exerts b Ftable on book, normal
back on you decreases a little bit. This is
Fhand on book
because, once the book starts to slide, the
force of friction acting on it decreases, as
shown in Figure 5.5c. When surfaces are Ftable on book, static friction
FEarth on book, gravitational
sliding, we call the friction force acting the
kinetic friction force. It is the same sort of
force as the static friction force.
c Ftable on book, normal
The kinetic friction force is independent
of other forces applied parallel to the Fhand on book
surfaces. Figure 5.6 shows a graph of friction
force as a function of applied force. You can Direction of motion
Ftable on book, static friction
see that the two are equal for small values F Earth on book, gravitational

of applied force, where the object is not yet

sliding. This is the static friction region. In FIGURE 5.5  a When a small force, Fhand on book, is applied to the
the kinetic friction region, the surfaces are book, the static friction force is equal to the applied force and
prevents the book from sliding. b As the applied force increases,
sliding against each other, and the friction so does the static friction force. c When the applied force
force is constant and less than the maximum exceeds the maximum static friction force, the book begins to
slide. It is now the kinetic friction force that acts on the book.

120 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 FIGURE 5.6 Static
friction increases
up to a maximum,
staying equal to the
applied force, until

Friction force
Kinetic friction

um ses
sliding begins. The

im ri
kinetic friction is less

a x ti o n
than the maximum

a m fric
static friction and is

to ti c
a
constant.
St
No sliding Sliding

Applied force

static friction.
The more that surface A pushes into surface B, the greater the kinetic friction FB on A, friction. To a good WS

approximation, kinetic friction is proportional to the normal force, since the normal force is a measure of Rollercoaster
Homework
how hard A is pushing into B. Remember that from Newton’s third law, whatever force surface A exerts on design
surface B, surface B will exert an equal and opposite force on surface A. Hence, applying a perpendicular
force (such as pushing down on a sliding book) changes the friction force.
We can model the kinetic friction force mathematically as:
FA on B, kinetic friction = μk FN, A on B
where N is the normal force exerted by surface A on surface B, and μk is a constant called the coefficient
of kinetic friction. Note that as both FA on B, kinetic friction and FN, A on B have units of N, the coefficient μk must
be dimensionless and have no units. The value of μk is usually between 0 and 1, but can be greater than 1.
Remember that the static friction force varies, and can take any value up to some maximum. This
maximum also depends on the normal force and is given by:
FA on B, maximum static friction = μs FN, A on B
where μs is the coefficient of static friction, and, like μk, typically varies between 0 and 1, but can be greater
than 1.
More generally, the magnitude of the static friction force is:
FA on B, static friction ≤ μs FN, A on B
and will take whatever value is necessary to prevent the surfaces sliding against each other, up to the
maximum possible. The values of μk and μs depend on the details of the surfaces. Smoother surfaces
have lower coefficients of friction, and rougher surfaces have higher coefficients of friction.

TABLE 5.1  Some examples of coefficients of friction. Note that these values are approximate, and will vary
depending on the details of the surfaces.

SURFACES μS μK
knilbeW

Rubber on concrete 1.0 0.8

Car tyres and
Glass on glass 0.94 0.4 friction
Wood on wood 0.25–0.5 0.2 Explore this
presentation on car
Steel on steel, unlubricated 0.74 0.57 tyres and friction.
What sort of tyres
are best for the
Steel on steel, lubricated 0.15 0.06
road conditions
where you live?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 121

 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.3

Ice on ice 0.1 0.03

A 1.5 kg textbook sits on a table. The coefficient of static friction for the book and table is 0.50 and the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.45. Calculate the friction force acting on the book when Ranji pushes it
with a horizontal force of:
1 2.5 N
2 5.0 N
3 7.5 N

ANSWER LOGIC

1 m = 1.5 kg; μs = 0.50, μk = 0.45 •• Identify the relevant data.

Ftable on book, maximum static friction = μs FN table on book •• Write the expression for maximum static friction force.
Check whether the applied force exceeds the
maximum friction force, and then write an expression
for the maximum friction force.
FN, table on book = mbook g •• Recognise that as no other vertical forces are acting, the normal
force is equal to the gravitational force on the book (Newton’s
second law).

F table on book, maximum static friction = μs mbook g •• Write an expression for the maximum friction force in terms of
−1 known quantities.
= 0.5 (1.5 kg) (9.8 N kg )
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 7.35 N
•• Calculate the final value.

This maximum static friction force is greater than the •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
applied force of 2.5 N, so the static friction force will
take the value required to prevent the book sliding.
This is the magnitude of the applied force.
Ftable on book, static friction = 2.5 N
2 Ftable on book, static friction = 5.0 N •• The maximum static friction force is the same as calculated in
part 1. The applied force of 5.0 N is less than this, so the static
friction force again takes the value of the applied force.
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

3 Ftable on book, kinetic friction = μk FN, table on book •• The applied force is now greater than the maximum static
friction force, so the book will slide. The book is now subject to
the kinetic friction force rather than the static friction force.
•• Write an expression for the kinetic friction force

FN, table on book = mbook g •• Recognise that as no other vertical forces are acting, the normal
force is equal to the gravitational force on the book (Newton’s
second law).

Ftable on book, kinetic friction = μk mbook g •• Write an expression for the kinetic friction force in terms of
−1 known quantities.
= 0.45 (1.5 kg) (9.8 N kg )
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 6.615 N
•• Calculate the final value.
Ftable on book, kinetic friction = 6.6 N
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Repeat Worked example 5.3, but with a second book of mass 1.0 kg sitting on top of the textbook.
Assume that the books do not slide relative to each other.

122 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 When we need to slide one surface against another, we need to overcome the friction force. For most
movement, such as any motion involving rolling, we rely on the static friction force. In a car race, it is the
engine power that determines how fast the wheels can spin, but it is the friction force between the tyres
and road that determines the maximum possible acceleration. When the engine revs and the wheels
start to turn, the tyres push backwards against the road. By Newton’s third law, the road pushes forwards
against the tyres. It is this force that accelerates the car – the static friction force that the road exerts on
the tyres. If this force is not great enough, the wheels will spin and the car goes nowhere.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.4

The coefficient of static friction of a racing car’s tyres against a road surface is 1.1. The car has a mass of
750 kg. Calculate the maximum acceleration possible for this car on a flat road.

ANSWER LOGIC

m = 750 kg; μs = 1.1 •• Identify the relevant data.

Fnet, max •• Relate acceleration to force using Newton’s second law.
amax =
mcar

Fnet, max = Froad on tyres, maximum static friction •• Recognise that the only horizontal force is the static friction force
of the road on the tyres. The maximum net force is therefore the
maximum static friction force.

Froad on tyres, maximum static friction = μs FN, road on tyres •• Write an expression for the maximum friction force.

FN, road on tyres = mcar g •• Recognise that as no other vertical forces are acting, the normal
force is equal to the gravitational force on the car (Newton’s
second law).

Froad on tyres, maximum static friction = μs mcar g •• Write an expression for the force.
Fnet, max µs mcar g •• Substitute the expression for force into Newton’s second law and
amax = = = ms g
mcar mcar simplify.

= 1.1 (9.8 m s )
−2 •• Substitute known values with correct units.
−2 •• Calculate the final value.
= 10.78 m s
−2 •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
amax = 11 m s

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 As the car race in Worked example 5.4 proceeds, the tyres become worn and the maximum
−2
acceleration decreases to 8.5 m s . Calculate the coefficient of static friction for the tyres against the
road at this stage.
2 Would it make any difference to the answer if the car had a larger or smaller mass? Explain your
answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 123

 INVESTIGATION 5.1

The static and kinetic friction forces

Critical and
creative AIMS
thinking
•• To determine how the static and kinetic friction forces that a surface exerts on an object depend on the
Numeracy object’s mass
Information and
•• To measure the coefficient of kinetic friction between two surfaces
communication Write a hypothesis and an inquiry question for this investigation.
technology
capability
MATERIALS

•• Adjustable ramp
•• Box
•• Set of weights
•• Protractor
•• Stopwatch or data logger
•• Weighing scales
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
The box with weights may slide off the end of the ramp and Keep the area at the end of the ramp clear.
hit someone.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

Part 1 (for the static friction force)

1 Measure the mass of the box with only a single weight in it.
2 Beginning with the ramp horizontal, place the box with the weight on the ramp.
3 Slowly raise the ramp until the box just begins to slide. Record the angle at which this happens. Make
repeated measurements.
4 Add a weight to the box and measure the total mass of box and weights.
5 Repeat steps 2–4 until you have run out of weights or have at least six data points.
Part 2 (for the kinetic friction force)
1 Set the ramp at an angle that is large enough to overcome the maximum static friction force.
2 Measure the mass of the box with only a single weight in it.
3 Place the box with weight on the ramp and allow it to slide down.
4 Measure the time taken for the box to slide from rest to some known distance along the ramp. Make repeat
measurements.
5 Add a weight to the box and measure the total mass of box and weights.
6 Repeat steps 3–5 until you have run out of weights or have at least six data points.

RESULTS
Record your results as you measure them.
Part 1
Make a table of data using your measurements from part 1, with mass in one column and angle in a second
column. Add one more column for analysis. Include units and uncertainties. Uncertainties can be calculated
from the spread in your repeat measurements.

124 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Part 2
Make a table of data using your measurements from part 2, with mass in one column and time in a second
column. Add two more columns for analysis. Include units and uncertainties. Uncertainties can be calculated
from the spread in your repeat measurements.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Part 1
1 Draw a force diagram for the box on the ramp.
2 Identify the forces acting parallel to the ramp surface.
3 Write an expression for the static friction force in terms of the measured angle and mass.
4 Calculate the maximum static friction force for each mass.
5 Plot a graph of maximum static friction force against mass using appropriate software. Add a trend-line
(line of best fit) to your graph, and display the equation for the line on your graph.
Part 2
1 Calculate the acceleration of the box for each mass using kinematics equations. Record the acceleration in
your table of data.
2 Calculate the net force acting on the box using Newton’s second law and add it to your table.
3 Plot a graph of net force against mass using appropriate software. Add a trend-line to your graph, and
display the equation for the line on your graph.
4 Find an expression for the gradient of your graph in terms of θ, μk and g. Use the value for the gradient of
the trend-line to calculate μk.

DISCUSSION

•• Did the two graphs have the shape that you expected? Did the line of best fit pass through the origin?
•• Give the answer to your inquiry question and state whether your hypothesis was supported or not.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Fluids (liquids and gases) also exert frictional forces on objects that are moving relative to the fluid.
We usually refer to these forces as drag or resistive forces; for example, air resistance. These forces can
be very large. The mechanism of these friction forces is different from that between solid surfaces. For
friction between solid surfaces, the friction force is approximately independent of the relative speed of Weblink
Drag on
aeroplanes
the two surfaces. This is not the case for drag forces. Air resistance has been found to increase with the
Find out more about
square of the speed of the object relative to the air: Fair drag ∝ v2. This is why it is more fuel efficient to air resistance and
drive at 90 km h−1 than at 110 km h−1. Drag in liquids is generally directly proportional to the speed of the aircraft flight.

object: Fliquid drag ∝ v.

KEY CONCEPTS

●● If there is an acceleration, then there must be a force acting. This includes when objects are
slowing down.
●● To identify the forces causing an object to accelerate, consider all surfaces the object is in
contact with and all fields it is in.
●● Draw force diagrams to help you analyse the effects of forces.
●● Friction forces act to oppose the sliding of one surface against another. Friction is due to the
interaction of atoms on the two surfaces.
●● The static friction force acts to prevent sliding, and can take any value up a maximum given by
Fmaximun static friction = μsFN. In general, Fstatic friction ≤ μsFN. The static friction force is what allows
wheels to roll and enables us to walk.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 125

 ●● The kinetic friction force acts when surfaces are sliding against each other, and opposes the
relative motion. The kinetic friction force is given by Fkinetic friction = μkFN.
●● Air resistance is small at low speeds, but increases rapidly with speed. Air resistance cannot be
ignored on objects moving quickly.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Compare and contrast the static and kinetic friction forces.
2 Identify the direction of the friction force acting on a car by the road in each of the following cases, and
5.1 state whether it is the static or kinetic friction force that is acting.
a A car accelerates forwards
b A car makes a left turn
c A car brakes to a stop
3 Identify the direction of the friction force acting on the box by the ute tray in each of the following cases,
and state whether it is the static or kinetic friction force that is acting.
a The box slides forwards as it is loaded on to the back of the ute
b The box sits, without sliding, on the tray of the ute as the ute accelerates forwards
c The box sits, without sliding, on the tray of the ute as the ute brakes
4 Harriet is pushing on a couch. She begins by pushing gently, gradually increasing the force she applies.
Suddenly the couch start to move, and accelerates rapidly. Explain why this happened.
5 Harriet pushes on a couch of mass 40 kg with a force of 100 N, but it doesn’t move.
a What is the friction force acting on the couch?
b Harriet increases the force she applies. The couch begins to move when she applies a force of 180 N.
Calculate μs for the floor on the couch.
6 Marcus sits on the couch described in the previous question while Harriet is trying to push it. Explain why
she now needs to apply a greater force to make it start moving.
7 Harriet finds that she needs to exert a force of 150 N for the couch described in the previous question to
continue moving.
a Calculate μk for the floor on the couch.
b Describe the motion of the couch if Harriet pushes with a constant force of 160 N after the couch has
begun to slide.

Acceleration of an object subject

5.2
to a constant net force
Newton’s second law tells us what happens when one or more forces act on an object. When an object
is subjected to forces that do not add to zero, then the object will accelerate. From Newton’s second law:
 
 Fnet, A ∑ FA
aA = =
mA mA
The acceleration is directly proportional to the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass. If the
net force is constant, then the acceleration will also be constant.

126 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 To analyse the motion of an object subject to a net force, we first apply Newton’s second law to find
the acceleration. We can then apply the kinematics equations for constant acceleration:
1 1 Fnet 2
s = ut + at 2 = ut + t
2 2 m
F
v = u + at = u + net t
m
F
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as = u 2 + 2 net s
m
to describe and predict the motion.
Figure 5.7 shows what happens to the velocity and position of an object that is subject to a constant
net force.

c
a b

Displacement (m)
Acceleration (m s22)

Velocity (m s21)

Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

FIGURE 5.7 The a acceleration, b velocity, and c displacement of an object starting at rest and subject to a constant net force

Remember that forces are vectors, and need to be added using vector addition. The net force is also
a vector. The direction of the net force gives the direction of the acceleration.
Alternatively, if we know the direction of an object’s acceleration, this tells us the direction of the net
force acting on it. This in turn tells us about the relative magnitudes of the forces acting on the object.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.5

Draw force diagrams to show the forces acting on a car when it is:
1 speeding up.
2 slowing down by braking.
Remember that thelengths of the arrows represent the relative magnitudes of the forces. Label the
forces in the form FB on A.

ANSWER LOGIC

 
1 When a car is speeding up, the acceleration is forwards so the net •• Relate the change in motion to a and Fnet.
force is also forwards.
When a car is speeding up, the forces acting on the car are: •• Identify the forces acting.
• the normal force of the ground surface on each tyre (up)
• the friction force of the road surface on the car ( forwards)
• air resistance (backwards)
• the gravitational force of Earth on the car (down).

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 127

 ANSWER LOGIC

 The normal and gravitational forces are equal. Friction force of the •• Identify the relationships between the forces.
road surface must be greater than the air resistance

F (by surface F (by surface •• Draw a diagram.

on tyre) on tyre)
•• The contact forces of the ground on the tyres
should sum to be the same length as the
F (by air on car)
gravitational force downwards. The force by the
road on the car is greater than the force by the air
F (by road on car) on the car.

F (by Earth on car)

FIGURE 5.8 


2 When the car is braking, the acceleration is backwards so the net 
•• Relate change in motion to a and Fnet.
force is also backwards.
When a car is braking, the forces acting on the car are: •• Identify the forces acting.
• the normal force of the road surface on each tyre (up)
• the friction force of the road surface on the tyres (backwards)
• air resistance (backwards)
• the gravitational force of Earth on the car (down).
The normal and gravitational forces are equal. Friction force of the •• Identify the relationships between the forces.
road surface is now in the opposite direction, and may be greater
or smaller than the air resistance.
•• Draw the diagram.
F (by air on car)
•• The contact forces of the ground on the tyres
should sum to be the same length as the
gravitational force downwards. The force by the
F (Friction, by road on car) road on the car is now in the opposite direction.

F (by Earth on car)

FIGURE 5.9 

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Draw a force diagram for a car that is rolling on a flat road in neutral, with no braking being applied by
the driver.

If we know the net force that acts on an object and we know the object’s mass, then we can calculate
the acceleration of the object. If we know the acceleration of an object, we can use the kinematics
equations from pages 46–7 in chapter 2 to find the change in the object’s velocity and position. Solving
problems in physics often involves combining ideas.

128 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.6
−1
Megan is driving her Mercedes, with a mass of 1000 kg, at a speed of 20 m s . Calculate the average net
force applied to the car if it is to stop in a distance of 25 m to avoid running over a cat.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
s = 25 m; u = 20 m s ; v = 0; m = 1000 kg •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

We want to find the force.

Use kinematics to find the acceleration, then use •• Plan how to solve the problem.
Newton’s second law to find the force.
•• Relate acceleration to given data.
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
v 2 − u2 •• Rearrange for acceleration.
a=
2s
(0 m s −1 )2 − (20 m s −1 )2 •• Substitute known values with units.
=
2 ( 25 m )
−2 •• Calculate the answer.
= −8.0 m s
∑ F = Fnet = ma •• Write Newton’s second law.
−2
Fnet = (1000 kg)(−8.0 m s ) •• Substitute known values with units.
−2
= −8000 kg m s •• Calculate the answer.
= −8000 N
•• State the answer with correct units, significant figures and direction.
Fnet = −8000 N

TRY THESE YOURSELF

−1
1 An aeroplane with a mass of 8.0 × 104 kg accelerates from rest to take-off speed of 75 m s in 25 s. Weblink
Newton’s second
What is the average net force on the aeroplane during this time? law
−1 Watch the video and
2 A car with a mass of 1.2 × 103 kg accelerates from rest to 25 m s in 5.0 s. Sketch a v versus t graph to follow along with the
find acceleration as the gradient. If the same car has a load of 400 kg added to it, how long, under the worked examples.
−1
same net force, would it take to accelerate from rest to 25 m s ?

INVESTIGATION 5.2

Critical and
Acceleration due to a constant net force creative
thinking

In this investigation, we will use the gravitational field to exert a constant force on a falling weight. We
Numeracy
attach the weight to a string, which passes over a pulley and is attached to a toy car. The forces acting
on the weight are the gravitational force and the tension in the string. These act in the vertical direction.
Information and
The purpose of the pulley is to change the direction of the tension in the string without changing the communication
magnitude of the tension. This is an approximation, called the ‘ideal pulley’ approximation. In the horizontal technology
capability
direction, there is the tension in the string pulling the car forwards and friction forces opposing this motion.
These will give an approximately constant horizontal net force.

AIM
Write a hypothesis describing how you expect the toy car to behave under the influence of a constant net force.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 129

 MATERIALS

•• Pulley attached to table edge

•• String
•• Masses and mass holder
•• Tape measure
•• Tape
•• Toy car
•• Stopwatch or motion-sensor with data-logger
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT

What risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Set up your equipment as shown in Figure 5.10. Line up the toy car with the pulley so it is pulled directly
towards it. Set up your data-logging equipment if you are using this system.

Toy car
String
a

Pulley

Masses

FIGURE 5.10  Experimental set-up for measuring acceleration due to a

constant force

2 You will need to make a start and finish line on the table (you can do this using tape).
3 Place the car at the start line. Start the data-logger.
4 Allow the weights to fall freely and time how long it takes the car to reach the finish line.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 at least twice to get a measure of the uncertainty in the time taken.
6 Repeat steps 3–5 with a range of different weights added to the mass holder.

RESULTS

1 Record the distance travelled by the car.

2 Record the times taken for each run, and the weight used. Use a table to organise your results.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Draw a force diagram for the car. Show the horizontal and vertical forces acting.
2 Calculate the average time taken for each value of the falling weights used, and the uncertainty in that
value (use the range method as described in chapter 1). Include this information in your table, as shown.

130 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 MASS OF WEIGHTS AVERAGE TIME ± ACCELERATION ±
UNCERTAINTY (m s 2)
−
USED (kg) TIMES TAKEN (s) UNCERTAINTY (s)

3 Use the kinematics equations to calculate the average acceleration of the toy car and write these in your table.
4 Plot a graph of the acceleration of the car versus mass of the falling weights used, using appropriate
graphing software.
5 Fit a trend-line to your graph and display the equation. Record the gradient.
6 Derive an expression for the gradient of your graph. You will need to use F = ma. Be very careful to
distinguish between the mass of the car and the mass of the falling weights.

DISCUSSION

1 Comment on the shape of your graph. Is it what you expect based on your hypothesis? Does the gradient
agree with what you would expect from Newton’s second law?
2 What other information can you obtain from your graph? For example, can it give you some idea of the
friction forces acting?

CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion that links your findings to your hypothesis. Account for any discrepancies.

 
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Newton’s second law quantifies the relationship between net force and acceleration: Fnet = ma .
●● The direction of the acceleration is given by the direction of the net force.

 F
●● If the net force is constant, then the acceleration is also constant: a = net
m
●● The kinematics equations for constant acceleration are used to analyse the motion of an object
that is subject to a constant net force.

CHECK YOUR
1 An ice skater is travelling in a straight line at constant speed. She turns a skate slightly so that she now UNDERSTANDING
experiences a constant friction force in the direction opposite to her velocity.
a Qualitatively describe her motion. 5.2
b From before she started braking until she stops, sketch graphs of:
i her acceleration as a function of time.
ii her speed as a function of time.
iii her position as a function of time.
−
2 A positron (which has same mass as an electron) has been ejected from a nucleus with a speed of 6.5 × 105 m s 1.
−
It passes into an electric field and experiences a force of 1.5 × 10 16 N in the direction opposite to its motion.
a Calculate its acceleration.
b How far does it travel before coming to a stop?
−
3 Kate is driving her car at 80 km h 1 when she sees a kangaroo on the road in front of her. The mass of the
car is 1900 kg (assume the mass of Kate is negligible compared with the car).
a If the maximum frictional force between the road and tyres is 1.4 × 104 N, what is the minimum
stopping distance when Kate applies the brakes?
b If the car skids, so that kinetic friction rather than static friction is acting on the tyres, will the stopping
distance be greater or smaller? Explain your answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 131

 4 A force of 30 N acts in a direction N30°E on a mass of 100 kg at rest on a smooth horizontal surface.
a Calculate the northerly component of the force.
b Calculate the easterly component of the force.
c What is the magnitude and the direction of the acceleration of the mass?
5 Miriam is playing with a toy car. Figure 5.11 shows the velocity–time graph for the toy car, which has a mass
0.5 kg and is travelling in a straight line to the right of the origin.

40

30
Velocity (m s21)

20

10

0 Time (s)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
210

220

FIGURE 5.11  Velocity versus time graph for a toy car

a Copy the following table and use the graph to complete it.

TIME INTERVAL (s) 0–5 5–10 10–15 15–20 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 40–45
−
ACCELERATION (m s 2)

FORCE (N)

b At a time of 10.0 s, the toy car experiences combined frictional forces of 0.2 N. What must be the
forwards force to the right on the car when it is travelling at this time?
6 Two masses, A and B, are accelerated together along a frictionless horizontal surface by a force of 30 N, as
shown in Figure 5.12.
The mass of A is 1.5 kg and the mass of B is 3.0 kg.

30.0 N B
A

FIGURE 5.12  Two blocks on a frictionless surface are pushed to the right
by a force of 30.0 N

a What is the acceleration of the two masses?

b What is the magnitude of the force exerted by B on A?
c The two masses are now accelerated together along the same smooth surface, in the opposite
direction by a force of 30 N. What is the force exerted by B on A?

5.3 Energy
Energy is one of the central concepts of physics. If you look again at the concept maps in chapter 1 on pages 5–7,
you will see that energy is one of the most important ideas and is connected to our understanding of forces.
There are two forms of energy: kinetic energy is the energy possessed by objects due to their motion,
and potential energy is due to the forces acting on objects in a system.
132 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063
 Kinetic energy

knilbeW
In this chapter, we will consider the kinetic energy of single, macroscopic objects. In chapter 7, we will
James Prescott
use the idea of kinetic energy of microscopic particles when we describe waves. In a wave, there is no Joule
net movement of material, but all the particles in the medium have kinetic energy as the wave passes Find out more
about James
through the material. In chapter 11, we will look at the kinetic energy of the disorganised motion of Prescott Joule –
physicist and
particles in materials. We call this thermal energy, but it is really just the kinetic energy of many particles, brewer.
which we measure as temperature. Figure 5.13 shows these different examples of kinetic energy.
For a single object, the kinetic energy is given by:
1
Ek = mv 2
2
where m is the mass of the object and v is its velocity.
Looking at this equation, we can see that the units of kinetic energy are kg m2 s−2. We give this the
name joule, 1 J = 1 kg m2 s−2, in honour of James Prescott Joule.
Unlike force, which is a vector, energy is a scalar and does not have a direction. Energy is often an
easier quantity than force to work with when solving problems. Kinetic energy is always positive.

a b

FIGURE 5.13  Kinetic energy. Arrows show the direction and

magnitude of velocity. a A single macroscopic object has kinetic
1
energy Ek = mv 2 . b As a wave passes through a medium, the
2
individual particles have kinetic energy as they move up and
down. c All the individual particles in matter have kinetic energy
due to their random motion, which add up to give the thermal
energy of the material.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.7

−1
Bill is driving his car (mass 1900 kg) through a small town at 50 km h . Calculate the kinetic energy of
the car.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
m = 1900 kg; v = 50 km h •• Identify the relevant data.

50 km 1h 1000 m •• Convert to SI units.

v= × × = 13.9 m s −1
1h 3600 s 1 km

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 133

 ANSWER LOGIC

1 2 •• Write the expression for kinetic energy.

Ek = mv
2
1
= (1900 kg)(13.9 m s −1 )2 •• Substitute known values with correct units.
2
= 183 549.5 kg m2 s −2 •• Calculate the answer.

Ek = 180 kJ •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

−1
Weblink
Minimum 1 Continuing on from Worked example 5.7, Bill passes through the town and speeds up to 100 km h .
stopping distance Calculate the kinetic energy of the car now.
of a car
Calculate the 2 Calculate the speed of the car if its kinetic energy is doubled, compared to its value when travelling at
minimum stopping −1
50 km h .
distance of a car using
energy considerations.

Potential energy
Potential energy is stored energy, ready to do work. Whenever a force acts on an object, there is a potential
energy associated with that force.
If you hold an object up, you must do so against the gravitational force of Earth. Potential energy is
stored in the Earth–object system. If you let go of the object, the gravitational field of Earth accelerates
the object towards the ground. As it accelerates, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
As we will see in chapter 12, an electric field also stores potential energy. A charged particle experiences
a force in an electric field, so it will accelerate. Magnetic fields (see chapter 14) also store potential energy
because they exert forces.
A compressed spring has stored energy. If released, the spring is able to do work by applying a force
through a distance. This is called elastic potential energy. Elastic potential energy is really another form of
electromagnetic potential energy, because the force that a spring exerts is due to its atoms being pushed
closer together or pulled further apart than their normal distance. Atoms interact via their electrons and
the electromagnetic force.

Gravitational field, g Electric field, E c

Felectrostatic 1 Magnetic field, B

Fmagnetic
FEarth on book, gravitational N N

FIGURE 5.14  Whenever there is a force, there is potential energy. Potential energy is stored in fields. a Gravitational; b electrostatic; c magnetic

134 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Mass can also be seen as a form of potential energy, as mass can be converted into energy in nuclear
reactions. The forces involved in such reactions are the strong and weak forces that act between
subatomic particles, including quarks. You will learn more about this in Physics in Focus Year 12.
Potential energy belongs to the system, not to a single object. A book held up above Earth’s surface
would not experience a gravitational force if Earth wasn’t there. So the potential energy really belongs to
the combination of the book and Earth, or the book–Earth system. We can model the potential energy as
being stored in the field, just as we model the force as being exerted by the field.
Potential energy can be positive or negative. We define the zero of potential energy using some
convenient or easily measurable configuration of the system. Once we define this configuration,
potential energy is given by the force acting on an object multiplied by the object’s distance from
the reference position. The distance is measured in the direction of the force. For example, for the
gravitational force, if we define the zero of potential energy for the book–Earth system as the book
resting on the surface of Earth, then
Ug = Fgravitational h = mobject g h
where Ug is the gravitational potential energy, m is the mass of the object in Earth’s gravitational field, g
is the gravitational field strength (the acceleration due to gravity) and h is the height of the object above
Earth’s surface. Note that if the object falls into a hole, its potential energy becomes negative.
For the case of the gravitational potential energy at or close to Earth’s surface, we often refer to the
energy as belonging to the object, even though strictly it belongs to the system.
In summary, potential energy is due to the forces that objects exert on each other, and is calculated
from the positions of the objects in the system.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.8

Louise throws a ball to Rob, who misses the catch. The ball, with a mass of 150 g, rolls down a drain.
1 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the ball when it is at a height of 2.5 m above the ground.
2 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the ball when it is at the bottom of the drain, 1.5 m
below the ground.

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 m = 150 g; h = 2.5 m •• Identify the relevant data.

m = 0.15 kg •• Convert to SI units.

Ug = mgh •• Write the expression for gravitational potential energy.

−2
= (0.15 kg) (9.8 m s ) (2.5 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
−2
= 3.675 kg m2 s •• Calculate the answer.
Ug = 3.7 J •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

2 m = 150 g; h = −1.5 m •• Identify the relevant data, noting that the height is now negative.

m = 0.15 kg •• Convert to SI units.

Ug = mgh •• Write the expression for gravitational potential energy.

−2
= (0.15 kg) (9.8 m s ) (−1.5 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
−2
= −2.205 kg m2 s •• Calculate the answer.
Ug = −2.2 J •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
Note that we have taken ground level to be h = 0 in this example,
but this is an arbitrary choice.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

For the same situation, calculate at what height the ball would need to be to have a potential energy of 10 J.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 135

 Conservation of energy
Energy is a conserved quantity. The law of conservation of energy says that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed. It can change forms, but the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant.
When we want to solve problems using the law of conservation of energy, we need to carefully define
the system we are interested in.
An isolated system is one that cannot have energy (or mass) transferred into or out of it. Hence, the
total energy of an isolated system remains constant:
Etotal = ΣU + ΣEk = constant
For a system that is not isolated, the total energy can change, but it only changes by the amount that
is added or removed from the system. Remember that the total energy of the universe is constant, so any
energy added to a system must be taken away from somewhere else in the universe.

Work done by a constant force

Forces act to transfer energy, and to change the form of energy. If a force acts on an object, causing it to
accelerate so that its kinetic energy increases, then there must be an equal decrease in potential energy. If
an object is slowed down by a force, then potential energy or some other kinetic energy, such as thermal
energy, increases.
We call the amount of energy transferred by a force the work done by that force. The amount of
energy transferred to an object when a force acts on it is given by:
(W = F||s = Fscos θ )
where F|| is the component of the force applied to the object in the direction of
F
the object's misplacement, and s is the displacement of the object. The angle,
1 1 θ, is the angle between the applied force and the displacement, as shown in
Figure 5.16.
Note that directions are important as we are dealing with forces. If an object
s moves in the opposite direction to the force, then the work done is negative.
If the displacement, s, is in the direction of the force, then the work done is
FIGURE 5.15  When the force
  is applied in the positive. In cases where the applied force and the motion are not in the same
direction of motion, W = F s .
direction (Figure 5.16), we only consider the component of the force that is in
the direction of motion.

FIGURE 5.16 a The a

force is applied at an
angle to the direction
of the displacement.
b The component of F cos u
F
the force parallel to F
the displacement is
F cos θ, so the work u b
done is W = F s cos θ. 1
u
F cos u
s

This equation for work also tells us that the unit J can be written as N m, which makes sense as
1 N = 1 kg m s−2, so 1 N m = 1 kg m2 s−2 = 1 J.
The work done by a force can be found from a graph of the force versus position. The work done is the
area under the curve, as shown in Figure 5.17. If the curve is an irregular shape, as in Figure 5.17b, then
you may need to find the area by adding up the areas of many small segments.

136 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 FIGURE 5.17  a The
a Force b Force work done by a
constant force.
F2 b When the force
F varies, divide the area
under the curve into
W 5 Fs sections and add all
F2(s22s1) the areas. c The work
F1 done is equal to the
s
Displacement area under the curve,
F1s1 which is the sum of
all the small areas
(such as the segments
c Force s1 s2 Displacement shown in blue).

F˝
F´

s Displacement
Ds

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.9

Phil pushes a textbook across a desk towards Ranji, applying a constant force of 60 N for a distance of 5 cm in the direction
of the book’s motion. The book then slides an additional 20 cm, while subject to a friction force of 10 N, before Ranji stops it.
1 How much work does Phil do on the book?
2 How much work does the desk do on the book?

ANSWER LOGIC

1 F|| = 60 N; s = 5 cm •• Identify the relevant data.

s = 0.05 m •• Convert to SI units.

W = Fs •• Write the expression for work done.

= (60 N) (0.05 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 3 N m •• Calculate the answer.
W = 3 J
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

2 F = −10 N; s = 20 cm •• Identify the relevant data, noting that F is negative because the
friction force is in the opposite direction to the direction of motion.

s = 0.20 m •• Convert to SI units.

W = Fs •• Write the expression for work done.

= (−10 N) (0.20 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
= −2 N m •• Calculate the answer.
W = −2 J
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

The friction force of the road on the tyres of an accelerating car is 8.5 kN. The car accelerates for a distance of 10 m.
Calculate the work done by the friction force on the car. Identify whether the work is positive or negative.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 137

 When the work done on an object is positive, so that the force is in the direction of motion, the kinetic
energy of the object increases. When the force is in the opposite direction to the motion, the object slows
down and its kinetic energy decreases.
The total work done on an object is equal to the sum of the work done by all forces acting:
Wnet = ∑ (F|| s ) = F net cosθ
Using Newton’s second law, we can say that:

Wnet = F net cosθ = mas
which, using the kinematic equation, v 2 = u 2 + 2 as we can write as:
1 1 1
Wnet = F net cosθ = m (v 2 − u 2 ) = mv 2 − mu 2
2 2 2
Remembering that kinetic energy is
1
Ek = mv 2
2
we can see that:
1 1
Wnet = F net cosθ = mv 2 − mu 2 = ∆Ek
2 2
where the Δ (delta) symbol indicates the change in a quantity.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.10

Phil pushes a textbook from rest across a desk towards Ranji, applying a constant force of 60 N for a
distance of 5 cm. At the same time, the book is subject to a friction force of 10 N. Both forces act in the
direction of motion.
1 Calculate the change in kinetic energy of the book.
2 Calculate the final speed of the book.

ANSWER LOGIC

1 FPhil = 60 N; Ffriction = −10 N; s = 5 cm •• Identify the relevant data, noting that the forces have opposite
signs as they act in opposite directions.

s = 0.05 m •• Convert to SI units.

Wnet = Fnet s = ∆Ek •• Relate forces to change in kinetic energy.

∆Ek = Fnet s = ( FPhil + Ffriction ) s •• Rearrange for change in kinetic energy and expand the expression
for net force.
= (60 N − 10 N) (0.05 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 2.5 N m
•• Calculate the answer.
∆Ek = 2.5 J
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

2 ∆Ek = 2.5 J; Ek, initial = 0; m = 1.5 kg •• Identify the relevant data.

∆Ek = Ek, final − Ek, initial •• Write the expression for change in kinetic energy.

∆Ek = Ek, final •• Recognise that the initial Ek is zero.

138 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

1 2 •• Relate kinetic energy to velocity.

Ek, final =mv
2
2 Ek •• Rearrange for velocity.
v=
m
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
2 ( 2.5 J )
=
1.5 kg
1 •• Calculate the answer.
= 1.83 (J kg −1 ) 2
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures
−1 −2
v = 1.8 m s noting that 1 J = 1 kg m2 s .

TRY THIS YOURSELF

In the same situation, calculate the distance over which the friction force must act to bring the book to a
stop, once Phil has stopped pushing.

Energy and the gravitational field

 
The force that the gravitational field of Earth exerts on an object is given by Fgravitational = mg , where m

is the mass of the object and g is the field strength, which is the same as the acceleration due to gravity.
Remember that potential energy of an object is related to the force exerted on the object and its
position. The potential energy of an object in Earth’s gravitational field is given by:
Ug = Fgravitational h = mobject g h
where we usually take h to be the height above Earth’s surface at the location of interest. Note that this
assumes that g is constant, which is only a valid approximation close to Earth’s surface.
When you drop an object, it falls (Figure 5.18a, page 140), and accelerates as it falls due to the
gravitational force. The kinetic energy of the object increases because the gravitational force is doing
work on it. If we make the approximation that air resistance is negligible, then the only force acting is
the gravitational force. No other forces act, so the Earth–object system can be modelled as isolated.
In this case:
Wgravity = Fgravitational s = mobject g ∆h
if the object falls through a height ∆h, so that s = ∆h.
Look again at the expression for the potential energy. We can see that the magnitude of the work
done by the gravitational field is equal to the change in gravitational potential energy:
Wgravity = mobject g ∆h = −∆Ug
Note the negative sign here, as the force is in the opposite direction to the change in height (measuring
height upwards from the ground), so the work done by gravity acts to decrease the potential energy of
the object.
The work done is also equal to the change in kinetic energy of the object:
Wgravity = ∆Ek = −∆Ug
This allows us to write:
1
mg∆h = m(v 2 − u 2 )
2
for an object falling freely in Earth’s gravitational field.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 139

 b
Gravitational field
a

Gravitational field

FHand on book
s
FEarth on book, gravitational
s

FEarth on book, gravitational

FIGURE 5.18  a Force and displacement are in the same direction when an object falls through some height. Work is
positive and the object gains kinetic energy. b When an object is lifted against the gravitational field, the work done by
gravity is negative and the work done by the applied force is positive. The change in kinetic energy is equal to the net work
done.

The equation Wgravity = ∆Ek = −∆Ug is really a statement of conservation of energy, as it can be
rearranged to say
∆Ek + ∆Ug = 0

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.11

Phil pushes a textbook across a table towards Ranji, but it falls off the edge of the table. Consider motion
in the vertical direction only and ignore air resistance. Calculate the speed at which the book hits the
floor if the table is 75 cm high.

ANSWER LOGIC

∆h = 75 cm; u = 0 •• Identify the relevant data.

∆h = 0.75 m •• Convert data to SI units.

∆Ek = −∆Ug •• Apply conservation of energy.

1 2
mv = mg∆h •• Substitute the expressions for ∆Ek and ∆Ug, and recognise that u = 0.
2
•• Rearrange for velocity.
v = 2 g∆h
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 2(9.8 m s −2 )(0.75 m)
−1 •• Calculate the answer.
= 3.83 m s
v = 3.8 m s
−1 •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

−1
Calculate the height a ball must be dropped from if it is to hit the ground at a speed of 5.0 m s .

140 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 If you lift an object, you must exert a force to do so, and do work on the object (Figure 5.18b). At the
same time that you are applying a force upwards, the gravitational field is applying a force downwards. If
the object is moving upwards, then you are doing positive work on it and the gravitational field is doing
negative work.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.12

Ranji picks up the fallen book with mass 1.5 kg and places it back on the table 75 cm above the floor.
1 How much work must Ranji do?
2 How much work is done by the gravitational field?

ANSWER LOGIC

1 ∆h = 75 cm; u = 0; v = 0; m = 1.5 kg •• Identify the relevant data.

∆h = 0.75 m •• Convert data to SI units.

∆Ek = 0 •• Recognise that the change in kinetic energy of the book is

zero if it starts at rest and ends at rest.

∆Ug = mg∆h = WRanji •• Write an expression for the change in potential energy. This is
−2
WRanji = (1.5 kg) (9.8 m s ) (0.75 m) the energy that Ranji must add to the system by doing work in
2 −2 lifting the book.
= 11.025 kg m  s
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
WRanji = 11 J
•• Calculate the answer.
Note: this is the work done by Ranji to increase the
potential energy of the book by lifting it against the •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
gravitational field to the table. She also has to do a
small amount of work to accelerate the book from its
initial zero velocity to the velocity at which she raises it.
How much work this is depends on how fast she lifts it.
2 m = 1.5 kg; ∆h = 0.75 m •• Identify the relevant data.

W = Fs = Fgravitational ∆h •• Write the expression for the work done by the gravitational
force.

W = −mg∆h •• Substitute the expression for the gravitational force, noting

−2
W = (1.5 kg) (−9.8 m s ) (0.75 m) that the force is negative as it acts down and the displacement
2 −2 is upwards.
Ug = −11.025 kg m  s
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
Ug = −11 J
•• Calculate the answer.
Note: this answer is the same as the work done by
Ranji in lifting the book, but negative. The change in •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
kinetic energy of the book is zero. But work, equal to
the change in potential energy, has been done on the
book–Earth system by Ranji.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Continuing on from the example, Ranji throws Phil’s textbook directly up into the air and then catches
it at the same height that she threw it from. How much work has the gravitational force done on the
book over the entire trajectory of the book? Explain your answer and state any assumptions that you
are making.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 141

 INVESTIGATION 5.3

Energy changes of falling objects

Numeracy
AIM
To investigate the transformation of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy as an object is accelerated
Critical and creative by a gravitational field.
thinking
Write a hypothesis or inquiry question for this investigation.
Information and
communication MATERIAL
technology
capability •• Objects to drop
•• Data-logger equipment for measuring motion, with computer and software
What other equipment will you need?
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT

What risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

•• Design a method to answer your inquiry question or test your hypothesis.

•• When using a data-logger, you need to read the instructions and make sure that you can use it and the
associated software.
•• You will need to be able to record the motion of a falling object and display graphs of position, velocity and
acceleration as a function of time and/or distance.

RESULTS
Record your results as you measure them. Make sure you save each set of graphs with a name that tells you
what the data is for.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

•• How will you analyse your data?

•• A graph of velocity as a function of time will allow you to calculate kinetic energy as a function of time.
•• A graph of position as a function of time will allow you to calculate gravitational potential energy as a
function of time.
•• A graph of acceleration as a function of time will allow you to calculate net force as a function of time.

DISCUSSION

1 Did your graphs have the shapes that you expected?

2 How much gravitational potential energy was converted to kinetic energy? Was air resistance significant? If
you used a range of different objects, did the size, shape or mass of the objects make any difference?
3 Give the answer to your inquiry question and state whether your hypothesis was supported or not.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

142 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Mechanical energy
The kinetic energy of macroscopic objects and gravitational potential energy are sometimes grouped
under the term mechanical energy. In the absence of friction and other resistive forces, such as air
resistance, mechanical energy is conserved. Sometimes potential energy stored in springs is also
considered a form of mechanical energy.
Often we make the approximation that mechanical energy is conserved. This makes calculations
simpler. When objects are moving slowly so air resistance is small, and there are no solid surfaces sliding
against each other, this is a reasonable approximation.
However, remember that it is an approximation. In reality, mechanical energy is almost never
conserved. Real systems usually have friction and air resistance acting. When the kinetic friction force
acts to slow down an object, the kinetic energy lost by the object is converted into the random kinetic
energy of the atoms on the surfaces – the surfaces get warmer. This random kinetic energy of microscopic
particles is not considered a form of mechanical energy.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● There are two types of energy: kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is associated with motion
and potential energy with forces.
1
●● Kinetic energy is given by E k = mv 2.
2
●● Potential energy belongs to a system, and is stored because forces act between objects in the
system. Potential energy is calculated from the positions of objects.
●● The gravitational potential energy of an object close to Earth is U g = mgh .
●● Energy is conserved. The total amount of energy in the universe is constant.
●● An isolated system is one that energy cannot be transferred into or out of. For an isolated
system, E total = ∑U + ∑ E k = constant.
●● When a force acts on an object and there is a displacement in the direction of the force, the
force does work, W = F||s = Fscos θ , on the object. Work can be positive or negative.
●● Work can be found from the area under a F versus s graph.
●● When the force and motion are in the same direction, positive work is done and the object
speeds up, gaining kinetic energy.
●● When the force is in the opposite direction to the motion, negative work is done and the object
slows down, losing kinetic energy.
●● Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy are types of mechanical energy. Mechanical
energy is conserved only in the absence of friction.

CHECK YOUR
1 Define ‘work’ and give its units. UNDERSTANDING
2 When you are holding a book above your head, explain why you are not doing any work on the book.
3 Identify whether the work done by the force is positive or negative in each of the following situations. 5.3
a the force you exert on a ball with your hand when you throw it
b the gravitational force on the ball as it rises
c the gravitational force on the ball as it falls
d the force of your hand on the ball as you catch it
4 A car has a mass of 1500 kg.
a Calculate the kinetic energy of the car at different speeds to complete the table below.
b Plot a graph of kinetic energy as a function of speed. Comment on the shape of your graph.

SPEED (M S 1)
−
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Ek (J)

5 A cockatoo is chewing pinecones from a pine tree. A pinecone falls from a height of 4.5 m. Calculate the
speed with which it hits the ground.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 143

 6 A toolbox of mass 15 kg sits on the back of a ute without slipping as the ute accelerates forwards. The ute
−
takes 10 s to accelerate to a speed of 80 km h 1. Calculate the work done by the static friction force on the
toolbox.

5.4 Power
A crane that can lift a 10 tonne block of concrete to the top of a building in 1 minute is more powerful
than a crane that can do the same task but takes 2 minutes. Both cranes do the same amount of work on
the load, but they take different times to do so.
The rate at which work is done is called power, P. As work is the energy transferred by a force, power
is the rate at which energy is transferred, or transformed from one form into another.
∆W ∆E
P= =
∆t ∆t
The unit of power is the watt (W); 1  W = 1  J  s−1 = 1  N  s−1. A 100  W light globe transforms 100  J
of electrical energy into light and heat every second. A 1 kW crane motor increases the gravitational
potential energy of a load by 1 kJ every second (assuming 100% efficiency).
The amount of energy transformed or transferred in a process is the power multiplied by the time
interval:
∆E = P∆t
If you plot the energy being transferred to an object as a function of time (Figure 5.19a), then the
gradient of this graph at any moment is the power. If you plot a graph of power as a function of time
(Figure 5.19b), then the area under the line is the total energy transferred.

DE b
P5
Dt
Energy (J)

Power (W)

DE
DE 5 P Dt

Dt

Time (s) Time (s)

FIGURE 5.19  a Power is the gradient of an energy–time graph. b Energy transferred is the area under the line of a power–
time graph.

We can relate power to force using the equation for work, W = F||s = Fscos θ :
Weblink
Saturn V F-1 ∆E W ∆(Fscosθ) ∆s
engines P= = = = Fcos θ = Fvcosθ
Find out about
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
the most powerful
engines ever built. This means that the power, or rate at which energy is being transferred by a force, is equal to the force
applied multiplied by the speed at which the object is moving.

144 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.13

A crane takes 1 minute to lift a 1000 kg block of concrete vertically upwards through a height of 10 m at
constant speed. Calculate the power used by the crane to lift the block.

ANSWER LOGIC

m = 1000 kg; s = 10 m, t = 1 min •• Identify the relevant data.

t = 60 s •• Convert to SI units.

W •• Identify the appropriate formula to determine the power.

P= = Fv
∆t

Fnet = 0 so F = Fgravitational •• As speed is constant, net force = 0 (Newton’s second law), so the
force applied by the crane must be equal to the gravitational force.

F = mg •• Identify the appropriate formula to determine the force.

∆s •• Identify the appropriate formula to determine the velocity.

v=
∆t
mg∆s •• Substitute these expressions into the equation for P.
P = Fv =
∆t
(1000 kg)(9.8 m s −2 ) (10 m ) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
=
60 s
−3
•• Calculate the answer.
= 1633 kg m2 s
P = 1600 W or 1.6 kW •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Calculate the power of the crane if the crane takes 2 minutes to raise the 1000 kg block.
One of the factors that determines the top speed of a car is the power of its engine. Air resistance WS

on the car increases significantly as the speed of the car increases. The work done on the car by this air
The power of
Homework
resistance decreases the energy of the car. In order to keep the car travelling at constant speed, the engine modern aircraft
must provide this amount of energy by converting the energy stored in the fuel, so fuel consumption
increases with speed.
Other frictional forces also oppose the motion of a car. Rolling friction acts on the tyres. Ideally, when
a wheel rolls, there is no slipping of the wheel against the ground. In reality, there may be slight slipping
as well as deformation of the tyre and the road surface. These combine to give rolling friction, which must
also be overcome to keep the car at constant speed.
Internal friction forces also affect a car’s efficiency as they reduce the power that goes from the engine
to the wheels. There is friction at all points along the drive train of a car. This reduces the amount of force

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 145

 INVESTIGATION 5.4

with which the tyres can push against the ground.

Critical and
creative Power
thinking
In this investigation, you will explore the way energy is transformed from gravitational potential energy to
Numeracy kinetic energy. Falling weights do work on a toy car or block. The rate at which the work is done is the power
that is transferred to the car/block.
Information and
communication
AIM
technology
capability Write an inquiry question for this investigation.

MATERIALS

•• Pulley attached to table edge

•• String
•• Masses and mass holder
•• Tape measure
•• Tape
•• Toy cars, blocks with different surfaces (smooth, rough)
!
RISK •• Stopwatch or motion-sensor with data-logger
ASSESSMENT
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?

Falling weights could land on someone. Keep area beneath weights clear.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Measure and record the masses of the toy car, blocks and falling weights.
2 Set up your equipment as shown in Figure 5.20. Line up the toy car with the pulley so it is pulled directly
towards it.
3 You will need to make a start and finish line on the table (you can do this using tape).

FIGURE 5.20  Toy car

Experimental set-up String
for investigating a
power transferred
Pulley

Masses

146 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4 Set up your data-logging equipment to record the motion of the car. If you don’t have data-logging
equipment, you can use a stopwatch to record the time taken for the car to travel a given distance.
5 Place the car at the start line. Allow the weights to fall freely through some measured distance. Record the
motion of the car or time how long it takes the car to reach the finish line.
6 Lock the wheels of the car so they cannot rotate (you can do this using tape). Repeat step 5.
7 Repeat step 5 with blocks with various surfaces.

RESULTS

•• Using the data-logger, record the motion of the car and blocks. You should get a set of data including
speed as a function of time, or a graphical display including a plot of speed as a function of time.
•• You will need to know the mass of the falling weights, the height through which they fell, the speed of the
car when the weights reached the end of the fall and the time taken for the fall. Record this data in a table
as shown.

FINAL MASS OF DISTANCE

OBJECT BEING TIME FOR SPEED CHANGE FALLING FALLEN CHANGE CHANGE
(m s 1)
−
PULLED FALL (s) IN Ek (J) WEIGHTS (kg) (m) IN Ug (J) IN Ek (J)

CAR – ROLLING

CAR – SLIDING

ROUGH BLOCK –
SLIDING

SMOOTH BLOCK –
SLIDING

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
You will need to perform calculations for each measurement to complete your table.
1
1 Calculate the final kinetic energy of the car/block using Ek = mcarv 2 .
2
∆Ek
2 Calculate the power being transferred to the car from Pto car = .
∆t
3 Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy of the falling weights using ∆U g = m weight g∆h .
1 2
4 Calculate the final kinetic energy of the weights using Ek = mweightsv . As the weights are attached to the
2
car via the string, they must move at the same speed. So, the final speed of the car is the same as the final
speed of the weights.
∆E
5 Calculate the power being transformed into kinetic energy of the weights: Pto weights = k .
∆t
∆Ug
6 Calculate the power being transferred from the weights from Pfrom weights = .
∆t
7 Calculate the difference between the power transformed from potential energy and the combined kinetic
energy of the weights and car. This difference is the rate at which energy is lost as thermal energy.

DISCUSSION

1 For each of the rolling and sliding situations you investigated, comment on how much of the power
transferred from the falling weights went into increasing the kinetic energy of the car/block.
2 Was there a difference between sliding and rolling? Was there significant rolling resistance for your car?
What effect did kinetic friction have for sliding objects?
3 Was mechanical energy conserved for any of these situations?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion that answers the inquiry question of
this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 147

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, or transformed from one form into
WS ∆E ∆W
another: P = = .
∆t ∆t
General
Homework
●● When a force acts on a moving object, the rate at which energy is transferred by the
knowledge
force is P = F||v = Fvcosθ.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Explain how power, work and time are related.
2 Give the units of power in fundamental units.
5.4 3 The kinetic energy of a 200 kg satellite is raised by 4.0 × 107 J in a 10-minute rocket burn. Calculate the
average power of the rocket motors.
4 A crane is lifting a 900 kg elephant upwards.
a Calculate the work done by the crane if the elephant is lifted through a vertical displacement of 16 m.
−
b The crane is lifting the elephant at a speed of 1.5 m s 1. Calculate the power at which the crane is
operating.
5 Calculate the constant vertical speed with which a 2.5 kW winch motor could lift an injured hiker into a
helicopter if the hiker and stretcher have a combined mass of 100 kg.
6 A sprinter can run 100 m in 10 s, accelerating the entire time. Calculate the average power required for this
if the sprinter has a mass of 75 kg.

148 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 5   CHAPTER SUMMARY
1
◗◗ If there is an acceleration, there must be a force acting. To ◗◗ Ek = mv 2.
Kinetic energy is given by     
identify the forces causing an object to accelerate, consider 2
◗◗ Potential energy belongs to a system, and is stored because
all surfaces the object is in contact with and all fields it is in.
forces act between objects in the system. The gravitational
◗◗ Draw force diagrams to help you analyse the effects of potential energy of an object close to Earth is Ug = mgh.
forces.
◗◗ Energy is conserved. The total amount of energy in the
◗◗ Friction forces act to oppose the sliding of one surface universe is constant.
against another.
◗◗ An isolated system is one that energy cannot be
◗◗ The static friction force acts to prevent sliding, and transferred into or out of. For an isolated system,
can take any value up to a maximum given by E total = ∑ U + ∑ Ek = constant.
Fmaximun static friction = μsFN. In general, Fstatic friction ≤ μsFN.
◗◗ When a force acts on an object and there is a displacement
The static friction force is what allows wheels to roll and
in the direction of the force, the force does work on the
enables us to walk.
object. Work can be positive or negative.
◗◗ The kinetic friction force acts when surfaces are sliding
◗◗ When the force and motion are in the same direction,
against each other, and opposes the relative motion. The
positive work is done and the object speeds up, gaining
kinetic friction force is given by Fkinetic friction = μkFN.
kinetic energy. When force and motion are in opposite
◗◗ Air resistance is small at low speeds, but increases rapidly directions, negative work is done and the object slows
with speed. Air resistance cannot be ignored on objects down.
moving quickly.
◗◗ Kinetic energy of macroscopic objects and gravitational
◗◗ Acceleration
 can be calculated from Newton’s second potential energy are types of mechanical energy.

law: Fnet = ma . Mechanical energy is conserved only in the absence of
friction.
◗◗ If the net forceis constant, then the acceleration is also
 F ◗◗ Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, or
constant: a = net .
m ∆E ∆W
transformed from one form into another: P = = .
◗◗ There are two types of energy: kinetic and potential. Kinetic ∆t ∆t
energy is associated with motion and potential energy with ◗◗ When a force acts on a moving object, the rate at which
forces. energy is transferred by the force is P = F||v = Fvcos θ .

5   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

−2
1 Identify the quantity calculated by finding the area under 7 A car accelerates at a rate of 2.0 m s when a force of 3.0 kN
a F versus s graph. is applied to it by the road. Calculate the mass of the car.
2 Explain how you could tell if work has been done on an 8 A student draws a force diagram for a car and includes a
object. force of the engine on the car. The student says that the
engine is what makes the car go, so it must exert a force
3 How does a falling object gain its kinetic energy, given
on the car. Explain what is wrong with this diagram and
that energy cannot be created or destroyed?
explanation.
4 A 1000 kg car and a 2.00 × 105 kg aeroplane accelerate at
F 9 Define ‘isolated system’. Apply the ideas of both force and
−2
the same rate of 3.5 m s . Calculate the ratio net on aeroplane . energy to explain what an isolated system is.
Fnet on car
5 Does friction always oppose motion? Justify your answer. 10 Two children are fighting over a toy of mass 500 g. Marcus
pulls it to the left with a force of 25 N. Laurence pulls it to
6 Kate is driving when a kangaroo jumps in front of her car. the right with a force of 35 N.
She slams on the brakes and the car skids. Explain why
a Calculate the acceleration of the toy.
it takes longer for a skidding car to come to a stop than
when the wheels are still gripping the road and rolling. b If Marcus suddenly lets go, what is the acceleration of
the toy now?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 149

 11 An object with an initial speed u is subject to a constant 16 A student carries a heavy backpack to school along a level
force in the direction opposite to its motion. Sketch street. The student says, ‘that was hard work’. Evaluate the
graphs, as a function of time, of the object’s: student’s statement.
a acceleration. 17 A box is subject to two forces, as shown in Figure 5.22.
b speed. The box has a mass of 2 kg and force F1 has a magnitude
c kinetic energy. of 10 N.
Calculate
12 A toboggan and child of combined mass 67 kg slide
down a frictionless snowfield inclined at 15° to the a the magnitude of the acceleration, a.
horizontal. Calculate the magnitude of: b the magnitude of force F2.
a the component of the gravitational force perpendicular
to the snowfield.

b the force down the slope of the snowfield on the F2 
a
toboggan and child.
c the acceleration.
60.0°
13 A snowboard and rider with combined mass of 95 kg are
sliding down a snow-covered slope inclined at 38° to the
horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction for the snow m 
on the board is 0.08. Calculate the magnitude of: F1
a the net force on the snowboard and rider.
FIGURE 5.22
b the force down the slope on the snowboard and rider.
c their acceleration. 18 Darren’s car is stuck in slippery mud and he is trying to
push it out.
14 When an aeroplane is flying, it is subject to four forces:
gravity, lift (upwards), thrust (forwards) and air resistance a Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on
(backwards). For each of these forces, identify whether it the car.
does positive, negative or no work when the plane is: b Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on
a climbing after take-off. Darren.
b cruising at constant speed. c Apply Newton’s second and third laws to explain what
will happen if Darren pushes with more force on the
c descending to land.
car than the maximum static friction force that the
15 The force that must be applied to stretch a spring varies mud exerts on him.
with the distance it is stretched. The graph in Figure 5.21
19 Two objects are connected via a pulley, as shown in
shows the force exerted on the end of a particular spring
Figure 5.23. Assume the table is very smooth so friction
versus the distance it is stretched. Use the graph to find:
can be ignored.
a the work that must be done to stretch the spring from
no extension to 10 cm.
m1
b the work that must be done to then stretch the spring
by an additional 5 cm.

80

60 m2
Force (N)

40
FIGURE 5.23

20 a Draw a force diagram for each object.

b Calculate the acceleration of the objects if m1 = 5 kg
0 5 10 15 and m2 = 10 kg.
Extension (cm) c Now assume the coefficient of kinetic friction between
the table and object 1 is 0.6. Calculate the acceleration
FIGURE 5.21  Force required to stretch a spring versus distance
stretched of the objects now.

150 CHAPTER TWO

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» DYNAMICS 9780170409063
 20 A meteor enters the atmosphere and slows down quickly 24 A 10 kg rock is dropped from a height of 30 m. Assume air
while burning up and vaporising. Describe how the law of resistance is negligible during the fall.
conservation of energy applies to this event. a Draw a graph of kinetic energy as a function of time for
21 The maximum static friction force between a 1200 kg car’s the rock.
tyres and the road is 9.5 × 103 N. b Describe how you could find the power being
a Calculate the minimum stopping distance if the car is transferred at any moment from your graph.
−1
travelling at 60 km h . c Describe how the power varies as the rock falls.
b Calculate the minimum stopping distance if the car is 25 A toboggan and child of combined mass 67 kg slide
−1
travelling at 40 km h . down a snowfield inclined at 15° to the horizontal. They
c Compare your answers to parts a and b, and use them start at rest and travel a distance of 10 m down the slope.
−1
to justify the 40 km h speed limit in school zones. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the snow and
the toboggan is 0.10. Calculate the magnitude of:
22 Using the ideas of work and energy, calculate the speed
with which a 10 kg rock released from a height of 30 m a the net force down the slope on the toboggan and
hits the ground. child.
b the acceleration of the toboggan and child.
23 A 10 kg rock is dropped from a height of 30 m. Assume air
resistance is negligible during the fall. c the work done on the child and toboggan.
a Apply kinematics to find the time taken for the rock to d the final velocity of the child and toboggan.
fall to the ground. e the average power being transferred to the child and
b Calculate the kinetic energy of the rock just before it toboggan as they slide.
hits the ground.
c Calculate the average power being transferred to the
rock as it falls.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 151

 Momentum, energy and
6 simple systems
OUTCOMES
INQUIRY Students:
QUESTION
•• conduct an investigation to describe and analyse one-dimensional (collinear) and two-dimensional
How is the motion of interactions of objects in simple closed systems (ACSPH064) CCT
objects in a simple system  
•• analyse quantitatively and predict, using the law of conservation of momentum ( ∑ mvbefore = ∑ mv after )
dependent on the  1 2  , the results of
interaction between and, where appropriate, conservation of kinetic energy ∑ 1 mv before
2
= ∑ mv after 
interactions in elastic collisions (ACSPH066) ICT N  2 2 
the objects?
•• investigate the relationship and analyse information obtained from graphical representations of force as a
function of time
•• evaluate the effects of forces involved in collisionsand other interactions, and analyse quantitatively the

(
interactions using the concept of impulse ∆ p = Fnet ∆t ICT N )
•• analyse and compare the momentum and kinetic energy of elastic and inelastic collisions (ACSPH066) ICT N
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
iStock.com/Brothers_Art

152 9780170409063
 In this chapter, we will explore how the movements of objects in a simple system are dependent on the
interactions between the objects.
In a car crash, there are large and damaging forces exerted on the vehicles and the people inside
them due to the interaction. Energy is transformed during a collision as the state of motion of the
vehicles and people inside changes. In chapter 5, we looked at how forces cause accelerations. The first
of several conservation principles was also introduced: conservation of energy. In this chapter, a second
conservation law is introduced: the law of conservation of momentum. We will see how this law helps us
to understand the effects of interactions between objects such as colliding vehicles.
Getty Images/Bill Pugliano

FIGURE 6.1 The
concept of
momentum is
important in
analysing car crashes,
and in designing cars
to be safer.

6.1  Momentum
−1
Momentum is a very useful concept in physics. Imagine being hit by a tomato thrown at 10 m s . Now
−1
imagine being hit by a watermelon thrown at 10 m s . The experience is quite different, and the concept
of momentum allows us to quantify the difference.
 
Momentum, p, is defined as the product of an object’s mass, m, and its velocity, v :
 
p = mv
Momentum has units of kg m s−1. It is a vector quantity and has a direction the same as that of the
object’s velocity.

Momentum and Newton’s laws

Sir Isaac Newton used the idea of momentum when he developed his three laws of motion. Newton
actually wrote his second law (see chapter 4, page 92) in terms of momentum rather than acceleration. In
terms of momentum, Newton’s second law is: 
 Dp
Fnet =  
Dt
If we substitute the definition of momentum into this equation, and assume that mass is constant,
we can see that:   
 ∆p ∆ ( mv ) ∆v 
Fnet = = =m = ma
∆t ∆t ∆t

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 153

 WORKED EXAMPLE 6.1

During a food fight, a child is hit by a 150 g tomato travelling at 10 m s−1. Calculate the magnitude of the
momentum of the tomato.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
m = 150 g; v = 10 m s •• Identify the relevant data.
m = 0.15 kg •• Convert data to SI units.
p = mv •• Identify the appropriate formula.
−1
p = (0.15 kg) × (10 m s ) •• Substitute in known values with correct units.
−1
p = 1.5 kg m s •• Calculate the final value and state the final answer with
correct units and significant figures.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate the momentum of a watermelon with mass 5.0 kg moving at 10 m s−1.

2 Calculate the speed that a 150 g tomato would need to move at to have the same momentum as a
5.0 kg watermelon moving at 10 m s−1.

The law of conservation of momentum

Recall that for a conserved quantity, the total amount of that quantity in the universe, or in any isolated
system, remains constant.
Momentum is a conserved quantity. The sum of the momentum of all the objects in an isolated
system remains constant:
 
pnet = ∑ p = constant
or  
∑ pinitial = ∑ pfinal

When we apply the law of conservation of momentum, we need to remember that it is a vector
quantity. We must add momenta (the plural of momentum) as vectors. In one dimension, this means we
must be careful to define positive and negative directions and make sure all quantities have the correct
sign. In two dimensions, we must add momenta as vectors, using vector decomposition and addition by
components. Vector decomposition and addition of forces was described in chapter 4. The same process
is used for momenta.  
Newton’s third law was introduced in chapter 4 as FA on B = − FB on A . It tells us that in any interaction
between two objects, both experience a force, and these forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
 ∆p
direction. We can write Newton’s second law as F = , and substitute this into Newton’s third law:
∆t
 
 ∆p ∆p 
FA on B = B = − A = − FB on A
∆t ∆t
This tells us that in any interaction between two objects, A and B, the change in momentum of A
is equal but opposite to the change in momentum of B. As the time during which the interaction takes
place must be the same for both objects,
 
∆pA = −∆pB
or
 
∆pA + ∆pB = 0

154 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 which is simply saying that in any interaction between two objects, the total change in momentum is

knilbeW
zero. Hence, Newton’s third law is really a statement of conservation of momentum.
This is true for any number of interacting objects, as we can consider the interactions pair-wise. For The Chicxulub
crater and the
example, an interaction between objects A, B and C can be considered to be an interaction between A extinction of
dinosaurs
and B, an interaction between B and C and an interaction between A and C.
What evidence is
In any interaction, the total momentum is conserved. Hence, in an isolated system, the total there that the last
of the dinosaurs
momentum is constant. were wiped out by
a giant meteorite?

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.2

A 1.5 kg maths textbook falls through a height of 2.0 m when it is dropped out a window. The book falls
as a result of its interaction with Earth (mediated by Earth’s gravitational field). Assume the book starts
at rest and ignore air resistance.
1 What is the change in momentum of the book due to the fall?
2 What is the change in momentum of Earth?
3 What is the change in speed of Earth?

ANSWERS LOGIC
−1
1 mb= 1.5 kg; ∆h = 2.0 m; ub = 0.0 m s ; vb = ? •• Identify the relevant data from the question.
We can use either kinematics or conservation of
energy to solve this part. First we find vb, then we
multiply it by mb to get ∆pb.
  •• Write the equation for conservation of energy.
∑ Einitial = ∑ Efinal

1 •• Expand the equation, noting that ub = 0.

mb g∆h = mb v b2
2
•• Rearrange for vb.
v b = 2 g∆h

•• Write the expression for change in momentum, noting that

∆pb = mb v b = mb 2 g∆h ub = 0.0 m s−1.
•• Substitute in known values with units.
( )
= 1.5 kg 2 9.8 m s −2 ( 2.0 m)

= 9.39 kg m s−1 •• Calculate the final value.

−1
∆pb = 9.4 kg m s •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
2 Momentum is conserved in any interaction. •• Write the expression for conservation of momentum.
 
∆pb = −∆pEarth
∆pEarth = −9.4 kg m s−1
3 ∆pEarth = mEarth ∆vEarth •• Relate the momentum change to the change in speed.

∆pEarth •• Rearrange for ∆vEarth.

∆v Earth =
mEarth

mEarth = 5.97 × 1024 kg •• Look up unknown data.

•• Substitute in known values with units.
−9.4 kg m s −1  
∆v Earth =
5.97 × 10 24 kg
= −1.57 × 10−24 m s−1 •• Calculate the final value.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 155

 ANSWERS LOGIC

∆vEarth = −1.6 × 10−24 m s−1 •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
The negative sign indicates that this change in
velocity is opposite to that of the book.
This value is so small that we cannot observe
changes in Earth’s velocity due to its interactions
with everyday things.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

The meteor that hit Earth, leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs, probably had a mass of around 1015 kg. Calculate the
change in Earth’s velocity due to the collision with the meteor if it was moving at 10 m s−1 when it hit. Take Earth’s initial
velocity as zero.

INVESTIGATION 6.1

Conservation of momentum in one dimension

In this investigation, you will analyse the interaction of two objects in one dimension using the
concept of momentum.

AIM
Formulate a hypothesis that you can test and use it to write an aim for your investigation.

MATERIALS

•• 2 dynamics trolley cars

Critical and •• Weighing scale
creative
thinking •• Motion-sensor and data-logger
•• Spring with loops at each end
Numeracy
•• String
•• Scissors
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
The spring may flick back or flick an object into a Wear safety glasses when working with springs.
person’s eye.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Weigh the two dynamics trolleys cars.

2 Tie the two trolleys together using string with a compressed spring between them, as shown in
Figure 6.2. Position the motion-sensors so you can make velocity measurements for each car.
3 The cars should start at rest. Release the cars by cutting the string holding them together.
4 Measure and record the velocities of each trolley car after the cutting of the string. Repeat this at
least three times using the same spring and compression, ∆x, each time.

156 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Motion-sensor String
and spring

Spring under tension

and trolleys joined with
string that can be cut Motion-sensor

FIGURE 6.2  The set-up for the experiment

RESULTS
Record the mass of each car.
Record your measured velocities in a table as shown. Include the uncertainty in each measurement.

v OF CAR A p OF CAR A v OF CAR B p OF CAR B Δp OF THE

(m s−1) (kg m s−1) (m s−1) (kg m s−1) SYSTEM (kg m s−1)
TRIAL 1

TRIAL 2

AVERAGE

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Find the momentum of each of the two trolley cars after the string is cut for each trial. Make sure you
clearly define a positive and negative direction for v and p. Remember to calculate the uncertainty in the
momentum.
2 If the cars started at rest, their initial momentum was zero. Find the change in the momentum of the
system for each trial.
3 Calculate the average value for the momentum of each car and the change in momentum of the
car–spring system. You can use the range of measurements to find the uncertainty in the average value.

DISCUSSION

1 Was your hypothesis supported? If not, was there an approximation that you made that wasn’t valid?
2 What was the main source of uncertainty in your investigation – was it the precision of the equipment, or
your ability to have the same initial conditions (e.g. string length) each time?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

In more than one dimension, we can apply the law of conservation of momentum in each dimension
separately:
∑ pinitial, x = ∑ pfinal, x and ∑ pinitial, y = ∑ pfinal, y

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 157

 WORKED EXAMPLE 6.3

In a game of pool, the cue ball, moving with initial velocity 3.0 m s−1 N30oW, hits the stationary red ball.
The red ball moves off with speed 2.5 m s−1 N45oW. Calculate the speed and direction of the cue ball’s
recoil. The balls have the same mass.

ANSWER LOGIC

mc = mr •• Identify the relevant data from the question.

Before collision:
uc = 3.0 m s−1 N30°W; ur = 0.0 m s−1
After collision:
vr = 2.5 m s−1 N45°W; vc = ?
a ur 5 0 •• Draw a diagram showing the system a before and b after.
uc, x 5 3.0 m s21 sin 30°

uc, y 5 3.0 m s21 cos 30°

uc 5 3.0 m s21
30°

b vr, x = 2.5 m s–1 sin 45°

vr, y = 2.5 m s–1 cos 45°

vr = 2.5 m s–1 45°

vc vc, y

0
vc, x

FIGURE 6.3  a Before the collision, showing

the velocity of the cue ball decomposed into
components; b After the collision, showing
the velocity of the cue ball and the red ball
decomposed into components

∑ pinitial, x = ∑ pfinal, x •• Write the equation for conservation of momentum in the

x direction.
pc, initial, x + pr, initial, x = pc, final, x + pr, final, x
•• Write the equation for this interaction.
mc uc, x + mr ur, x = mc vc, x + mr,vr, x

uc, x = vc ,x+ vr, x •• Simplify the equation, noting that mc = mr and ur = 0.

vc, x = uc, x − vr, x •• Rearrange for vc, x
−1 −1
vc, x = (−3.0 m s sin 30°) − (−2.5 m s sin 45°) •• Substitute in known values with units, noting that west is
the negative x direction.
vc, x = 0.268 m s−1 •• Calculate the answer.

pc, initial, y + pr, initial, y = pc, final, y + pr, final, y •• Write the equation for this interaction in the y direction.

mc uc, y + mr ur, y = mc vc, y + mr,vr, y

uc, y = vc, y + vr, y •• Simplify the equation, noting that mc = mr and ur = 0.
vc, y = uc, y − vr, y •• Rearrange for vc, y.

158 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC
−1 −1
vc, y = (3.0 m s cos 30°) − (2.5 m s cos 45°) •• Substitute in known values with units, noting that north is
in the positive y direction.
vc, y = 0.830 m s−1 •• Calculate the answer.
•• Write the expression for the total velocity.
(vc, x ) + (vc, y )
2 2
vc =

•• Substitute in known values with units.

(0.268 m s−1 ) + (0.830 m s−1 )
2 2
vc =

vc = 0.87 m s−1 •• Calculate the answer.

vc, y •• Write the expression for the angle.

tan θ =    
vc, x

•• Substitute in known values with units.

0.830 m s −1
tan θ =
0.268 m s −1
 θ = 72° •• Calculate the answer.
−1
 vc = 0.87 m s , N18°E •• State the final answer with correct units, direction and
significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Continuing on from Worked example 6.3, imagine that someone has stuck a lump of blu-tack to the red
ball so that when the cue ball hits it, they move off stuck together. Calculate the velocity of the two balls
immediately after the collision in this case.

INVESTIGATION 6.2

Collisions in two dimensions Critical and

creative
thinking
AIM
Numeracy
To describe and analyse interactions in two dimensions
Write an inquiry question for your investigation. Information and
communication
technology
MATERIALS
capability
•• 2 billiard balls of different colours
•• Large sheet of paper (butcher’s paper)
•• Tape
•• Pencil or marker
•• Webcam with stand (e.g. retort stand), or phone with selfie-stick
•• Stopwatch
•• Weighing scale

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 159

 ! WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
RISK
ASSESSMENT
Billiard balls can hurt your foot if they fall on it. Wear enclosed shoes.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Weigh the two billiard balls.

2.15s
2 Draw a grid on your butcher’s paper, with
lines spaced 1 cm apart. Make every fifth line a
different colour to make it easier to read.
3 Tape the paper to the bench. Make a mark
approximately in the middle of the paper. This
will be the starting position for the first ball. Target ball
4 Place the stopwatch face up on the paper.
5 Mount the camera looking down at the paper
so it has as large a field of view as possible.
The view through the camera should look like
Figure 6.4. Note that you need to be able to
read the stopwatch in the recording. Incoming ball

6 Place the first ball on the mark.

7 Start the stopwatch and start the camera FIGURE 6.4  The view of the experiment, as seen by the
recording. webcam

8 Gently roll the second ball towards the first so

that it collides.
9 Repeat steps 6–8. Try to roll the second ball with the same path and initial speed. Note that this is very
difficult!

RESULTS
You should have a video of the collision. The stopwatch reading on the video will allow you to calculate the
time differences between selected frames.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Choose two frames before the collision. Use the grid markings to calculate the change in position, ∆x and
∆y, of the second (incoming) ball. Use the stopwatch reading to calculate the time difference, ∆t.
2 Choose two frames after the collision. Use the grid markings to calculate the change in position, ∆x and ∆y,
of both balls. Use the stopwatch reading to calculate the time difference, ∆t.
3 Estimate the uncertainty in your data.
4 Record your data in a table.

BALL 2 (INCOMING) BALL 2 (OUTGOING) BALL 1 (TARGET)

∆x (m)

vx (m s−1)

px (kg m s−1)

∆y (m)

vy (m s−1)

py (kg m s−1)

160 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 5 Use your measurements of time, position and mass to calculate velocities and momenta to complete the
This investigation
table. could be
extended to a
DISCUSSION depth study by
using a variety
1 Was momentum conserved in this collision, within the bounds of your uncertainties? Is it a valid of different
approximation to treat the balls as an isolated system? types of balls
to model elastic
2 Give the answer to your inquiry question. and inelastic
collisions.
CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

 
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Momentum is the product of mass and velocity: p = mv .

●● Momentum is a vector quantity.

●● Momentum is conserved in any isolated system: ∑ p = constant.
●● Newton’s third law is a statement of conservation of momentum. It says that in any interaction
   
∆pB ∆p  
between two objects, FA on B = = − A = − FB on A, so DpA = − Dp B.
∆t ∆t

CHECK YOUR
1 Define ‘momentum’. Distinguish between the everyday usage of the word momentum and the UNDERSTANDING
physics usage.
2 Your PE teacher throws a tennis ball to you and you 6.1
catch it. Next, the teacher is going to throw a medicine
ball to you. The teacher gives you the choice of having
it thrown with the same speed as the tennis ball, or the
same momentum. Which would you choose? Justify y
your answer. Vf
3 A 58 g tennis ball has a momentum of 0.87 kg m s−1.
Calculate the speed of the ball.
4 Imagine you are standing on an icy surface, so there 20 m s21
is no friction between your feet and the ground. You
throw a 58 g tennis ball with a speed of 12 m s−1. u
x
Calculate the speed with which you recoil if you have a
mass of 55 kg. 15 m s21
5 A four-wheel drive (mass 2500 kg) travelling north at
15 m s −1 collides with a car (mass 1500 kg) travelling east at
20 m s−1, as shown in Figure 6.5. The vehicles stick together.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the
wreckage immediately after the crash.
6 A slow-moving car and a fast-moving cyclist have
the same momentum. Which has the greater kinetic FIGURE 6.5
energy? Explain your answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 161

 Momentum and energy in elastic
6.2 collisions

Momentum is conserved in any interaction, as is energy. But unlike momentum, energy can change
forms. When there is a collision between objects, the total momentum of the objects before the collision
must be equal to the total momentum afterwards. However, the total kinetic energy afterwards may not
be equal to the total kinetic energy before.
Weblink
Sling-shot
manoeuvre When the total kinetic energy is the same before and after the collision, we call it an elastic collision.
Find out how the For an elastic collision:
∑ Ek, before = ∑ Ek, after or ∑ 1 mv 2before = ∑ 1 mv after
Voyager space craft 2
gained momentum
from elastic ‘collisions’. 2 2
and
   
∑ pbefore = ∑ pafter or ∑ mv before = ∑ mvafter
Very few real collisions are elastic. In almost all collisions, some
energy is transformed to other forms including thermal energy and
Shutterstock.com/O.V.D

sound. However, we can model a collision as elastic if the amount of

energy transformed from kinetic to other forms is small compared
with the total kinetic energy.
A Newton’s cradle toy demonstrates (approximately) elastic
collisions between steel balls, as shown in Figure 6.6. When you lift
one ball to the side and release it, the ball swings down and collides
with the next ball. Momentum and energy are transferred along the
line of balls to the last one, which swings upwards. When that ball
swings back down and collides with the previous ball, momentum
and energy are transferred back in the other direction again.
A perfectly elastic collision can occur only when no friction is
involved, and no energy is lost as heat or sound. This is possible when
the interaction takes place via field forces rather than contact forces.
FIGURE 6.6  A Newton’s cradle toy
A gravitational sling-shot manoeuvre is an example of this.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.4

In a particle accelerator, a proton collides with a second proton in a head-on elastic collision. The first
proton has a speed of 1.3 × 106 m s−1 to the right, and the second proton is also moving right but with a
speed of 2.5 × 105 m s−1. Calculate the speeds of the two protons after the collision.

ANSWER LOGIC
6 −1 5 −1
mp1 = mp2 = mp; u1 = 1.3 × 10  m s ; u2 = 2.5 × 10  m s •• Identify the relevant data from the question.
We want to find v1 and v2.
  •• Identify the equation for conservation of momentum.
∑ pbefore = ∑ pafter

mp u1 + mp u2 = mp v1 + mp v 2 •• Expand the equation.

u1 + u2 = v1 + v 2 •• Simplify the equation.

162 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

u1 − v1 = v 2 − u2 •• Group terms by particle.

•• We have one equation but two unknowns, so we need more
information.

∑ Ek, before = ∑ Ek, after •• Write the equation for kinetic energy.

1 1 1 1 •• Expand the equation.

mp u12 + mp u22 = mp v12 + mp v 22
2 2 2 2
•• Simplify the equation.
u12 + u22 = v12 + v 22

•• Group terms by particle.

u12 − v12 = v 22 − u22

•• Factorise each side.

(u1 − v1 )(u1 + v1 ) = (v 2 − u2 )(v 2 + u2 )
•• Now we combine this equation with the conservation of
(u1 − v1 )(u1 + v1 ) (v 2 − u2 )(v 2 + u2 )
= momentum equation.
(u1 − v1 ) ( v 2 − u2 )
•• Divide the energy equation by the momentum equation.

u1 + v1 = v 2 + u2 •• Simplify the equation.

v1 = v 2 + u2 − u1 •• Rearrange for v1

u1 + u2 = v1 + v 2 = v 2 + u2 − u1 + v 2 •• Substitute into momentum equation.

u1 = v 2 •• Simplify the equation.

u1 + v1 = v 2 + u2 = u1 + u2 •• Substitute u1 = v2 back into u1 + v1 = v2 + u2

v1 = u2 •• Simplify.

The two protons have swapped velocities: •• Write the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
5 −1 6 −1
v1 = u2 = 2.5 × 10  m s and v2 = u1 = 1.3 × 10  m s

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Repeat the calculation in Worked example 6.4 but with the second proton replaced by a helium nucleus,
which has a mass equal to that of four protons.

From Worked example 6.4 we can derive the two very useful equations:
m1u1 + m2 u2 = m1v1 + m2 v 2

u1 + v1 = v 2 + u2
These two equations can be used when analysing elastic collisions.
The first equation is a statement of conservation of momentum for the two-object collision, so applies
to any collision.
The second equation only applies to elastic collisions, because we assumed that kinetic energy was
conserved to derive it. Note that while we assumed equal masses, this equation is also true if the masses
are not equal. You can show this by doing the ‘try this yourself ’ question.
A useful approximation can be made when one object is very much larger than the other, such
that m2 >> m1. An example is when an object such as a ball collides with the surface of Earth. In this
case, the momentum of Earth before and after the collision is not measurably different, so we can
say that u2 = v2 and v1 = v2 + u2 − u1 = 2u2 − u1. If we take the velocity of Earth’s surface to be zero,
which is appropriate for a person standing on Earth’s surface and bouncing a ball, then v1 = −u1.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 163

 So, for a completely elastic collision with a very much larger object, the small object reverses direction
WS and bounces off with the same speed. The large object is unaffected.
Worksheets
Elastic collisions
Homework
We can also use the equation v1 = 2u2 − u1 to understand how a gravitational sling-shot manoeuvre
in 2D works. The spacecraft is object 1, with initial speed u1. It approaches a planet moving at u2 and swings
close to it through its gravitational field (without coming into contact and crashing). It swings through
the gravitational field and away again at speed v1 = 2u2 − u1. Planets move very fast in their orbits ( for
example, the orbital speed of Earth is about 30 km s−1, or 3 × 105 m s−1), so a sling-shot manoeuvre about
Earth could change the speed of a spacecraft by 6 × 105 m s−1.

INVESTIGATION 6.3

Elastic collisions
Critical and
creative
thinking AIM
To investigate approximately elastic collisions in one dimension
Numeracy
Write a hypothesis for your investigation.
Information and
communication MATERIALS
technology
capability •• Steel ball bearings
•• Weighing scales
•• Marker
•• Containers for ball bearings
•• Motion-sensors with data-loggers OR 3 stopwatches OR webcam and a stopwatch
•• Flat track (for the ball bearings to run along)

! WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
RISK
ASSESSMENT Ball bearings are hard and can cause damage. Do not roll the ball bearings at high speeds.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Select some ball bearings and weigh them. If the weights are different, make sure you mark them or put
them in labelled containers.
2 Set up your equipment so you can measure the speed of the ball bearings before and after the collision, or
the times taken for each ball to move a measured distance.
3 Place the target ball bearing at its position.
4 Begin recording, or have everyone ready to use their stopwatches.
5 Roll the incoming ball bearing towards the target.
6 Record times/speeds for the incoming ball bearing before and after the collision, and for the target after the collision.
7 Repeat steps 3–6.

RESULTS

1 You should have either speeds for each ball bearing before and after the collision, or times taken to travel
known distances.
2 Estimate the uncertainty in your data.
3 Record your data in a table.

164 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INCOMING BALL (BEFORE) INCOMING BALL (AFTER) TARGET BALL (AFTER)
∆x (m)

∆t (s)

v (m s−1)

px (kg m s−1)

Ek (kg m2 s−2)

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

•• Use your measurements of time, position and mass to complete the table.
•• Calculate the total momentum of the system of ball bearings before and after the collision. Calculate the
uncertainty in this value.
•• Calculate the total kinetic energy of the system of ball bearings before and after the collision. Calculate the
uncertainty in this value.

DISCUSSION

1 Was momentum conserved in this collision, within the bounds of your uncertainties?
2 Was kinetic energy conserved in this collision, within the bounds of your uncertainties?
3 Is the elastic-collisions model an appropriate one for the collision of steel ball bearings?
4 Was your hypothesis supported?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● In all collisions, momentum is conserved.

●● In an elastic collision, no kinetic energy is transformed to other forms.
1 1  
●● For an elastic collision: ∑ E k, before = ∑ E k, after or ∑ mv 2before = ∑ mv after
2 , and ∑ p before = ∑ pafter
  2 2
or ∑ mv = ∑ mv
before
. after
●● These two equations can be used when analysing elastic collisions: m1u1 + m2u2 = m1u1 + m2u2
and u1 + v1 = v 2 + u2 .

CHECK YOUR
1 Define  ‘elastic collision’  and give an example of a collision that is elastic and one that is not. UNDERSTANDING
2 A blue and a red billiard ball of equal mass roll directly towards each other at 2.0 m s−1, as shown in
Figure 6.7. Describe the motion of the balls after the collision, including their speeds. Assume that the 6.2
collision is elastic.

2.0 m s 21 2.0 m s 21 1.8 m s 21 1.8 m s 21

Blue Red Blue Red

Before colliding After colliding

FIGURE 6.7  Two billiard balls involved in an elastic collision

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 165

 3 A neutron makes an elastic collision with a carbon nucleus, which has 12 times its mass. The carbon
nucleus is initially at rest and the neutron is travelling at 1.5 × 107 m s−1.
a Assuming a one-dimensional collision, calculate the speed at which each particle is moving after the
collision.
b Calculate the fraction of its kinetic energy that the neutron has transferred to the carbon nucleus.
4 Marcus throws a bouncy superball directly downwards. He throws it so it has an initial speed of 5.0 m s−2
from a height of 1.5 m.
a Calculate the speed with which the ball hits the ground.
b Calculate the speed at which the ball rebounds.
c Calculate the maximum height the ball reaches.
d State all the assumptions you have made.
5 A spacecraft of mass 500 kg is using a gravity-assist (sling-shot) manoeuvre to gain kinetic energy. The
spacecraft approaches Mercury with a speed of 3.5 km s−1, and moves away after the interaction with a speed
of 110 km s−1. Modelling the interaction of the spacecraft with Mercury as a one-dimensional elastic collision:
a calculate the orbital speed of Mercury.
b calculate the kinetic energy of the spacecraft before and after the sling-shot manoeuvre.
c explain where the change in kinetic energy came from.
6 A Newton’s cradle toy has five identical steel balls. Demonstrate that it is not possible to have one ball swing in to
collide, and two balls swing out at the other end as a result. Assume the collisions are elastic and show that if two
balls swing out such that momentum is conserved, kinetic energy cannot also be conserved

6.3  Impulse
Imagine hitting a golf ball with a golf club. The ball starts at rest, and after the collision with the golf
club it is moving – it has gained kinetic energy. This energy has been transferred to the ball by the club,
because the club applies a force through a distance, and hence does work on the ball.
In chapter 5, you saw that a graph of force as a function of distance gave the quantity work. Recall that
when a force, F, acts on an object through some distance, ∆s, then
an amount of energy W = ∆E = (F||s = Fscos θ ) is transferred to the
iStock.com/ArtBoyMB

object. This amount of energy is the area under the curve on an F vs

s graph (see Figure 5.17 on page 137).
Consider Newton’s second law, written in terms of momentum
as in section 6.1: 
 Dp
Fnet =  
Dt
We can rearrange this equation to find the change in momentum
of an object when a force acts on it:
 
∆ p = Fnet ∆t
We call this quantity impulse and give it the symbol I.
  
I = ∆ p = Fnet ∆t
FIGURE 6.8  The golf club transfers kinetic energy to the golf ball
Impulse is a vector quantity and has the same units as
momentum, kg m s−1.

Graphical representations of force as a function of time

Impulse can be found from a force versus time graph in the same way that work can be found from a
force versus distance graph. As shown in Figure 6.9, the impulse is the area under the F vs t graph.

166 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 When a constant force in the direction of motion acts on Force

knilbeW
an object for a time interval, the graph of force versus time is a The area under this graph
straight line, as shown in Figure 6.9. The impulse, I, is the area is equal to Ft (the impulse
or change in momentum). Isaac Newton
under the F vs t graph, which in this case is the rectangle with F
and the
invention of
area I = Ft. calculus
When the force varies, we need to break up the area into small I = Ft The process of
breaking the area
sections. We make the approximation that each small section is under a curve
into lots of tiny
a rectangle of size F∆t. We then add up all the individual sections t Time sections is the
to find the total area, and hence the total impulse. This process is basis of integration,
one of the two
shown in Figure 6.10. FIGURE 6.9  Impulse is the area under main processes of
the F vs t graph. calculus. Find out
how this process
works.

a Force b Force
WS

ForceWorksheets
against time
Homework

F1

Time Time
∆t

FIGURE 6.10  a Break the area into small sections of width ∆t, each with area approximately F∆t. b The total impulse
(change in momentum) is given by the sum of these small areas, which is the area under the curve.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.5

A golf ball is hit by a golf club with a long ‘follow-through’. The force applied to the ball as a function of
time during the collision can be approximated by the curve shown in Figure 6.11. Calculate the impulse
transferred to the ball.

250 N

0.01 s 0.06 s 0.07 s t

FIGURE 6.11  Force acting on a golf ball during a hit

with a long follow-through.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 167

 ANSWER LOGIC

F •• The impulse is the area under the F vs t curve. Calculate this area by
breaking the curve into three sections, as shown in Figure 6.12.
•• Find the area of each section and sum them to find the total area.
250 N

A B C

0.01 s 0.06 s 0.07 s t

FIGURE 6.12  Break the area into three sections: A, B

and C

Fmax = 250 N; ∆tA = 0.01s •• Find the area for section A.

•• Identify the relevant data from the graph.

1 •• Write the equation for impulse.

I A = area = Fmax ∆t A
  2

1 •• Substitute in known values with correct units.

I A = ( 250 N )( 0.01 s )
  2
IA = 1.25 N s •• Calculate the value of I for area A.
Fmax = 250 N; ∆tB = (0.06 s − 0.01 s) = 0.05 s •• Find the area for section B.
•• Identify the relevant data from the graph.

I B = area = Fmax ∆t B •• Write the equation for impulse.

 
I B = ( 250 N )( 0.05 s ) •• Substitute in known values with correct units.

IB = 12.5 N s •• Calculate the value of I for area B.

Fmax = 250 N; ∆tC = (0.07 s − 0.06 s) = 0.01 s •• Find the area for section C.
•• Identify the relevant data from the graph.

1 •• Write the equation for impulse.

I C = area = Fmax ∆tC
2

1 •• Substitute in known values with correct units.

I C = ( 250 N )( 0.01 s )
2
IC = 1.25 N s •• Calculate the value of I for area C.
 Itotal = IA + IB+ IC •• Write the expression for the total impulse.
= 1.25 N s + 12.5 N s + 1.25 N s •• Substitute in known values with correct units.
= 15 N s •• Calculate the value.
−1
 Itotal = 15 kg m s •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
•• Note that either N s or kg m s−1 are appropriate units for impulse.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate the speed of the golf ball immediately after it is hit if it starts at rest and has a mass of 45 g.
2 Imagine there was no follow-through in this swing, such that the middle rectangular section was
missing from the curve. Calculate the impulse and final speed for this case.

168 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 The forces involved in collisions and other interactions
We can use the concept of impulse to analyse the forces that act during collisions and other interactions.
The equation:
  
I = ∆ p = Fnet ∆t
tells us that the change in momentum of an object depends on the force that is exerted on it, and how long
the force is exerted for. In Worked example 6.5, the follow-through of the club is important in achieving a
high speed of the golf ball. Keeping the club in contact with the ball, so that the force is exerted for longer,
results in a larger transfer of momentum.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.6

The coefficient of static friction between the tyres of Kate’s car and the road is 0.75. The car has a mass of
1950 kg. Calculate the minimum 0–100 km h−1 acceleration time for Kate’s car, assuming it is limited only by
the maximum friction force.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1 −1
µs = 0.75; m = 1950 kg; u = 0 km h ; v = 100 km h . •• Identify the relevant data from the question.
We want to find ∆t.
•• Convert data to SI units.
u = 0 km h −1 = 0 m s −1
1000 m km−1
v = 100 km h −1 × = 27.8 m s −1
3600 s h −1
  •• Write the equation for impulse.
I = ∆p = F ∆ t

∆p •• Rearrange for time taken.

∆t =
F
F = Ffriction, max = µsN = µsmg •• Write the expression for F.

∆p ∆p •• Substitute the expression for force into the equation for ∆t.
∆t = =
F µs mg

∆p = mv − mu = mv •• Write the expression for ∆p, and simplify, recognising that

u = 0.

∆p mv •• Substitute the expression for ∆p into the equation for ∆t.

∆t = =
µs mg µs mg

v •• Simplify the equation.

∆t =
µs g

•• Substitute in known values with units.

27.8 m s−1
∆t =
0.75 × 9.8 m s−2
 ∆t = 3.78 s •• Calculate the answer.
 ∆t = 3.8 s •• State the final answer with correct units and significant
figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

In reality, Kate’s car does not have a powerful enough engine to achieve this acceleration. If the 0–100 km h−1
time is actually 8.5 s, what average force do the tyres exert against the road?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 169

 Forces and impulse in car crashes
In 2016, 1298 people were killed on Australian roads compared with 3403 in 1980. This decrease is even
more significant when you consider the increase in the number of cars on the road. In 1980, there were 43
fatalities for every 100 000 cars on the road. In 2016, there were around 4.5 for every 100 000 cars – almost
a factor of 10 decrease.
One reason for the decrease is the change in road rules and driver behaviour, including reducing
speed limits and reducing alcohol consumption of drivers. Another important reason is better car design.
Weblink
Why should you Cars now have safety features including seatbelts, airbags and crumple zones.
wear a seat belt? When a car collides with another large object and comes to a sudden stop, a rapid deceleration
Watch the video. Wear
your seat belt for occurs. Newton’s first law tells us that the occupants of the car will continue with the same velocity
every trip – no matter unless a force acts on them. A seatbelt provides this force, slowing the occupants with the vehicle. When
how short, and how
low the speed. a car crash occurs and a passenger is not wearing a seat belt, they can be thrown from the car through the
windscreen, or hit something or someone else inside the car. This is much more likely to result in death
or serious injuries. Wearing a seatbelt also means that the force is applied to the occupant across the
strongest parts of the body – the chest and hips. Seatbelts are designed to stretch a small amount, which
also assists in decreasing the maximum force applied to the wearer while the impulse is transferred
Weblink
during the collision. The three-point seatbelt was invented by engineers at Volvo in 1959, and is now used
Crumple zones
in all road cars.
Read more about how
crumple zones work A more recently introduced safety feature is the crumple zone. Figure 6.13 shows how the crumple
zone at the front of a car crumples on impact with a rigid object.
When a car comes to a sudden stop during a
crash, the impulse transferred to the passengers
Alamy Stock Photo/CTK

is their change in momentum. This is given by

I = ∆p = Fnet∆t. Given that ∆p is fixed, if the time, ∆t,
is increased, then the force exerted is decreased.
By increasing the time that the collision takes, we
decrease the force exerted on the passengers. This
is what a crumple zone does. A crumple zone is a
specially designed area surrounding the passenger
compartment that is designed to crumple in a
collision. Allowing the front of the car to crumple
FIGURE 6.13  The crumple zone at the front of the car increases the time taken for the increases the time taken for the car to stop. This
collision, thus reducing the force acting on the occupants.
decreases the forces applied to the occupants.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.7

A car travelling at 90 km h−1 collides with a rock wall and comes to a stop in 0.08 s. Assuming the
car decelerates at a constant rate, calculate the force applied to a 60 kg occupant who does not move
relative to the vehicle.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
m = 60 kg; u = 90 km h ; v = 0; ∆t = 0.08 s •• Identify the relevant data from the question.
We want to find Fnet.
•• Convert data to SI units.
v = 0 m s−1
1000 m km−1
u = 90 km h −1 × = 25 m s−1
3600 s h −1

170 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC
  •• Write the equation for impulse.
I = ∆p = Fnet ∆t

•• Rearrange for the force.

∆p
Fnet =
∆t

∆p = mv − mu = −mu •• Write the expression for ∆p, and simplify, recognising that
v = 0.

∆p −mu •• Substitute the expression for ∆p into the equation for ∆t.
Fnet = =
∆t ∆t

(60 kg ) (−25 m s−1 ) •• Substitute in known values with units.

Fnet =
0.08 s
 Fnet = −18750 N •• Calculate the answer.
 Fnet = −19 kN •• State the final answer with correct units and significant
figures.
The negative sign tells us that this force is acting in the
opposite direction to the motion. The magnitude of the force
is more than 30 times the gravitational force experienced by
the person.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Continuing on from the example, calculate the average force exerted on this passenger if the car had a
better crumple zone that increased the time taken for the collision to 0.2 s.

Airbags, or supplemental restraint systems

Alamy Stock Photo/Photo Network/Tom Tracy

(SRS), were introduced into cars in the 1980s.
Front airbags, as shown in Figure 6.14, are

knilbeW
designed to increase the time taken for an
occupant to decelerate. They also spread the Safety features
of cars
force applied to the passenger more evenly. Later Find out how
developments, including side and curtain airbags, much the various
safety features of
prevent an occupant’s head making an impact a car contribute to
preventing injury
with hard parts of the car during collisions other during a crash.
than front-on collisions. In every case, the time
taken to effect a change in momentum (the
impulse) is increased so that the maximum force FIGURE 6.14  Front airbags spread the force applied to a
applied to any part of an occupant is decreased. passenger during a collision, as well as decreasing it.

INVESTIGATION 6.4

Crash safety
Critical and
creative
Some of the safety features of modern cars have been described. Your job in this investigation is to research thinking
and design a capsule to protect an egg during a collision. The collision occurs when the egg, in its capsule,
is dropped from a height to collide with the ground. Literacy

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 171

 AIM
To design, build and crash-test an egg capsule

MATERIAL

•• Eggs* (raw or boiled)

•• Materials to make the egg capsule – for example foam, plastic containers, tape, string, balloons.
•• Tools to manufacture the egg capsule
•• Tape measure
*Note: results are more dramatic, but messier, when raw eggs are used. Check with your teacher what is best to use.
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT

What risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Do some research to find out more about safety features in modern cars. You might also choose to look at
the design of bicycle helmets.
2 Design your egg capsule. Note that it needs to be reusable – it must be possible to remove the egg to
check for cracking without destroying the capsule. No parachutes are allowed.
3 Justify your design. Explain the purpose of each feature, and describe how you expect it to contribute
to protecting your egg. Record this in a design summary document. Include diagrams, and refer to the
concepts of impulse and force.
4 Build your egg capsule.
5 Place your egg in the capsule. Drop the egg and capsule from a height of 30 cm.
6 Remove the egg and check for cracking.
7 Replace the egg and drop it from 10 cm higher than the previous trial.
8 Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the egg is cracked. Dispose of the egg appropriately.

RESULTS
Record the drop height at which the egg cracked.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Compare the results for your egg capsule to other students’ capsules.
2 What are the features of the most successful designs?
3 What was missing from the least successful designs?
4 Make recommendations for future egg-capsule design based on your analysis.

CONCLUSIONS
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

  
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Impulse is the change in momentum of an object when it is acted on by a force: I = Dp = Fnet Dt .

WS
●● Impulse is a vector quantity and has the same units as momentum, kg m s−1.
Worksheets
Seatbelts
Homeworkand ●● Impulse can be found from a force versus time graph in the same way that work can be found
airbags from a force versus distance graph. Impulse is the area under the curve of an F vs t graph.
●● For a given force, the longer the force is applied, the greater the change in momentum.
●● For a given change in momentum, the longer the interaction time, the smaller the force exerted
on the object.
●● Seatbelts protect you during a collision by ensuring you decelerate as the car does. Other safety
features such as crumple zones decrease the force applied by increasing the collision time.

172 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 CHECK YOUR
1 Define ‘impulse’. UNDERSTANDING
2 Explain why it is desirable to have a crumple zone in a vehicle.
3 A force of 500 N is applied for 4.0 s to a 100 kg satellite in space. 6.3
a Calculate the impulse given to the satellite.
b What is the change to the satellite’s velocity?
4 A 50 kg ice skater exerts an average force of 25 N on the ice in the skater’s direction of motion for 3.0 s. The
skater’s initial speed is 4.5 m s−1.
a Calculate the skater’s final speed.
b If the force the skater applied to the ice had been 75 N, calculate how long the force needs to be
applied for the skater to reach the same speed.
5 A 58 g tennis ball travelling at 30 m s−1 to the right is struck by a tennis racquet and returned along the
same direction (Figure 6.15a). The force applied by the tennis racquet to the ball is modelled by the graph
in Figure 6.15b.
a Calculate the impulse applied to the ball.
b Calculate the speed of the ball immediately after the collision with the racquet.

a
Alamy Stock Photo/Blake Shaw

b Force (N)

200

0.015 0.030 Time (s)

FIGURE 6.15  a A tennis ball is struck by a racquet and rebounds in the opposite direction; b The F vs t graph for the tennis
ball being struck by the racquet

Momentum and energy in inelastic

6.4
collisions
Momentum is conserved in all interactions, including all collisions. Energy is also a conserved quantity,
so energy is conserved in all interactions. However, unlike momentum, energy can change forms. In most
collisions, some kinetic energy is transformed into other forms including internal energy and sound.
In section 6.2, you learned about the elastic collision model. In a perfectly elastic collision, the total
kinetic energy of the objects is the same before and after the collision. In reality, perfectly elastic collisions

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 173

 only happen when the collision is due to a field force and the objects don’t actually come into contact,
such as in interactions of subatomic particles. The elastic collision model is useful for collisions where
friction forces are small.
Most real collisions are inelastic collisions. Inelastic collisions involve a loss of kinetic energy of the
colliding objects. If sound or heat is produced, that energy must have come from somewhere – the
decrease in the objects’ kinetic energy. Energy can also be converted to potential energy in a collision; for
example, due to deformation of the objects.
A second useful model is that of the perfectly inelastic collision. A perfectly inelastic collision is when
the colliding objects stick together after the collision to form a single object.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.8

A 1.5 × 103 kg car is moving to the right at 20 m s−1 while a 5.0 × 103 kg truck is moving to the left at
10 m s−1, as shown in Figure 6.16. The car and truck collide and move off as one mass, stuck together.
1 Calculate the velocity of the wreckage immediately after the collision.
2 Calculate the percentage of kinetic energy converted to other forms.

10 m s21
20 m s21

1.5 3 103 kg 5.0 3 103 kg

FIGURE 6.16

ANSWERS LOGIC
−1
1 mcar = 1500 kg; ucar = +20 m s ; mtruck = 5000 kg; •• Identify the relevant data.
utruck = −10 m s−1
After the collision the car and truck form a single object with
mass mcar + mtruck, moving with combined speed vcar + truck.
We need to find vcar + truck.
  •• Write the general equation for conservation of
∑ pinitial = ∑ pfinal
momentum.
   •• Write the equation for this interaction.
pcar + ptruck = pcar + truck

mcar ucar + mtruck utruck = mcar + truck vcar + truck •• Expand the equation.

mcar ucar + mtruck utruck •• Rearrange for vcar + truck

vcar + truck =
mcar + truck

(1500 kg ) (20 m s−1 ) + (5000 kg ) (−10 m s−1 )

•• Substitute in known values with units.
vcar + truck =
(1500 kg + 5000 kg )
= −3.08 m s−1 •• Calculate the answer.
−1
= −3.1 m s •• State the final answer with correct sign, units and
Note that the negative sign means the combined wreckage is significant figures.
moving to the left, as we initially gave the velocity to the right
a positive sign.

174 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

2 Before the collision: •• Identify the relevant data from the question.
mcar = 1500 kg; ucar = +20 m s−1; mtruck = 5000 kg;
utruck = −10 m s−1
After collision:
mcar + truck = 6500 kg; vcar + truck = −3.08 m s−1
We need to find the fractional change in kinetic energy:
∆Ek E − Ek, after
= k, before
Ek, before Ek, before

1 •• Write the equation for kinetic energy.

Ek = mv 2
2

1 1 •• Write the expression for total kinetic energy before the

2 2
Ek, before = mcar ucar + m truck utruck collision.
  2 2

1 1 •• Substitute in known values with units.

( ) ( )
2 2
Ek, before = (1500 kg ) 20 m s−1 + m (5000 kg ) −10 m s−1
  2 2
 = 5.5 × 105 kg m2 s−2 = 5.5 × 105 J •• Calculate the answer.

1 2
•• Write the expression for total kinetic energy after the
 Ek, after = mcar + truck v car + truck collision
2
1 •• Substitute in known values with units.
 Ek, after = (6500 kg) (3.08 m s−1) 2
2
Ek, after = 3.08 × 104 kg m2 s−2 = 3.08 × 104 J •• Calculate the answer.

∆Ek Ek, before − Ek, after •• Write the expression for fractional change in kinetic
= energy.
Ek, before Ek, before

•• Substitute in known values with units.

∆Ek 5.5 × 10 5 J − 3.08 × 10 4 J
=
Ek, before 5.5 × 10 5 J

∆Ek •• Calculate the answer.

= 0.944
Ek, before

94% of the kinetic energy was transformed to other forms. •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Repeat Worked example 6.8, but replace the truck with a second car of mass 1500 kg travelling at
20 m s−1 to the left.

In Worked example 6.8, the question asks about immediately after the collision. This is because the car and
truck cannot be modelled as an isolated system. The road exerts significant forces on them, particularly after WS

the collision, changing the momentum of the car and truck system. However, during the very small time that the Worksheets
Using
Homework

collision is actually taking place, the forces that the car and truck exert on each other are much, much greater approximations in
rocket motion
than the forces due to anything else. Hence, just for those moments, we can reasonably make the approximation
that the only significant interactions are between the car and truck.
In Worked example 6.8, you should also have noted that the fraction of kinetic energy converted
to other forms was very large. This is typically the case with vehicle collisions where initial speeds can
be quite high but the final speed is typically much lower. Vehicle collisions are always inelastic, and
sometimes perfectly inelastic. Other examples of perfectly inelastic collisions include meteorite impacts
with Earth and a person catching a ball.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 175

 Subatomic particles can have both perfectly elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions. For example, a neutron
can be captured by a nucleus in a perfectly inelastic collision, or be scattered in an elastic collision.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.9

In the Open Pool Australian Light water

Newspix/Alan Pryke
reactor, OPAL (Figure 6.17), a neutron
is emitted into the pool with a speed of
1.5 × 105 m s−1 where it collides with a
hydrogen nucleus in the water. Assume the
hydrogen nucleus is initially at rest.
1 Model the collision as perfectly elastic
such that the neutron is scattered, and
calculate the speeds of the two particles
after the collision.
2 Model the collision as perfectly inelastic
such that the two particles bind to form
a deuterium nucleus, and calculate the FIGURE 6.17  The Open Pool Australian Light water (OPAL)
speed of this deuterium nucleus. reactor in Sydney

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 un = 1.5 × 105 m s−1, up = 0; we want to find vn and vp •• Identify the relevant data from the question.
A hydrogen nucleus is a single proton. •• Look up other data required.
Given that speed is only given to two significant figures, we •• Make sensible approximations.
will make the approximation that mp = mn = 1.67 × 10−27 kg
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2v2 •• Write the equation for conservation of momentum.
un = vp + vn •• Simplify, given mp = mn and up = 0.
vp = un − vn •• Rearrange for vp.
u1 + v1 = v2 + u2 •• Write the second equation for elastic collisions.
un + vn = vp •• Simplify, given up = 0
vn = vp − un •• Rearrange for vn.
vn = vp − un = un − vn − un •• Substitute in the expression for vp.
vn = 0 •• Solve for vn.
vp = un − vn = un − 0 = un •• Substitute into the expression for vp and simplify.
vn = 0, vp = un = 1.5 × 105 m s−1. •• State the final answer with correct units and significant
figures.
2 m1 u1, + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2v2 •• Write the equation for conservation of momentum.
mn un = (mn + mp) vp + n = 2mn vp + n •• Simplify, given mp = mn, up = 0 and the collision is
perfectly inelastic.
1 •• Rearrange for vp + n.
v p + n = un
2
•• Substitute in known values and calculate answer.
vp+n =
1
2
( )
1.5 × 10 5 m s −1 = 7.5 × 10 4 m s −1

The final speed of the deuterium nucleus is 7.5 × 104 m s−1, •• State the final answer with correct units and significant
half that of the captured neutron. figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Repeat Worked example 6.9, but with the neutron colliding with a deuterium nucleus.

176 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 6.5

Comparing elastic and inelastic collisions Critical and

creative
thinking
AIM
To compare the collisions of different balls with Earth and identify which are closest to elastic or perfectly inelastic Numeracy

Write an inquiry question for your investigation.

Information and
MATERIALS communication
technology
capability
•• Tape measure or metre ruler
•• Several different types of ball of approximately the same size, including super-ball and plasticine or blu-tack ball
•• Scales
•• Webcam or video camera

!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT

What risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Attach the ruler or tape measure to the wall

so the zero is at the floor.
2 Set up the camera so it has a clear view of
the ruler/tape measure, and you can read
the scale on the recording (see Figure 6.18).
3 Weigh each ball and record its weight.
4 Start recording.
5 Hold a ball just in front of the 1 m mark on
the ruler/tape measure. Drop the ball (don’t
throw it).
6 View the recording and note the maximum
height to which the ball bounced. Estimate
the uncertainty in your measurement.
7 Repeat steps 4–6 for each of the remaining
balls.

RESULTS
Record your measurements of mass and
maximum bounce height in a table.

FIGURE 6.18  View by the webcam of the experimental set-up

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 177

  
∆E k pbefore pafter

BALL TYPE m (kg) hmax (m) ∆E k, before (kg m s−1) (kg m s−1) ∆p (kg m s−1)

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Perform calculations to complete the table.

• Make the approximation that the loss of energy due to air resistance is small compared with the loss
due to friction forces during the collision.
• Use the starting height and the maximum bounce height to calculate the fractional loss of kinetic
energy during the collision.
∆Ek 1m − hmax
• In your write up, explain what assumptions you make and show that = .
Ek, before 1m
2 Calculate the momentum of each ball just before and just after the collision. State what assumptions you
have made. Remembering that momentum is a vector, calculate the change in momentum of each ball
during the collision.

DISCUSSION

1 Which of the balls underwent a collision closest to elastic?

2 Which was closest to perfectly inelastic?
3 Were energy and momentum conserved in these collisions? What transfers of energy and momentum took
place?

CONCLUSIONS
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Most real collisions are inelastic collisions. Inelastic collisions involve a loss of kinetic energy of
WS
the colliding objects.
Worksheets
Revision
Homework ●● In a perfectly inelastic collision, the colliding objects stick together after the collision to form a
crossword single object.
●● Momentum is conserved in inelastic collisions.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Describe how an elastic collision is different from an inelastic collision.
2 Define ‘perfectly inelastic collision’.
6.4 3 Marcus and Laurence are roller skating. Marcus stops to retie the laces on his skates and Laurence rolls
into him. Marcus has a mass of 45 kg. Laurence has a mass of 39 kg, and is travelling at 4.5 m s−1 before the
collision. If Laurence grabs Marcus as he hits him:
a at what speed do they move off together immediately after the collision?
b what fraction of Laurence’s initial kinetic energy is converted into other forms of energy?
4 In another roller-skating incident, Marcus (45 kg) is travelling at 2.5 m s−1 north and Laurence (39 kg) is
travelling at 3.0 m s−1 N45°E when they undergo an inelastic collision. What is their speed and direction
immediately after the collision?

178 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 6   CHAPTER SUMMARY
  Impulse is the change in momentum of an object when it is
◗◗ Momentum is the product of mass and velocity: p = mv . ◗◗
 
acted on by a force: I = ∆p = Fnet ∆t .
◗◗ Momentum is a vector quantity.
◗◗ Impulse is a vector quantity and has the same units as
◗◗ Momentum is conserved in any isolated system:
 momentum, kg m s−1 or N s.
∑ p = constant.
◗◗ Impulse can be found from a force versus time graph in
◗◗ Newton’s third law is a statement of conservation of the same way that work can be found from a force versus
momentum.  In any interaction between two objects, distance graph. Impulse is the area under the curve of an
 ∆pB ∆pA    F vs t graph.
FA on B = =− = −FB on A , so ∆pA = −∆pB .
∆t ∆t
◗◗ For a given force, the longer the force is applied, the greater
◗◗ Momentum is conserved in all collisions.
the change in momentum.
◗◗ In an elastic collision, no kinetic energy is transformed to
◗◗ For a given change in momentum, the longer the
other forms.
interaction time, the smaller the force exerted.
◗◗ For an elastic collision: ∑ Ek, before = ∑ Ek, after or
  ◗◗ Most real collisions are inelastic collisions. Inelastic collisions
1 2 1
∑ mv before = ∑ mv 2after , and ∑ pbefore = ∑ pafter or involve a loss of kinetic energy of the colliding objects.
2 2
 
∑ mvbefore = ∑ mv after . ◗◗ In a perfectly inelastic collision, the colliding objects stick
together after the collision to form a single object.
◗◗ m1u1 + m2 u2 = mv1 + m2v 2 is true for all collisions.

◗◗ u1 + v1 = v 2 + u2 applies to elastic collisions only.

6   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 Write the equation for momentum and define all the 9 A 20 kg dog has the same momentum as an 800 kg
symbols you use. Give the units of each quantity. horse.
2 Classify the following quantities as conserved or not v dog
a Calculate the ratio .
conserved: energy, force, momentum, mass. vhorse
3 Define ‘impulse’. Ek, dog
b Calculate the ratio .
4 Identify the quantity that is found from: Ek, horse
a the area under an F vs t graph. 10 In an investigation of collisions, a student claims that
momentum is not conserved when a ball bounces
b the area under an F vs s graph.
off the ground because only the ball has a change in
5 Demonstrate that the units for impulse can be written momentum. Is momentum conserved in this case?
as N s. Explain your answer.
6 A dog is running along next to a horse, keeping pace with 11 The impulse given to the occupant of a car with a crumple
it. Which has the greater momentum? Justify your answer. zone is exactly the same as the impulse given to the
occupant of a rigid vehicle. Explain why crumple zones are
7 What condition is necessary such that the total
considered desirable.
momentum of objects after a collision is zero? Does the
same condition apply to elastic and inelastic collisions? 12 Write Newton’s second and third laws in terms of
Justify your answer. momentum. Explain how Newton’s third law can be
considered a statement of conservation of momentum.
8 A 1500 kg car is travelling at 20 m s−1. Calculate its
momentum.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 179

 13 During a crash test, a car is rolled into a wall with initial b If no other forces acted on the destroyer, at what speed
speed of 25 m s−1. The car has a mass of 1450 kg and would it recoil?
comes to rest in 0.20 s. c Explain why a ship tilts in the water when firing. Can
a Calculate the impulse caused by the collision. the ship and shell be modelled as an isolated system?
b Calculate the average force applied to the car. 18 In a particle accelerator, two particles with masses such
14 Figure 6.19 shows the net force acting on a 60 kg sprinter that m1 = 3m2 collide. Particle 1 is initially moving at
at the start of a race. Calculate the sprinter’s speed 1.8 s 1.5 × 107 m s−1 and particle 2 is moving in the same
after the start. direction at 0.5 × 107 m s−1.
a Calculate the final speed of each particle assuming the
collision is elastic.
SF(on sprinter) (N)
b Calculate the final speed of each particle assuming the
collision is perfectly inelastic.
450
19 When a car brakes suddenly from 20 m s−1, the head of
a 90 kg occupant who is not wearing a seat belt comes
to a stop on the windscreen. The skull is pushed inwards
towards the brain by 3.5 cm. The mass of the head is 8% of
1.8 Time (s)
the total body mass.
FIGURE 6.19 a What is the mass of the occupant’s head?
b What is the kinetic energy of the head when it hits the
windscreen?
15 Chee and Matt are each sitting on their own sled. Matt c With what force does the windscreen strike the head?
has a mass larger than Chee’s. Jenna pushes them each d How long did it take for the head to be crushed by the
through the same distance, s, with the same force. windscreen?
a Which has greater kinetic energy after the push?
20 Two cars make a perfectly inelastic collision at an
Explain your answer.
intersection. Car 1 has a mass of 1200 kg, and car 2 has a
b Which has greater momentum? Explain your answer. mass of 1500 kg. Before the collision, car 1 is travelling at
c How would your answers to parts a and b change if 25 m s−1 north and car 2 is travelling at 15 m s−1 west.
instead Jenna pushed them for the same time? a Calculate the speed and direction of the wreckage
16 An explosion can be modelled as a perfectly inelastic immediately after the collision.
collision in reverse. Using what you know about b Calculate the amount of kinetic energy that is
momentum and collisions, explain why most fireworks transformed during the collision. What forms is this
produce a dome-shaped pattern of incandescent energy transformed into?
fragments.
21 Construct a concept map showing all the ideas you have
17 A destroyer with a mass of 1200 tons (1.2 × 106 kg) fires an learned in your study of force, energy and momentum.
8″ shell with a mass of 116 kg at a speed of 850 m s−1. Include all the equations you have used.
a Calculate the impulse given to the shell by the
destroyer’s gun.

180 CHAPTER TWO

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» DYNAMICS 9780170409063
 » END-OF-MODULE REVIEW MODULE 2  : DYNAMICS

1 Sana puts on her seat belt, starts her car (mass 1200 kg), checks 5 Rafael is riding his motorbike (combined mass 260 kg)
her mirrors and accelerates away on a straight horizontal road. when he runs into a pigeon (mass 1 kg). Rafael is initially
a Calculate the force required to accelerate the car from moving at 75 km h−1 and the pigeon is moving in the
0 to 60 km h−1 in 9.0 s, assuming constant acceleration. same direction at 25 km h−1 when it is surprised by Rafael
b Sketch graphs of the position, speed and acceleration running into it from behind.
of the car as a function of time for this 9.0 s. a If the collision is perfectly elastic, calculate the speed at
c Draw a force diagram showing all the forces acting on which the pigeon is moving after the collision.
the car as it accelerates. Do not ignore air resistance. b Calculate the work done by Rafael (and his bike) on
d Describe how the forces shown in your diagram for the pigeon.
part c vary with time. c Compare this with the work done by the pigeon on
e Calculate the total work done on the car in this 9.0 s. Rafael and his bike.
d Calculate the impulse transferred to the pigeon.
2 Sana is cruising at a constant speed of 60 km h−1 in her car e Compare this with the impulse transferred to Rafael
(mass 1200 kg) on a straight horizontal road. and his bike.
a Draw a force diagram showing all the forces acting on
the car. 6 Rafael is riding his motorbike (combined mass 260 kg)
b Explain why Sana needs to keep her foot on the when he runs into a pigeon (mass 1 kg). Rafael is initially
accelerator (she is not using cruise control) to maintain moving at 75 km h−1 and the pigeon is moving in the
a constant speed. same direction at 25 km h−1 when it is surprised by Rafael
running into it from behind.
c If the road exerts a constant force of 400 N on the
car, calculate how much work is done on the car per a If the collision is perfectly inelastic, calculate the speed at
second by the road. which Rafael and the pigeon are moving after the collision.
d Where does the energy transferred to the car by the b Calculate the work done by Rafael (and his bike) on
road come from? Explain your answer using Newton’s the pigeon in this case.
third law. c Compare this with the work done by the pigeon on
e Calculate the rate at which energy is lost (power) by Rafael and his bike.
the car due to air resistance. d Calculate the impulse transferred to the pigeon.
e Compare this with the impulse transferred to Rafael
3 A student states that ‘friction always opposes motion’. and his bike.
Critique this statement, and give examples that support f In which situation is the pigeon more likely to be
your critique. injured; if it is hit by Rafael’s rigid helmet or his padded
leather jacket? Explain your answer in terms of force
4 In each of the following cases, is the net force acting on
and momentum.
the car zero? Explain your answer for each case.
a A car is travelling at constant speed on a flat, straight 7 Mary picks up her 5.5 kg

Dreamstime.com/Denise P. Lett
road. school bag, raising it
b A car is travelling at constant speed on a flat, curved through a total height of
road. 1.5 m.
c A car is travelling at constant speed up a hill on a a Calculate the force
straight road. that Mary must apply
d A car is travelling at constant speed down a hill on a if she is to lift her bag
FIGURE 6.20
straight road. at constant speed,
e A car is travelling at increasing speed down a hill on a directly upwards.
straight road. b Calculate how much work Mary does as she lifts the
bag.
c Calculate the work done by the gravitational field on
the bag.
d Is the Mary–bag system an isolated system? Explain
your answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 181

 8 Kate is feeding her pig, Pigamajig. She puts the bucket 10 An 80 kg sheep is being dragged up a ramp into a
on the ground and Pigamajig grabs hold of it. Pigamajig shearing shed. The coefficient of kinetic friction between
applies a horizontal force to the bucket, and Kate applies the sheep and the boards of the ramp is 0.30, and the
an equal and opposite force to the bucket so that it does coefficient of static friction is 0.35. The angle of the ramp
not move. to the horizontal is 10°. The shearer pulling the sheep is
a Are the forces exerted by Kate and Pigamajig a applying a steadily increasing force.
Newton’s third law action–reaction pair? Justify your a Calculate the minimum force the shearer must exert to
answer. get the sheep to begin moving, assuming the sheep
b Draw force diagrams for: does not struggle.
b Calculate the force required to drag the sheep at a
constant speed, once it is moving.
c Calculate the total work done by the shearer if he
drags the sheep a distance of 2.5 m on the ramp at
constant speed.

Newspix/Ian Currie
FIGURE 6.21

i the pig.
ii the bucket.
iii Kate.
c Apply Newton’s third law to identify forces that are
equal and opposite in this situation, and are action–
reaction pairs.
d Apply Newton’s second law to identify forces that FIGURE 6.22
are equal and opposite in this situation, but are not
action–reaction pairs.

9 Kate is feeding her pig, Pigamajig, when the naughty pig

grabs hold of the feed bucket before Kate has put it down.
Pigamajig applies a force of 40 N to the bucket at an angle
of 45° below the horizontal and to the left. Kate applies a
force of 50 N at an angle of 60° above the horizontal and
to the right.
a Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of
the force exerted by Pigamajig on the bucket.
b Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of
the force exerted by Kate on the bucket.
c Calculate the net force acting on the bucket if it
has a mass of 2.5 kg (including the food). State the
magnitude and direction of the force.
d Calculate the acceleration of the bucket.

182 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ▻▻ Investigate friction forces (for example, by extending one of the investigations) or measure the static and
kinetic coefficients of friction for different types of shoes and floors.

▻▻ Car safety can be investigated using secondary sources, or by numerical modelling.

▻▻ Investigate (first-hand and/or using secondary sources) how different sorts of flying machines work.

▻▻ Measure drag forces in different types of fluids, or construct an anemometer.

▻▻ Model projectile motion numerically, including air resistance. Compare your results with actual
measurements.

▻▻ Perform first-hand or secondary-sourced investigations of the forces involved in different sports.

▻▻ Join an engineering challenge to make a static structure, such as a bridge or tower.

▻▻ Investigate the causes of structural failures in buildings, dams and bridges.

▻▻ Make your own Newton’s cradle or ballistic pendulum to investigate momentum transfers.

▻▻ Conduct a literature review and create a numerical model of a sling-shot manoeuvre.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 6 » MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND SIMPLE SYSTEMS 183

 » MODULE THREE

WAVES AND
THERMODYNAMICS
7 Wave characteristics

8 Wave behaviour

9 Sound waves

10 Ray model of light

11 Thermodynamics
Alamy Stock Photo/YAY Media AS

184 9780170409063
 7 Wave characteristics

OUTCOMES
Students:
INQUIRY QUESTION •• conduct a practical investigation involving the creation of mechanical waves in a variety of situations in
order to explain: CCT
What are the properties
– the role of the medium in the propagation of mechanical waves
of all waves and wave – the transfer of energy involved in the propagation of mechanical waves (ACSPH067, ACSPH070)
motion?
•• conduct practical investigations to explain and analyse the differences between: CCT
– transverse and longitudinal waves (ACSPH068)
– mechanical and electromagnetic waves (ACSPH070, ACSPH074)
•• construct and/or interpret graphs of displacement as a function of time and as a function of position
of transverse and longitudinal waves, and relate the features of those graphs to the following wave
characteristics:
– velocity
– frequency
– period
– wavelength
– wave number
– displacement and amplitude (ACSPH069) ICT N
•• solve problems and/or make predictions by modelling and applying the following relationships to a variety
of situations: ICT N
– v = f λ

1
– f =
T
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

iStock.com/mrtom-uk

9780170409063 185
 Water waves, sound waves and seismic waves are examples of mechanical waves. Mechanical waves are
the result of an energy disturbance passing through the medium, such as water or air. The medium is
not disturbed except briefly as the wave passes. The medium returns to exactly the same state as it was
before the mechanical wave (energy disturbance) passed through the medium. There is no transfer of
matter from point to point.
As mechanical waves pass, the medium through which they are travelling

Shutterstock.com/Kostiantyn Fastov
(such as air or water) can be seen to vibrate but not travel with the wave itself.
The medium stays where it is, undisturbed, after the wave passes. For example,
a duck on a pond will bob up and down as a ripple passes, but it stays at its
original position. It does not travel with the wave.
The waves described in the example of the duck on the pond are transverse
waves. The motion of the medium as the wave passes through is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Mechanical waves come in two very distinct types: transverse and
FIGURE 7.1  Concentric circular waves formed by longitudinal waves. Sound waves are longitudinal waves, and are fundamentally
drops of water different from transverse waves. When longitudinal waves (such as sound
waves) travel through a medium (such as air), the medium is disturbed as the
wave passes through. However, in this case, the vibration that is the origin of the sound (such as your
Water waves have a
circular or elliptical
voice) propagates through the medium by compression and rarefaction. The initial sound disturbance
motion of the medium leads to a compression of the surrounding atmosphere. This leaves a following rarefaction of air, and the
as the wave passes.
However, a duck appears
cycle continues.
to move up and down We are surrounded by sounds. The sound energy of the noise of the traffic on a busy road or the
as the wave passes
rather than back and
chirping of birds is carried to our ears by sound waves travelling through a medium. As the sound waves
forth. A careful observer pass through the air, the air particles vibrate back and forth. The energy of the sound continues onwards,
will notice that the duck
moves a little back and
some continuing into our ear drums. The vibration of the air particles cause our ear drums to vibrate.
then forwards with the This vibrating energy is converted into electrical impulses that our brain interprets as sound.
passing of the wave, as
well as up and down.
Waves generated by earthquakes, known as seismic waves, travel through Earth. These waves convey
energy from earthquakes or from underground explosions. For sound waves travelling through air, the air
is the medium. For seismic waves, Earth is the medium.

7.1 The mechanical wave model

Sound, water and seismic waves are mechanical waves. Mechanical waves transfer energy through a
material called the medium without the medium itself being transported from one place to another.
The particles which make up the medium are free to move from their normal positions but the whole
medium does not move. Water waves are examples of transverse waves. When a water wave passes
through the water, particles oscillate, or vibrate, at right angles to the direction of the motion of the wave.
When discussing water waves, it is important to note that once a wave has broken coming towards
the beach, it is no longer regarded as being a wave but is now considered a movement of water.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Particles in the medium oscillate about their average positions
in the same direction as the wave’s propagation. Sound waves can travel through any medium such as
Weblink
Water waves air, water, rock or metal. As with all mechanical waves, sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Figure 7.2
An in-depth shows the directions of motion of the medium for transverse waves and for longitudinal waves.
description of
the nature of Mechanical transverse and longitudinal waves travel in a material medium made of particles that can
water waves and affect other particles because they exert forces on each other. Energy is transferred through the medium,
the movement
of the medium as but none of the particles are. You may recall that all matter is made of particles. The arrangement of the
they pass.
particles differs between solids, liquids and gases.

186 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 FIGURE 7.2 
Mechanical waves
a Medium b Medium cause particles to
Particles move up Particles move back move around their
and down and forth average positions.
a Transverse waves
showing motion
perpendicular to the
direction of energy
flow; b Longitudinal
Direction of energy flow Direction of energy flow waves showing a back-
and-forth motion in
the same direction as
energy flow

The role of the medium

The nature of the medium determines how fast the wave will travel through it. Table 7.1 shows the
approximate speed of sound travelling through a variety of mediums.

TABLE 7.1  The speed of sound in a variety of mediums

MEDIUM SPEED OF SOUND (m s-1)

Air 340

Water 1500

Sandstone 2000–6000

Steel 6100

There are a number of reasons for the large range of speeds of waves in different mediums. For air, the
particles (which are mostly molecules of nitrogen or oxygen) are spaced far apart and are moving around WS

with speeds of around 0.5 km s–1. The wave motion must be transferred through the air by collisions Worksheets
Wave
Homework
between molecules, transferring the vibration of the air molecules to neighbouring air molecules. Such characteristics –
transfers occur when the air particles collide. The wave propagation travels through the air at 343 m s–1 20 questions

at 20°C, slower than the speed of the particles in the medium themselves.
Table 7.1 shows the large range of the speed of sound in different mediums. In liquids and solids, the
particles can influence the movement of neighbouring particles by exerting forces on each other. These
forces can be pushes or pulls. In a gas, the forces between particles only occur when the particles collide.
The speed of sound in steel is nearly 20 times faster than in air.

INVESTIGATION 7.1

The role of the medium in the propagation of mechanical waves

Critical and
AIM creative thinking
To investigate the role of the medium in the propagation of mechanical waves

MATERIALS

•• 2 tin cans •• File (for sharp edges)

•• Small drill •• 5 m length of string

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 187

 ! WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU SAFELY MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
RISK
ASSESSMENT Sharp edges on a tin can may cut you. Take care handling the tins and file down any sharp edges.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Using the drill, make a small hole in the base of each tin can. File any sharp edges.
2 Pass an end of the string through the hole of one tin can. Make a knot in the string so that it cannot be
pulled back out. Repeat with the other end of the string for the other can.
3 With the string pulled straight between the two cans, speak into one can and have a partner listen into the
other. Observe how clearly the voice is transmitted through the string.
4 While staying the same distance from each other, speak directly to your partner in the same volume
without using the string and cans. Compare how clearly you heard compared to when the cans and string
were used.
5 Using a long bench in your laboratory, have your partner place their ear down at one end of the bench
while you tap on the bench. Compare what is heard to when the partner’s ear is not on the bench.

RESULTS
Record your observations in a suitable table.

DISCUSSION

1 Discuss your observations with regard to the role of the two different mediums for the transmission of the
sound waves in this investigation by comparing:
a whether the sound energy was being spread out as it travelled or if it was directed and concentrated in
one direction.
b the material that made up the medium – solid versus gas.
2 In this investigation, which medium was best at transmitting sound over a distance (i.e. clearest and
loudest) and what reasons might there be for this?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Transfer of energy by mechanical waves

Mechanical waves can transfer energy from the source of the wave. The vibrations of the particles in the
medium propagate through the medium, transferring energy as they travel. Seismic waves and ocean
waves (tsunamis) caused by undersea earthquakes are examples of such energy transfer. These waves
can transfer very large quantities of energy from the source of the earthquake (called the focus), causing
devastation considerable distances away.

Seismic waves
When an earthquake occurs, energy radiates in waves from the focus through the rocks of Earth’s crust.
Such waves are known as seismic waves. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake that occurred off the
Indonesian island of Sumatra radiated energy equivalent to around 32 000 Hiroshima atomic bombs, or
500 million tonnes of TNT. Figure 7.3 shows how the primary, or P waves, and the secondary, or S waves,
travelled through the crust from the focus of the earthquake. P waves are longitudinal waves through the
rocks while S waves are transverse waves.

188 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 The most destructive type of seismic waves are those that travel on the surface. There are two kinds
The difference
of these waves: Love waves and Rayleigh waves. Both are quite complicated – Rayleigh waves result from between
a combination of many transverse waves and cause side-to-side shaking. Buildings are moved up and transverse and
longitudinal
down and tilted as these waves pass, causing much damage. The energy in Rayleigh waves is quickly waves will be
dispersed as they move away from the epicentre (the place on the surface immediately above the focus discussed in the
next section.
of the earthquake).

Compressions FIGURE 7.3 

Propagation of
longitudinal primary
(P) waves and
P wave transverse Rayleigh
waves through
Rarefactions Earth away from an
earthquake epicentre

S wave

Amplitude
Wavelength

The focus of the huge 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was away from land, so there was little damage
caused to buildings and structures due to the movement of the ground. The movement of huge slabs of
the crust under the ocean resulted in another mechanical wave through the ocean – a tsunami. Reaching
speeds of over 500  km  h–1, the tsunami carried energy from the earthquake to shores thousands of
kilometres away. In some places, waves over 20 m in height caused the ocean to surge inland for 3 km.
Figure 7.4 is a computer-generated image showing the propagation of wave energy across the
Indian Ocean 2 hours after the earthquake. As the wave spread out, its energy was also spread across
a wider area, so its intensity decreased. However, closer to the event, the energy in the wave caused
damage and devastation in many countries, with over 300 000 people killed.

FIGURE 7.4 Tsunami
Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech

wave energy mapped

spreading across the
Indian Ocean 2 hours
after the earthquake
occurred. The
computer-generated
colours show the
height of the ocean
above or below
normal, as indicated
in the scale.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 189

 INVESTIGATION 7.2

Investigating the transfer of energy by a mechanical wave

AIM
To observe how energy can be transferred by a mechanical wave

MATERIALS

•• Slinky springs
•• Ribbons
•• Chalk or non-permanent marker
•• Shallow water tray
•• Corks
•• Optional: laptop with video editing software, a tablet or a phone

! WHAT IS THE RISK IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU SAFELY MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
RISK
ASSESSMENT The spring may flick back and hit your eye. Wear safety glasses when working with springs.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Place the stretched slinky spring on a floor with a smooth surface.

2 Tie two ribbons around a coil of the spring, each about 0.5 m from either end.
3 With a person on each end of the spring, have one person at a time move the spring quickly back and
forth, and then from side to side.
4 Observe the motion within the spring and the movement of the ribbons in each case.
5 Using chalk or a non-permanent marker, measure out marks on the floor 1 cm apart, starting at each
ribbon on the spring when it is at rest. These marks should continue either side of the ribbons both in the
direction of the spring and perpendicular to the spring.
6 Repeat steps 3 and 4, this time taking care to record the distances each of the ribbons move.
7 Half fill a shallow tray with water.
8 Place a cork in the water at one end of the tray. At the other end, dip your finger in and out of the water.
9 Observe how the energy of the wave can cause the cork to move.

RESULTS
Draw a diagram of the motion of the ribbons in the spring. Record your observations of the cork movement in
the water. You may wish to record the motion in the spring and in the tray on a suitable device such as a laptop
with video editing software, a tablet or phone.

DISCUSSION

1 Using diagrams, describe how the energy in the two mediums travels from one place to another to cause
motion without the medium itself travelling with the wave.
2 Compare the motion of the two ribbons in the spring. Which of the two ribbons moves further from its
resting position? Suggest reasons why this might be happening.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

190 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Mechanical waves travel through a medium.
●● Energy is transported from one place to another by a mechanical wave.
●● The particles in the medium oscillate as a mechanical wave passes.
●● The medium itself does not travel with the wave.
●● Examples of mechanical waves are sound, water and seismic waves.

CHECK YOUR
1 Briefly define ‘mechanical wave’. UNDERSTANDING
2 Describe an example of when energy is conveyed by a wave from one place to another.
3 A student suggests that air travels with the sound wave. Using the example of sound travelling into a 7.1
person’s ear, describe why this could not be true.
4 An earthquake produces seismic waves in rocks. How can you tell that energy is being transported by the
seismic wave?
5 Suggest why sound waves travel so much faster in steel than in air. Refer to the arrangement of the
particles in these mediums.

7.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves

The way in which the medium moves as a wave passes determines whether the wave is classified as
transverse or longitudinal. While these are not the only types of waves possible, they are the most
commonly observed. In this section, both transverse and longitudinal wave motion will be discussed.

Transverse waves
Individual particles of a medium move up and down about their rest position. A series of wave crests and
wave troughs move through the medium. The motions of different points in the medium along the wave
are shown in Figure 7.5.

Wavelength FIGURE 7.5 

The motion of
the medium in a
Displacement transverse wave
Direction of propagation of wave showing various
1 points in the medium
and the direction of
motion as the wave
moves
Distance

At a crest or a trough, the particles are momentarily stationary and are about to move back towards
their rest position. Particles either side of a crest or a trough are moving perpendicular to the direction of
the motion of the wave itself.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 191

Reflection of waves Reflection of transverse waves
will be studied
further in chapter 8.
When a transverse wave meets the end of the spring or string in which it is travelling, it is reflected. If the
end of the spring or string is fixed, a crest is reflected as a trough – the wave is inverted or turned upside
down when reflected. If the end of the spring or string is free to move up and down, the crest is reflected
as a crest – the wave is reflected upright. Figure 7.6 shows these situations for a single transverse pulse.
In both cases, the wave is reflected with the same shape and speed.

FIGURE 7.6  a A
stretched spring or
a
string fixed at one end
Weblink
Wave on a string reflects waves upside
This simulation can down. b A stretched
be used to visualise spring or string free
reflections from free at one end reflects
and fixed ends of waves the same
strings. way up. Fixed ends of spring or string

Free ends of spring or string

Longitudinal waves
In longitudinal waves, particles of the medium move back and forth in the same direction as the transfer
of energy; that is, along the same direction as the wave is travelling.
When the particles around a point are all moving towards the point, there is a local compression. If
they are all moving away from the point, there is a local rarefaction. A particular point in the medium
through which the wave disturbance is travelling experiences a series of compressions and rarefactions
(changes to the undisturbed pressure) as the energy passes through it. Figure 7.7 shows a snapshot at
an instant in time of where the coils in the spring have been displaced from as the wave passes. The
coils represent the particles in a medium such as air. Maximum pressure occurs at compressions;
minimum pressure occurs at rarefactions.

 Motion
of medium
Rarefaction
Direction
of propagation
Compression
FIGURE 7.7  A snapshot in time showing rarefactions and compressions in a spring. This is an example of a longitudinal wave.

192 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 7.3

Comparing transverse and longitudinal waves Critical and

creative thinking
AIM
To compare the motion of the medium in transverse and longitudinal waves

MATERIALS

•• Slinky spring
•• Ruler
•• Motion-recording device (such as laptop, tablet or phone)

WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?

The spring may flick back into your eye if released. Wear safety glasses when working with springs.
Do not over stretch the spring.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

  1 Stretch the spring out on a smooth floor or desk so that there is a small amount of stretch in the spring.
Measure the length of the spring.
  2 Create a transverse pulse by having a partner hold one end of the spring stationary while you give the
spring a quick sideways shake. Do this once to send a single pulse down the spring.
  3 Observe the motion within the spring as the pulse travels down the spring. This motion can be recorded
using a suitable device such as a laptop, tablet or phone.
  4 Play the recording back at reduced speed and then draw a diagram to show the direction of motion of
the coils of the spring.
  5 Carefully observe the reflected pulse and draw a diagram to show two things you noticed about the
nature and position of the reflected pulse.
  6 Repeat the investigation with different sized pulses.
  7 Stretch the spring a little further, taking care to hold it firmly. Measure the new length of the spring.
 8 Create a longitudinal pulse in the spring by having a partner hold one end while you make a rapid back-
and-forth movement in the spring in the same direction as the spring.
 9 Again, record the motion of this pulse on a suitable device.
10 Play the recording back in slow motion and then draw a diagram to show the direction of motion of the
coils in the spring as the pulse passes.

RESULTS
Draw your observations from the method as instructed.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Use the recordings made of the motion in the spring to find the speed of each pulse in the spring. Remember,
distance
speed = . The time can be calculated from the recordings made.
time
DISCUSSION

1 Compare the motion of the coils in the spring in terms of the direction of motion of the coils between
the transverse pulse and the longitudinal pulse.
2 Did the speeds of each type of wave change with a change in the amplitude of the waves?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 193
 Investigation 7.3 compares the motion of the medium when transverse and longitudinal waves
WS pass. Longitudinal waves are able to pass through gases and liquids. These substances cannot
FillWorksheets
in the gaps
Homework propagate transverse waves effectively as they cannot transmit sideways forces, which is necessary for
transverse waves.
KEY
CONCEPTS
●● Longitudinal waves involve a back-and-forth motion of the particles in the medium as the wave passes.
●● Transverse waves involve an up-and-down or side-to-side motion of the particles in the
medium as the wave passes.
●● Transverse waves reflect upright at a free end, and inverted at a fixed end.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Using a sketch, describe the key difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.
2 A buoy in the ocean is observed to move up and down as waves pass. Would this be an example of
7.2 transverse or longitudinal wave motion? Explain your answer.
3 A girl on a swing is moving back and forth. Would such motion be regarded as a wave? Why or why not?
Discuss this situation using your knowledge of waves.
4 Earthquake waves are generated by the movement of rocks under the surface. Explain why both
longitudinal and transverse waves can be produced.
5 Classify the following examples of mechanical waves as transverse or longitudinal waves.
a A pulse transmitted along a string stretched at right angles to the direction of motion of the pulse.
b The wave produced by throwing a rock into a calm pond.
c Sound waves produced by a drum.
d Waves produced in the air by vibrating human vocal cords.
6 Recall why transverse waves cannot travel through water or air.

7.3 Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic radiation can be visualised as an electric and a magnetic field oscillating in unison
perpendicular to each other, travelling through space, as shown in Figure 7.8.

FIGURE 7.8 A Electromagnetic wave

representation of Magnetic field
electromagnetic
Electric field
radiation as oscillating
electric and magnetic
fields perpendicular
to each other,
travelling through
space.

Propagation

194 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 The link between electricity and magnetism was first described by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820
and subsequently studied by Michael Faraday and Humphry Davy. James Clerk Maxwell developed
a mathematical description of electromagnetic radiation in the 1860s. The oscillation, or variation, of
a magnetic field induces an electric field perpendicular to it. This changing electric field also induces a
magnetic field perpendicular to it. The oscillations of the two fields are therefore able to self-propagate.
For this reason, electromagnetic radiation is able to travel through the vacuum of space. When Maxwell’s
equations are solved to find the speed of propagation, the answer is the same regardless of the wave
frequency, and is the same as the known speed of light. Maxwell hypothesised that light is an example of
an electromagnetic wave, and that other similar waves with different frequencies might also exist. This
turned out to be correct, with the discovery of X-rays, radio waves, infrared and ultraviolet, to name a few
from what we now understand to be a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
The speed of light in a vacuum, 2.9979 × 108 m s–1 or approximately 300 000 km s–1, which came out
of Maxwell’s equations, is the theoretical universal ‘speed limit’ suggested in Einstein’s special theory of
relativity. This speed is often written as 3.0 × 108 m s–1.
Maxwell’s result, which showed the speed of light to be invariant, suggested that electromagnetic
waves propagated through space without a medium being required for their propagation. The lack of
the need for a medium for electromagnetic waves led to intense debate. Many experiments to detect
the effect any such medium (referred to as the ‘aether’) would have on the speed of these waves were
performed. The very existence of a medium for electromagnetic waves would imply that the medium
itself becomes the universal frame of reference, a concept rejected by Einstein. Einstein, who realised
that the invariant (constant) speed for the propagation of electromagnetic waves meant that there was
no aether. To accommodate Maxwell’s theories, Einstein showed by his ‘thought experiments’ that both
time and space as experienced by local observers would vary with the location of the observer. This
revolution in thought led to the special theory of relativity in 1905, which was influential in ushering in
the modern physics we understand today.
The complete electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 7.9. It includes wavelengths ranging from
kilometres for long radio waves, down to 10 picometres (10–12 m) for gamma rays.

FIGURE 7.9 The
400 nm

500 nm

600 nm

700 nm

electromagnetic
spectrum includes
radio, microwaves,
infrared, light,
ultraviolet, X-ray and
gamma ray radiation.
1000 mm
1000 nm

5 1 mm
100 mm
51 mm
100 nm

1000 m
0.1 nm

10 mm
10 nm

100 m
10 cm
1 nm

10 m
1 cm
1Å5
0.1Å

1m

Wavelength
Radar

AM
Far IR
Thermal IR
Near IR
Gamma rays

Long waves
Microwaves
Ultraviolet

Radio, TV
Infrared
Visible
X-rays

Frequency (Hz)
10 19

10 18

10 17

10 16

10 15

10 14

10 13

10 12

10 11

10 10

10 9

10 8

10 7

10 6
7–13
UHF

2–6
VHF
VHF

FM

50 MHz
500 MHz

100 MHz
1000 MHz

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 195

 Unlike mechanical waves, electromagnetic waves do not require a medium. The radiation coming
to us from the Sun, stars and pulsars travels through the emptiness of space at the speed of light.
Weblink
Radio waves
Electromagnetic waves are able to travel through certain mediums. For example, light can travel through
Try this simulation to the atmosphere, water, glass and diamond but not through rocks, wood or metals. Earth’s atmosphere
visualise travelling effectively absorbs or blocks most electromagnetic radiation with the exception of light, radio and
radio waves.
microwaves.
With electromagnetic waves, as mentioned above, there is no physical vibration. It is invisible electric
and magnetic fields (which do not involve matter) that are oscillating in space, transferring energy with
it as the oscillating fields propagate.

INVESTIGATION 7.4

Differences between mechanical and electromagnetic waves

AIM
To observe differences between mechanical and electromagnetic waves

HYPOTHESIS
If the medium is removed, a mechanical wave will not pass but electromagnetic waves will.

MATERIAL

•• Well-greased air-tight bell jar with air outlet

•• Strong vacuum pump
•• Battery-powered bell
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
The vacuum pump is very heavy and may cause injury if Place the vacuum pump well away from the edge of the
dropped. bench.

A strong vacuum can cause a glass container to implode Only use a purpose built vacuum jar and wear safety
and shatter, spreading shards of glass. glasses.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you
manage them? Arbor Scientific, with permission

METHOD

1 Place the battery-powered bell inside the bell jar, turn it on and seal
the jar.
2 Connect the vacuum pump.
3 Observe the sound of the bell.
4 Start the vacuum pump and continue to observe the sound of the bell.
5 Once the vacuum has been attained, observe the sound from the bell
and observe the bell itself.

RESULTS FIGURE 7.10  A bell jar

with bell inside suitable for
Record your observations in a suitable format. use in this investigation

196 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 DISCUSSION
Explain why the sound from the bell changed the way it did, but the bell did not look any different. Which of
the waves involved are mechanical and which are electromagnetic?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the hypothesis of this
investigation.

It is difficult to conduct large-scale investigations in an environment where there is no medium. The

bell jar vacuum shows that the sound from the bell is unable to travel from the bell directly to the walls
of the jar. Some vibrations travel through the bell and its support inside the jar, which can be heard
outside the jar. The light from the bell is not changed when there is a vacuum in the jar because light, a
part of the electromagnetic spectrum, can travel through the vacuum.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Electromagnetic waves can be modelled as electric and magnetic fields oscillating

perpendicular to each other.
●● Electromagnetic waves do not need a medium.
●● In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light: 3.0 × 108 m s–1.
●● The range of electromagnetic waves make up the electromagnetic spectrum.

CHECK YOUR
1 List three examples of electromagnetic waves travelling through a vacuum. UNDERSTANDING
2 Discuss why modern space movies almost always portray sound as being able to travel through space.
3 If sound (a mechanical wave) could travel through the vacuum of space, what differences may there be for 7.3
us here on Earth?
4 Explain why the oscillations involved in the production and propagation of electromagnetic waves cannot
be observed directly.
distance
5 Using the formula speed = , how long does it take light to reach Earth from the Sun, which is
time
150 million kilometres away?

7.4 Graphical representations of waves

It is important to understand the terminology used to describe waves. Plotting a graph of displacement
versus time enables a visualisation of the period and the amplitude of a wave. Waves can also be
compared easily if they are represented in graphical form.

The terminology used to describe waves

WS
Period is the time it takes for a wave to repeat itself. Amplitude is the largest distance of the particle from
Worksheets
the mean (or rest) position before returning. For transverse waves, the top of the wave is called a crest and Relationships
Homework
between
the bottom is called a trough. quantities

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 197

 The frequency of a wave is the number of crests generated in a time interval of 1 second. For
compression waves, this would be the number of compressions generated in 1 second. The unit used
for frequency is hertz, Hz. For example, a sound wave with a frequency of 400 Hz has 400 compressions
generated in 1 second.
Wavelength is the distance between two successive corresponding points on a wave; for example,
between two crests or two troughs.
The wave model shows the relationship between amplitude (A), wavelength (λ), period (T ),
frequency (  f  ) and speed (v) that can be used to describe the behaviour of continuous waves. Table 7.2
provides a summary of the definitions of these terms and the units in which they are measured.

TABLE 7.2  Wave terminology

TERM DEFINITION SYMBOL UNIT

Displacement distance away from the rest position of a particle x metre (m)

Amplitude largest distance away from the rest position that a A metre (m)
particle moves before returning

Frequency number of crests (or compressions) generated in f hertz (Hz) or (s–1)

1 second

Wavelength distance between successive crests λ metre (m)

Period time it takes before a wave repeats itself T second (s)

Speed distance travelled per second v metres per second (m s–1)

WS
Graphing waves
Worksheets
Graphing a wave
Homework
Displacement versus time and displacement versus position graphs are useful in representing wave
in Excel motion of the particles in the medium. A displacement versus time graph is useful in representing the
period, T, of a wave, as shown in Figure 7.11.

FIGURE 7.11 A Period (T )

displacement
versus time graph
of a mechanical Crest
wave represents
the displacement
of one particle of 1
Amplitude (A)
the medium as it
experiences a wave
disturbance over time.
Displacement
Time

Trough

198 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Plotting a displacement versus distance graph enables the wavelength of the wave to be visualised, as
shown in Figure 7.12. Both graphs show the amplitude of the wave, which is the displacement at a crest
or the absolute value of displacement at a trough.

Wavelength (l) FIGURE 7.12 The

displacement versus
distance graph
of a mechanical
1 wave shows the
displacement of all
the particles of the
medium at an instant
in time.
Displacement
Distance

knilbeW
2

Hyperphysics –
transverse and
longitudinal
waves
Figure 7.11 and Figure 7.12 can also be used to represent the displacement versus time or displacement Visit the
Hyperphysics site
versus distance for longitudinal waves. The diagrams are not just images of how the wave looks, but to investigate
rather plots of displacement of the medium at various times as a wave passes or plots of displacement transverse and
longitudinal waves
along the length of a wave.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.1

Numeracy

Sketch a displacement versus distance graph for a wave with a wavelength of 2.0 m and an amplitude of
40 cm. Each axis should have a label and a scale shown.

ANSWER LOGIC

•• Draw and label axes and include an

0.40 appropriate scale for each.
0.30
•• Draw a smooth line that represents the
0.20 information in the question.
0.10
Displacement 0.00
(m) 20.10 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Distance (m)
20.20
20.30
20.40
FIGURE 7.13  A displacement versus distance graph for a wave with wavelength
2.0 m and amplitude of 40 cm

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Choose appropriate axes to sketch a wave with an amplitude of 0.25 m and a period of 2.0 s.
2 Choose appropriate axes to sketch a wave with an amplitude of 10 cm and a wavelength of 50 cm.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 199

Reference to Wavenumber
wavenumber is
not included in It is sometimes useful to use the wavenumber of a wave, which refers to the number of waves over a given
the syllabus but
is mentioned here
unit of length, a metre.
for interest and By definition, wavenumber can be determined by:
completeness.
2π
k=
The concept of λ
wavenumber can be
used in many other where the factor 2π is used as a mathematical constant.
contexts. We will use The wavenumber can be used as a measure of the number of whole waves existing within the length
it for our purposes
as it appears here. of 1 m.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.2

Find the wavenumber for a wave with a wavelength of 2.0 mm.

ANSWER LOGIC
−3
λ = 2.0 × 10  m •• Identify the relevant data in the question and convert to SI units.
2π
k= •• Identify the appropriate formula.
λ
2π
= •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
2.0 × 10 −3 m
= 3.1 × 103 m–1 •• Calculate the answer and express with correct significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1  What is the wavenumber, k, for a wave with a wavelength of 40.0 cm?

2  Find the wavenumber of a light wave with wavelength of 650 nm.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● All waves possess the characteristics of amplitude A, wavelength λ, frequency f, period T, speed
v and wavenumber k.
Weblink
Hyperphysics – ●● The displacement of a particle in the medium as a wave passes is its distance from its rest
period, frequency
position.
and amplitude
Investigate the ●● Waves can be represented using displacement versus time and displacement versus position
relationships between graphs.
period, frequency and
amplitude. ●● Both types of graphs show the wave’s amplitude.
●● A displacement versus time graph shows the wave’s period, T.
●● A displacement versus position graph shows the wave’s wavelength, λ.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Outline the difference between displacement and amplitude.
2 Describe when the displacement can be equal to the amplitude of a wave.
7.4 3 Which graphical representation of a wave would you sketch if you intended to show the wavelength?
4 Is there any relationship between the wavelength of a wave and its amplitude?
5 Why is the horizontal axis of displacement versus time or displacement versus position graphs referred to
as the ‘rest position’ of the medium?
6 State the equivalent SI unit for the unit ‘hertz’.

200 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Frequency, period, wavelength
7.5
and velocity
These four characteristics of waves are related mathematically by simple but important ways that will be
discussed in this section. They apply to every type of wave motion.

Relationship between frequency, f, and period, T

Frequency and period have an inverse relationship with each other for any wave. For example,
if the frequency doubles, then the period halves. This relationship arises simply because of the
definitions of frequency (f ) = the number of whole waves per second; and period (T ) = the time
between each wave.
Consider a wave where two crests pass a point in 1 s. The frequency (f ) of this wave is 2 Hz. The
period (T ) is therefore 0.5  s, as it takes 0.5  s for one whole wave to pass. Similarly, for a wave where
10 crests pass a point in 1 s, f = 10 Hz. As it takes 0.1 s for one wave to pass, T = 0.1 s.
This relationship can be written as:
1
f =
T

Numeracy
WORKED EXAMPLE 7.3

A string is being moved up and down with a continuous vibration, taking 0.02 s to complete one full
oscillation. What is the frequency of this vibration?

ANSWER LOGIC

T  = 0.02 s •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

1 •• Identify the appropriate formula.
f =
T
1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
=
0.02 s
= 50 Hz •• Calculate the answer with the correct significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A wave in the ocean is observed to repeat every 20 s. Find its frequency, f.
2 The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is 5.0 × 1014 Hz. Find the time taken for one complete
oscillation (the period, T) of this wave to be completed.

Relationship between velocity, frequency and wavelength

Consider a wave with a period T. In one period, the wave will move a distance of one wavelength, λ.
d
As v = (seen in chapter 2), and as d = λ and t = T, we have:
t
λ
v=
T

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 201

 1
As f = , then:
T
1
T=
f
and therefore:
λ
v=
1
 
f
and we get the relationship:
v= fλ
Another example is a slinky spring that you are putting pulses into at a rate of 1 pulse every 0.5 s.
This is the period of the wave (T). The distance between the tops of two adjacent pulses, the wavelength
Weblink
Hyperphysics –
(λ), is found to be 0.6 m. It will take one period for a crest to travel a distance of one wavelength. One
Travelling wave period is the time between identical ‘snapshots’. This means that the wave in the spring is travelling
relationships
Use this resource to
0.6 m every 0.5 s.
practise examples
using the wave distance
relationships
v=
discussed. time
0.6 m
=
0.5 s
= 1.2 m s−1

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.4

A sound wave with a frequency of 200 Hz is travelling through air at 340 m s–1. What is its
wavelength, λ?

ANSWER LOGIC
–1
f = 200 Hz; v = 340 m s •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
v= fλ •• Identify the appropriate formula.
v
λ= •• Rearrange formula.
f
340 m s−1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
=
200 Hz
= 1.70 m •• Calculate the answer and express with the correct significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A sound wave is travelling through a solid medium. The source of the sound is vibrating with
a frequency of 800 Hz. The wavelength of the sound waves is 2.0 m. Find the velocity of sound in
this solid medium.
2 The distance between successive crests of waves in the ocean is 50 m. A boat moves up
and down once every 4.0 s. Find the velocity of these waves.

202 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 7.5

A wave with a frequency of 440 Hz has a wavelength of 0.75 m. What is its speed?

ANSWER LOGIC
f  = 440 Hz; λ = 0.75 m •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
v= fλ •• Identify appropriate formula.
= 440 Hz × 0.75 m •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
= 330 m s–1 •• Calculate the answer and express with the correct significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 The wavelength of a wave in the ocean is observed to be 250 m. The frequency of this wave is
0.050 Hz. Find this wave’s speed.
2 What is the frequency of a sound wave with a wavelength of 1.5 m if the speed of sound is 340 m s–1?

INVESTIGATION 7.5

1 Numeracy
Modellingv = f λ and f =
T Information and
communication
AIM technology
1 capability
To model the wave equations v = f λ and f = using technology to visualise the relationships between the variables
T
MATERIALS

•• Laptop or tablet with suitable spreadsheet software (Note: the instructions are for Microsoft Excel and may
need to be modified for other spreadsheet software)

METHOD

1 Open a new spreadsheet and save it as ‘Wave relationships’.

2 Enter data into worksheet 1 as shown in Table 7.3.

TABLE 7.3  Data entry for worksheet 1

COLUMN

ROW A B

1 Period, T (s) Frequency, f (Hz)

2   0.1 =1/A2
3   0.2

4   0.5

5   1.0

6  2.0

7  5.0

8 10.0

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 203

 3 Into cell B2, type the formula ‘=1/A2’, and then copy and fill column B with this formula to cell B8.
4 Next, to produce a graph, highlight cells A1 to B8, and click on ‘Insert’ (on the ribbon or select from
the menu).
5 Select the scatter graph with data points joined by a line. You may wish to add axis labels and a
chart title.
6 Analyse the graph and describe it.
7 Copy the data from Table 7.4 into worksheet 2.

TABLE 7.4  Data entry for worksheet 2

COLUMN

ROW A B

1 Frequency, f (Hz) Wavelength, λ (m)

2 100 =$B$9/A2

3 200

4 400

5 800

6 1600

7 3200

8 6400

8 Type a value for the speed of sound into cell B9. Use ‘340’ to begin with, as this is the approximate speed of
sound in air.
9 Copy and fill column B with the formula entered into cell B2.
10 Repeat steps 4 to 6 to insert a scatter graph as before.

RESULTS
Record your analysis and description beneath each graph on the spreadsheet.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Analyse the graph and describe the relationship between f and λ for waves with the same speed. Identify the
speed of the wave you have graphed.

DISCUSSION

1 Explain how the investigation can show how characteristics of waves are related.
2 Enter a new value in cell B9 (try ‘2000’ to begin with). Describe the change observed in the graph produced
from the data in the table. Is the shape of the graph similar? Why?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this
investigation.

204 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 When waves change velocity
The speed of a wave is a property of the medium. The frequency is determined by how quickly the source
of the wave is oscillating or vibrating. The wavelength therefore will depend on both the velocity, v,
and the frequency,  f.  If a wave changes speed because the nature of the medium, or the medium itself
changes, how does the wave change?
In chapter 8, we will investigate what happens to a wave when its speed, v, changes. When this occurs,
it is the wavelength, λ, that also changes while the frequency, f, remains constant.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● A displacement versus time graph of a wave shows the period, T, of the wave.
●● A displacement versus distance graph of a wave shows the wavelength, λ, of the wave.
1
●● The frequency of a wave is the inverse of its period, i.e. f = and vice versa.
T
●● The velocity of a wave is the product of its frequency and wavelength: v = f λ.

CHECK YOUR
1 Using a sketch, show how the amplitude of a wave can be represented on a displacement versus position UNDERSTANDING
graph.
2 Sketch a displacement versus position graph of a wave with a wavelength of 8 cm and amplitude of 3 cm. 7.5
Label this as wave A. On the same axes, sketch wave B with half the amplitude and the same wavelength as
wave A.
3 a Explain why a displacement versus time graph does not show the wavelength of a wave.
b What extra information about the wave would you need to be able to calculate its wavelength?
4 With reference to the appropriate equation, show why the wavelength of a wave must decrease if the wave
slows down but its frequency remains the same.
5 Calculate the speed of a wave that has a frequency of 2.00 × 103 Hz and a wavelength of 7.50 × 10–1 m. Give
your answer with the correct number of significant figures and correct units.
6 Find the frequency of a wave that has a period of 2.00 × 10–2 s.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 205

 7   CHAPTER SUMMARY
◗◗ Mechanical waves travel through a medium. ◗◗ All waves possess the characteristics of amplitude A,
wavelength λ, frequency f, period T, speed v and
◗◗ Energy is transported from one place to another by a
wavenumber k.
mechanical wave.
◗◗ The displacement of a particle in the medium as a wave
◗◗ The particles in the medium oscillate as a mechanical wave
passes is its distance from its rest position.
passes.
◗◗ Waves can be represented using displacement versus time
◗◗ The medium itself does not travel with the wave.
and displacement versus position graphs.
◗◗ Examples of mechanical waves are sound, water and
◗◗ Both types of graphs show the wave’s amplitude.
seismic waves.
◗◗ A displacement versus time graph shows the wave’s
◗◗ Longitudinal waves involve a back-and-forth motion of the
period, T.
particles in the medium as the wave passes.
◗◗ A displacement versus position graph shows the wave’s
◗◗ Transverse waves involve an up-and-down or side-to-side
wavelength, λ.
motion of the particles in the medium as the wave passes.
◗◗ A displacement versus time graph of a wave shows the
◗◗ Transverse waves reflect upright at a free end, and inverted
period, T, of the wave.
at a fixed end.
◗◗ A displacement versus distance graph of a wave shows the
◗◗ Electromagnetic waves can be modelled as electric and
wavelength, λ, of the wave.
magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to each other.
◗◗ The frequency of a wave is the inverse of its period, i.e.
◗◗ Electromagnetic waves do not need a medium. 1
f = and vice versa.
◗◗ In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed T
of light: 3.0 × 108 m s–1. ◗◗ The velocity of a wave is the product of its frequency and
wavelength: v = f λ .
◗◗ The range of electromagnetic waves make up the
electromagnetic spectrum.

7   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

Qz

Review quiz

1 Give three examples of mechanical waves. 7 Classify the following examples of waves or pulses as
mechanical or electromagnetic and as transverse or
2 What do mechanical waves require in order for them to
longitudinal.
travel?
a P wave
3 What do you call waves that travel through Earth’s rock
b Rayleigh wave
layers that are the result of earthquakes or explosions?
c Waves produced by the wind on the water
4 a Identify the type of mechanical wave that requires a
d Visible light from the Sun
solid medium to move through.
e Waves produced by the vibrating air column of a
b By referring to the type of motion within the medium,
trombone
explain why these mechanical waves cannot travel
through liquids or gases. 8 Two waves travelling at the same speed are observed to
have different wavelengths. Explain, using an appropriate
5 The velocity of a transverse wave in a string stretched
equation, how it is also known that the frequencies of
between two points is 240 m s–1. The end of the string is
these two waves must also be different.
vibrating at a frequency of 480 Hz. What is the wavelength
of the wave in the string? 9 The unit of frequency, Hz, has the dimension of s–1. Show
1
6 The speed of sound in water is more than four times the that the formula T = gives the correct units for the
speed of sound in air; water is much denser than air. Why period, T. f
does sound travel faster in water than in air?

206 CHAPTER THREE

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063
 10 In a diagram, show an example of a single pulse in a 15 Using the example of sound waves travelling down a
spring being reflected at: person’s ear canal, describe how the medium does not
a a free end. travel with a wave but only vibrates as the wave passes.
b a fixed end. 16 In a vacuum and in air, light travels at 3.0 × 108 m s–1.
Humans can see ranges of wavelengths from about 400 nm
11 As a pulse travels down a spring, its amplitude is observed
to 700 nm. What is the frequency range of human sight?
to decrease. Does the speed of this pulse also decrease?
Explain your answer. 17 Many science fiction movies show a spaceship in outer
space moving past with a roar of sound. Explain why this
12 The upper range of human hearing is 20 kHz. If sound
is not correct.
travels at 340 m s–1, what is the:
a wavelength of this sound? 18 How do you know that energy has been transferred when
sound travels from a speaker to a person’s ear?
b wavenumber of this sound?
19 Given the speed of light is 3.0 × 108 m s–1 and that the
13 A seismic wave travelling through rock at 4.00 × 103 m s–1
wavelength of red light is 620 nm, calculate the frequency
has a frequency of 0.2 Hz. What is its wavelength?
of red light.
14 An electromagnetic wave is travelling through a vacuum.
a Is there any particle vibration involved in such a wave
motion? Explain.
b Describe the nature of the oscillations involved in such
a wave.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 7 » WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 207

 8 Wave behaviour
OUTCOMES Students:
•• explain the behaviour of waves in a variety of situations by investigating the phenomena of:
INQUIRY QUESTION – reflection
– refraction
How do waves behave? – diffraction
– wave superposition (ACSPH071, ACSPH072)
•• conduct an investigation to distinguish between progressive and standing waves (ACSPH072)
•• conduct an investigation to explore resonance in mechanical systems and the relationships between: CCT
– driving frequency
– natural frequency of the oscillating system
– amplitude of motion
– transfer/transformation of energy within the system (ACSPH073) ICT N
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
Shutterstock.com/Grezova Olga

208 9780170409063
 Our understanding of the behaviour of waves is crucial

Alamy Stock Photo/ILYA GENKIN

to being able to manipulate them and to use them for
the benefit of our technological society. Understanding
how waves reflect, refract, diffract and superpose has
allowed us to apply this knowledge in many ways. Some
of these applications include better camera lenses,
building telescopes that can receive signals from just
after the Big Bang, and detecting toxic substances at
extremely low concentrations.
In this chapter, wave behaviour will be investigated
and the differences between progressive and stationary
waves will be explored. Resonance and its applications
will also be discussed, where the motion of systems as FIGURE 8.1  The Parkes radio telescope uses
diverse as a child’s swing to a collapsing road bridge will the behaviour of waves to probe and gather
information from deep space.
be explained.

8.1 Reflection of waves We can represent

the direction of
travel of a series
There are many examples in everyday life of waves being reflected. We have all looked into a mirror, and of waves by a
single line, a ray,
similarly, we have all seen our reflected image. We can observe water waves ‘bouncing’ back off a wall which is drawn
in a pool or from a sea wall. Echoes are experienced when sound waves reflect back to the observer off perpendicular to
the wavefronts.
a wall or cliff face. Air traffic controllers and ships use radar, the reflection of microwaves, for navigation This simplification
and position finding. Even your microwave oven uses reflection as the microwaves bounce around off the is used in
the study of
metal walls until they are eventually absorbed by the food being heated. geometrical
Figure 8.2 represents how a wave, depicted here as a single line, or ray, behaves when it reflects off optics where we
only consider
a surface. A construction line, the normal, perpendicular to the reflecting surface, is shown. All angles the ray or rays.
are measured from the ray to the normal, not to the reflecting surface. The incident ray has an angle of Chapter 10 deals
with rays in detail.
incidence, θi, while the reflected ray has an angle of reflection, θr.
Reflection also works when the direction of the wave is reversed.
The law of reflection can be stated as ‘the angle of incidence, θi, equals the angle of reflection, θr’.
That is,
θi = θr
When a wave is reflected, neither the speed Normal
of the wave nor its shape are altered. Curved
mirrors may distort an image, but blue light is
Incident Reflected
always reflected as blue and a ‘coo-ee!’ echoes
light ray light ray
back as the same sound.
The reflection of waves can be used for a
variety of purposes.
i r

Reflection off plane surfaces

Flat mirrors are an example of reflection off
Smooth surface
plane surfaces. The image is reflected without
distortion. These mirrors are used in everyday
applications such as bathrooms and in shops. FIGURE 8.2  The law of reflection, showing angles of incidence and reflection, which
are measured against a perpendicular construction line – the normal
At each point along the mirror, a normal will be

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 209

 Incident Reflected parallel to any other normal, as shown in Figure 8.3. This results in a reflected
parallel rays parallel rays image being seen in the mirror that has the same shape as the original object,
as parallel waves are reflected parallel.

Reflection off concave surfaces

Figure 8.4 shows an application of reflection using a concave surface. Car
headlights need to concentrate a narrow beam of light. The headlight globe
is placed at the focal point facing a parabolic concave reflecting surface. The
Normal focal point is the place where incoming parallel rays of light will intersect when
they are reflected. It is also the place where a source of light will produce rays
FIGURE 8.3  A plane mirror has normals parallel to
each other. that reflect off the mirror to form parallel rays of light, as shown in Figure 8.4.
The light is then reflected ahead of the vehicle in a narrow beam.

a
Parabolically shaped mirror

Getty Images/Ben Welsh

Light source
(at focal point)

FIGURE 8.4  a A diagram showing that a headlight globe placed at the focal point of a parabolic mirror has the light reflected in a narrow beam ahead
of the vehicle; b A car headlight constructed using the same geometry

Satellite dishes, as shown in Figure 8.5, are designed

Alamy Stock Photo/Majoros Laszlo

to reflect the incident microwaves towards the focal

point, where the antenna itself is placed. In this way, very
weak signals can be collected over a large area. The dish
is a parabolic curve. Curves that have a circular shape do
not have a single focal point.

WS

Worksheets
Reflection
Homework of
waves

FIGURE 8.5  A typical parabolic satellite dish with the antenna placed at the
focal point

210 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 8.1

Applications of reflection

AIM
To investigate the application of different shapes used to reflect waves

MATERIALS

•• Paper
•• Pen
•• Pencil
•• Ruler
•• Protractor

METHOD

1 On paper, trace a curve that is parabolic in shape and another curve that is an arc of a circle. Each curve
should be about half a page in size. (A suitable parabolic curve can be found on the internet and then
drawn by placing a piece of paper on your device’s screen.)
2 Using a protractor, construct six normals to the surface of the curves at different locations.
3 Following the example shown in Figure 8.4, construct incident rays that are parallel – one ray for each
normal you have drawn. The rays should meet the curves at a point where you have drawn a normal.
4 Obeying the law of reflection, draw the reflected ray for each of the incident rays. Remember to measure
the incident and reflected angles from the ray to the normal.
5 Compare the two diagrams you have just drawn.

RESULTS
Write down your comparison beneath the diagrams.

DISCUSSION

1 Outline the differences you observed between the reflection from the parabola and that from the arc.
2 Discuss the suitability of each curved shape for reflecting waves.
3 Explain why parabolic shapes are preferred in many applications.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Reflection off convex surfaces

iStock.com/Leadinglights

FIGURE 8.6 A
convex mirror gives a
Mirrors that have a slightly convex surface are used wide field of view
to give a wider view. Applications include side
mirrors on cars, which allow the driver to see what
otherwise would be a blind spot in their vision.
Some shops install convex mirrors at strategic
locations so that the shopkeeper can see what is
happening in all corners of the shop. Traffic mirrors
are also useful in situations where drivers need to
see a wider view, as shown in Figure 8.6.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 211

 INVESTIGATION 8.2

Reflection of light from a variety of surfaces

AIM
To investigate the reflection of light from plane, concave and convex surfaces

MATERIALS

•• Ray box kits

•• Power packs
•• Protractor
•• Pencil, ruler and paper
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Power packs use a 240 V mains power supply. Devices plugged into 240 V mains power should be kept well
away from water.
The laboratory may be darkened. Trip hazards such as bags should be placed away carefully.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Set up a ray box so there are three or more parallel rays of light coming from the end of the ray box.
2 Trace the incident rays on each of the following mirror surfaces:
• Plane mirror
• Concave mirror
• Convex mirror
To do this, place the apparatus on paper and use a ruler and pencil to trace the rays. Draw arrows on the
rays to show the direction of travel of the light.
3 At each point on the diagrams wherever an incident ray strikes the mirror, construct a normal to the surface
of the mirror.
4 Using a protractor, measure the angle of incidence, θi, and the corresponding angle of reflection, θr, for
each point. Verify that the law of reflection has been obeyed.

RESULTS
The results of this investigation should be kept or photographed for your files.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Suggest ways in which the accuracy of this investigation could be improved.

DISCUSSION

1 In which cases were the reflected rays:

a parallel?
b diverging?
c converging?
2 Relate the way in which parallel rays of light are reflected to the applications of each of the shapes
investigated.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

212 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 KEY
CONCEPTS
●● When waves reflect off a surface, they obey the law of reflection: θi = θr.
●● Reflection can occur using plane, convex or concave surfaces.
●● Applications of reflection include mirrors, satellite dishes, radio telescopes and traffic mirrors.

CHECK YOUR
1 State the law of reflection. UNDERSTANDING
2 What is the meaning of an ‘incident’ ray?
3 Identify one use of a parabolic mirror. 8.1
4 An echo is heard exactly 2.0 s after a sound is made. How far away is the surface where the sound was
reflected?
5 ‘Reflection of light allows us to see objects that do not emit their own light.’ Use a simple diagram to
explain this statement.
6 Using a sketch showing incident and reflected rays of light and θi = θr, show why a mirror only needs to be
half your height for you to see your whole body reflected in it.

8.2 Refraction of waves

When waves move from one medium into another, their speed may change. Light slows down when
entering water after travelling through air. It slows down even further when travelling through glass.
Waves can also change speed when the nature of the medium changes. Water waves travel more
slowly in shallow water than in deep water. If the wave enters the new medium at an angle other than
perpendicular, the change in its speed will cause it to change direction. This change of direction is called
refraction.
The refraction of waves has many uses. Lenses used in glasses, cameras and telescopes, as well as
the lens and cornea in the human eye, use refraction to bend light to form an image. A consequence of
refraction, total internal reflection, allows fibre optics to carry information encoded in beams of light. The
internet relies on such information transfer.
When a wave is refracted, the speed changes but the frequency remains constant. The frequency
of a wave is determined by the vibrations of the source of the wave. Therefore, the wavelength of the
wave must also change in the same ratio as the change in the wave’s speed. When a wave changes speed
when entering a new medium at an angle other than perpendicular to the boundary, the wave changes
direction (as discussed in the next section).

Refraction of sound waves

Temperature differences in the same medium will also cause refraction because the density of the
medium changes with temperature. For example, sound travels faster in warm air.
If a wave meets the interface at right angles, it will not change direction but its speed and wavelength
will change. If it meets the interface at any other angle, its direction will change, as shown in Figure 8.7
(page 214). It is important to recall from chapter 7 that when a wave changes speed, the frequency of the
wave does not change, only the wavelength.
The relationship v = f λ can be used to calculate the change in the wavelength of the wave when its
speed changes.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 213

 a Warm air (1) b
Warm air (1)

Speed1

Speed1
u1

u2

Speed2

Speed2
Cool air (2) Cool air (2)

FIGURE 8.7  a A sound wave is refracted (changes direction) when it meets the boundary between two layers at an angle
other than a right angle. b When a wave enters perpendicular to the surface, there is no change in direction. Speed and
wavelength both change, but frequency remains constant.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.1

Sound waves from a source vibrating at 680 Hz are travelling through air at 340 m s−1.
1 What is the wavelength of these sound waves?
2 The sound waves enter cooler air and slow to 320 m s−1. What is the wavelength of the sound waves
now?

ANSWERS LOGIC
−1
1 f = 680 Hz; v = 340 m s •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

v= fλ •• Identify the appropriate formula.

v •• Rearrange the formula.

λ=
f

•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

340 m s −1
=
  680 Hz
 λ = 0.500 m •• Express the answer with the correct significant figures
and units.
2   f = 680 Hz; v = 320 m s−1 •• Identify the relevant data in the question (note: frequency
remains constant).

v= fλ •• Identify the appropriate formula.

v •• Rearrange the formula.

λ=
f

•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

320 m s −1
=
  680 Hz
 λ = 0.471 m •• Express the answer with the correct significant figures
and units.

214 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Water waves with a frequency of 0.20 Hz are travelling at 8.0 m s−1. They enter deeper water and
speed up to 10 m s−1.
a What is the wavelength of the waves originally?
b What is the new wavelength of these water waves after they speed up?
2 Sound waves with a frequency of 915 Hz are travelling through air at 340 m s−1. They then enter water
and speed up to 1500 m s−1. What are the original and new wavelengths for the sound waves?

Refraction of sound waves is evident in situations where the sound wave passes through a medium
with gradually varying properties. This commonly occurs in the atmosphere where there is a gradual
change in temperature with height. On occasions, the air higher up is warmer than air closer to the
surface. This is known as a temperature inversion, as it is the opposite to the usual situation. Temperature
inversions usually occur in winter at night when the ground cools quickly, cooling the air immediately
above it.

knilbeW
During the day, the air close to the ground is warmed by the ground and the temperature decreases
with height, creating a temperature gradient (Figure 8.8). Demonstrations
of the
Sound travels faster in warmer air, so the edge of the wave in the warmer air travels faster than the refraction of
waves
edge of the wave in the cool air. This causes a gentle refraction (bending) of the wave away from the Further information
ground when the warm air is lower down. The reverse can happen at night when the ground is cooler on the refraction of
sound waves within
than the air above it. The implication is that on nights when the ground is cooler than the air above it, a temperature
gradient
you can clearly hear sounds coming from a distant source.

Cool air Warm air

Warm air Cool air

FIGURE 8.8  Refraction of sound in reverse temperature gradients

Wavefronts
When ocean waves approach a shoreline at an angle
WS
other than 90°, the wavefronts bend towards the shore.
A wavefront is a line perpendicular to the direction of Worksheets
Refraction
Homeworkand

the propagation of the wave along which the wave is wavefronts

at the same part of its cycle, or oscillation. Wavefronts

can be seen as lines of waves in the ocean, as shown in
Figure 8.9. Here, wavefronts can be seen bending around
a rocky island. The change in their direction is in part
due to the waves’ speed being slower in the shallower
water closer to the island. This causes refraction, or FIGURE 8.9  Ocean waves showing wavefronts
bending, towards the island. bending around a rocky island

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 215

 INVESTIGATION 8.3

Observing everyday refraction

AIM
To observe the refraction of light in everyday examples

MATERIALS

•• Reading glasses or magnifying lens

•• Beaker of water
•• Stick or rod
•• Power pack
•• Ray box kit with lenses

! WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
RISK
ASSESSMENT Power packs have 240 V of mains electricity. Devices plugged into 240 V mains power should be kept well
away from water.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Place a stick in a beaker of water and observe from different angles how the stick appears to be bent.
2 Hold a pair of reading glasses or a magnifying lens at arm’s length. Observe the way in which light is bent
as it passes through the lens.
3 Trace rays of light coming from a ray box as they pass through a convex lens and a concave lens. Note how
the rays tend to bend towards the normal where they strike the surface of the lens in the first instance.
4 Make a permanent record of your observations by taking photos of the investigation.

RESULTS
Record your results and observations. Traces of the light rays and lenses should be kept with your notes.

DISCUSSION
In each case observed, describe exactly where the light is being refracted.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● In different mediums, a wave can have different speeds.

●● When a wave changes speed, its frequency remains constant and its wavelength changes
because its speed has changed; for example, v = f λ – the velocity of a wave equals the product
of its frequency and wavelength.
●● If a wave enters a different medium at an angle other than 90°, it will change direction and
refract.

216 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 CHECK YOUR
1 A swimmer opens their eyes underwater and sees a blurry image of a towel on the side of the pool. The UNDERSTANDING
colour of the towel is the same seen from underwater as it is from above the water. If light waves slow
down in water, how can this be so? 8.2
2 Explain why a spoon standing in a glass of water appears to be bent.
3 Describe two examples of applications of refraction.
4 A hunter is hoping to spear a fish in a shallow pond, but does not aim directly at where the fish is observed
by the hunter. Explain why this may still lead to success for the hunter.
5 A wave enters a different medium and slows down to half its original speed. Describe what effect this has
on the wave’s frequency and wavelength.

8.3 Diffraction of waves

Diffraction is the spreading of waves into a space beyond a gap or an obstacle.
Figure 8.10 shows how a sound can still be heard even if the source is not in
a direct line with your ears.
If you are sitting in a room reading, you can still be aware of a radio or TV
in another room. In this situation, the sound will have both reflected and
bent around corners and/or obstacles to reach your ears. The phenomenon
of waves bending around corners or obstacles is known as diffraction. The
waves spread out into the whole region as shown in Figure 8.11.
When you are listening to a loudspeaker, the higher pitched sounds
(shorter wavelengths) will be best heard in front of the speaker. This is
because higher pitched sounds have shorter wavelengths and are diffracted
less than the longer wavelengths. The lower pitched sounds (longer
FIGURE 8.10  Simplified diagram of sound waves
wavelengths) will be heard in front and to the sides of the speaker. diffracted through an open door
The shorter wavelengths will be more directional – they will pass through
openings with less bending or spreading than the longer wavelengths. The
amount of diffraction of sound depends on the ratio of λ to w, where w is the slit width.
This is shown in Figure 8.12. The smaller the opening for a given wavelength, the more
diffraction there will be and the greater the angle of spread. Also, the longer the wavelength
for a given opening, the more diffraction there will be and the greater the angle of spread.

a b c Shadow

Shadow
Shadow

Spread
d f
e
FIGURE 8.11  Waves spread out
after passing through a gap. This is
called diffraction.

Shadow

FIGURE 8.12  Diffraction of water waves: a Short wavelength around an object; b Long wavelength
around an object; c Short wavelength through a gap; d Long wavelength through the same gap; e Short
wavelength around the edge of a barrier; f Long wavelength around the edge of the same barrier

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 217

 For substantial diffraction to occur, the wavelength must be similar to the size of the aperture (opening)
through which it passes. Loud music on a car system always sounds much the same outside the car no matter
what is being played because only the low frequency sound waves are diffracted effectively through a window.
The wavelength of low frequency sound waves (for example, where f  = 100  Hz) can be calculated using
v = f λ, as done previously. Higher frequency sound waves with frequencies of 1000  Hz will have much
shorter wavelengths and will therefore not undergo diffraction as much when they pass through a car window.
When sound waves are diffracted, there is no change to the speed, wavelength or frequency.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.2

1 Calculate the wavelengths for sound waves with frequencies of:

a 100 Hz
b 1000 Hz
(Use the speed of sound as 340 m s−1.)
2 Compare these wavelengths to the width of a typical car window (0.40 m).

ANSWERS LOGIC
−1
1 a v = 340 m s ; f = 100 Hz •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

v= fλ •• Identify the appropriate formula.

 
v •• Rearrange the formula.
λ=
f

•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

340 m s −1
=
100 Hz
 λ = 3.40 m •• Calculate the answer and express with correct significant figures
and units.
b v = 340 m s−1; f = 1000 Hz •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

v= fλ •• Identify the appropriate formula.

v •• Rearrange the formula.

λ=
f

•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

340 m s −1
=
1000 Hz
λ = 0.340 m •• Calculate the answer and express with correct significant figures
and units.
2 Therefore, sound with a low frequency is diffracted
through a car window more than a higher frequency
sound as its wavelength is much longer than the size of the
opening. The wavelength of the higher frequency sound is
about the same length as the size of the opening.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A sound wave is passing through an opening with a diameter of 3.0 m. What is the frequency of the
sound with the same wavelength as the width of the opening?
2 A sound has a frequency of 3.0 kHz. What is the width of an opening that has the same size as the
wavelength of this sound?

218 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Diffraction and echolocation
Echolocation is a technique used by some mammals that use sound echoes instead of light reflection to
help them ‘see’ in the dark or in poor light. Bats use ultrasound to locate their prey. The frequencies used
range from 20 kHz up to 200 kHz. Sound waves can only reflect from an object if its wavelength is similar
to or less than the size of the object. If a sound wave has a long wavelength, it is completely diffracted
around the object and there is no reflection. This puts a limit on the smallest size prey a bat can hunt.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.3

If the echolocation frequency of a bat is 100 000 Hz, what is the smallest prey it can locate? (Assume the
speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1.)

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
  v = 340 m s ; f = 100 000 Hz •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

v= fλ •• Identify the appropriate formula.

v
λ= •• Rearrange the formula.
f
•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
340 m s −1
= −1
  100 000 s
λ = 0.003 40 m •• Calculate the answer.
−3
λ = 3.40 × 10  m •• Express the answer with the correct significant figures and
units.
That is 3.40 mm, a mosquito-sized meal.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Dolphins also use echolocation to catch their prey, using frequencies of about 20 000 Hz. Given that the
speed of sound in salt water is 1531 m s−1, what is the smallest-sized fish a dolphin could locate?
2 What frequency would be needed for an echolocation device that is designed to detect an object
1.0 mm in size?
KEY
CONCEPTS

●● Diffraction is the spreading of waves into a space beyond a gap or obstacle.

●● The greater the wavelength compared to the object or aperture, the greater the spreading.
●● When waves are diffracted, there is no change to the speed, wavelength or frequency of the
wave.

CHECK YOUR
1 In a game of hide and seek, a girl hiding behind a large tree can hear her friend approaching from the other UNDERSTANDING
side of the tree. Using a sketch, show how diffraction of sound is involved in this scenario.
2 A sound wave with a frequency of 30 kHz is sent out by a dolphin in sea water. What is the smallest object 8.3
that the dolphin’s echolocation could detect?
3 The wavelength of visible light ranges from approximately 400 × 10− 9 m to 800 × 10− 9 m. Explain why the
diffraction of light is not normally observed in everyday situations.
4 AM radio waves have frequencies of around 1000 kHz. FM radio is around 100 MHz, while digital TV
transmissions have frequencies around 600 MHz. Of these three, AM radio is least affected by hills and
buildings in the way. By calculating the wavelengths for each of the three transmissions, show why this is
so by referring to the phenomenon of diffraction.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 219

 8.4 Wave superposition
Waves of the same nature (either longitudinal or transverse) and in the same medium can pass through
each other. Their displacements add algebraically as they interact, then resume their original shape.
This is superposition. Usually superposition results in a messy combination. At any point, constructive
interference (larger amplitude) or destructive interference (reduced amplitude) may occur, depending on
the two waves.
Figures 8.13 and 8.14 shows examples of how constructive and destructive interference can occur
when two waves coincide and overlap. Two identical waves with their crests coinciding will add to form
a resultant wave with twice the amplitude of the original waves. If the two waves arrive at the same place
with a crest from one wave coinciding with a trough from the other, the waves’ displacements will cancel
completely. Such a situation is shown in Figure 8.14.
If two waves with different wavelengths coincide and overlap, the resultant wave has alternating
regions of constructive and destructive interference, as shown in Figure 8.15.

FIGURE 8.13 Two
waves constructively
interfering, having
crests coinciding with
crests and troughs
coinciding with
troughs

Red wave 5 blue wave 1 green wave

FIGURE 8.14 Two
waves destructively
interfering, having
crests coinciding with
troughs

Red wave 5 blue wave 1 green wave

WS
FIGURE 8.15 Two
Worksheets
waves with different
Superposing
Homework
wavelengths 2.5
waves in Excel
coinciding to
produce a resultant 2
wave showing
both constructive 1.5
and destructive
interference 1

0.5

0
Weblink
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Superposition 20.5
and interference
of waves 21
Animations by
Pennsylvania State 21.5
University showing
superposition and
interference of waves
22

220 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Acoustics and the principle of superposition

AAP Image/TRACEY NEARMY

The field of acoustics and acoustic engineering predicts and analyses the
behaviour of sound waves inside buildings. Buildings that are constructed for
concerts, speeches or the theatre have appropriate sound qualities. Figure 8.16
shows the circular rings placed above the stage of the Concert Hall in the
Sydney Opera House. These rings were added after the Concert Hall was
opened in the 1970s and it was found that the acoustics (sound properties)
of the building made it difficult to hear the orchestra playing on the stage.
The rings reflect some of the sound back towards the audience. Without the
rings, sound waves were undergoing destructive interference after reflecting FIGURE 8.16  The reflective rings above the stage
of the Concert Hall in the Sydney Opera House
off several different surfaces, making the orchestra sound muffled and without
the clarity expected.
Nowadays, computer simulations used by acoustic engineers help prevent such mistakes
from occurring. The superposition of sound waves forms the basis for this interesting field
of study.

INVESTIGATION 8.4

Destructive and constructive interference in the classroom

AIM
To experience how destructive and constructive interference can occur with sound in a classroom

MATERIALS

•• 2 signal generators (e.g. phones using apps to play the sounds through suitable speakers)
•• Optional: smartphone app that measures sound level intensity

METHOD

1 Place the two speakers playing the same sine wave sound with exactly the same frequencies at
least 3 m apart at the front of the room. The ideal frequency is around 600 Hz.
2 Commencing in a position equidistant from the two speakers, move slowly to one side of the
room or the other, listening very carefully for changes to the sound from the speakers.
3 Measure how far sideways you need to move between two points that both have constructive
interference occurring. A smartphone app that measures sound level intensity could be used to
assist with these observations.

RESULTS
Record your results regarding the variation in the loudness of the sound heard and the distance
moved in your notes. To do this, construct a scale map of the room and mark the points where
constructive and destructive interference is observed along the line that you have moved.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Calculate the wavelength, λ, of the sound played by the speakers (use vsound = 340 m s−1).
2 Compare the wavelength of the sound waves with the distance you needed to move between
two points with constructive interference.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 221

 DISCUSSION

1 Explain why destructive and constructive interference was occurring between the two sources of sound.
Weblink
Examples of 2 Use a diagram to explain your results obtained for the distance between two points with constructive
reverberation interference, making references to interference of waves and the wavelength of the sound waves
Use these examples
to increase your
calculated above.
understanding of
reverberation. CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

INVESTIGATION 8.5

The principle of superposition

AIM
To demonstrate the principle of superposition

MATERIALS

•• Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) with two inputs

•• 2 microphones
•• Signal generators or sound sources (such as guitars)
•• Camera, mobile phone, laptop or tablet with videoing capability
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW WILL YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Electrical equipment is dangerous if water is present. Devices plugged into 240 V mains power should be kept
well away from water.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Connect the microphones to the CRO and have two separate sound sources (either signal
generators or musical instruments such as guitars) generating sounds of slightly different
frequencies being fed into the two microphones.
2 Adjust the CRO vertical scale so that each microphone’s input has approximately the same
vertical scale when displayed separately.
3 Now change the display mode to ‘add’ so that the signal from each microphone is added to form
one waveform.
4 Observe the alternating periods of constructive and destructive interference both with your ears
and on the CRO display.

RESULTS
Record your observations by videoing the changing display on the CRO screen or by taking
snapshots of the screen at different times.

222 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 DISCUSSION

1 How did the waveform displayed on the CRO change over time?
2 How did the waveform on the CRO relate to the sound that you heard?
3 How is the principle of superposition involved with these observations?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Musical instruments and their characteristic sound

A single musical instrument’s sound wave may be the result of many component sound waves that
contribute to the recognisable sound that is heard. For example, a saxophone sounds different to a
clarinet due to the different component sounds produced, even when they play the same note. This
is despite both instruments using a vibrating reed (thin piece of bamboo) to generate the sound. The
vibrations of the instruments themselves cause sound waves with different, unique shapes. As well as
having different shapes, waves with different frequencies are generated that add, or superpose, to make
the one resultant sound waves that we hear. The overall shape is the result of many superpositions and
is unique to each instrument, making them recognisable.
A simple investigation can be performed that explains how superposition is the result of the addition
of the component waves’ displacements along the waves.

INVESTIGATION 8.6

Constructing a resultant wave using the principle

of superposition

AIM
To apply the principle of superposition to produce a resultant waveform from two component waves

MATERIALS

•• Grid paper (preferably 10 mm × 10 mm grids)

•• Pencil
•• Ruler

METHOD

1 On the grid paper, draw a graph of a wave commencing at the origin with wavelength λ = 8 cm and
amplitude A = 3 cm. Label this wave A.
2 On the same axes, draw a graph of a wave commencing at the origin with λ = 12 cm and A = 2 cm.
Label this wave B.
3 For each grid line, plot the sum of the two waves’ displacements from the horizontal axis.
4 Join the dots you have plotted with a curved dashed line. An example is shown in Figure 8.17.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 223

 DISCUSSION
FIGURE 8.17 A
1 dashed line why destructive and constructive interference was occurring between the two sources of sound.
Explain
representing
2 theUse a diagram
resultant of to explain your results obtained for the distance between two points with constructive
superposition of two
interference, making references to interference of waves and the wavelength of the sound waves

Displacement
component waves
calculated above.

CONCLUSION Time
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Wave A Wave B

RESULTS
Label the curved dashed line you have constructed as A + B. This is the resultant wave.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Measure the amplitude of the resultant wave A + B.

2 Label regions of wave A + B where constructive and destructive interference have occurred between the
original wave A and wave B.

DISCUSSION

1 Describe the shape of the resultant wave A + B compared with the original component wave A and
wave B.
2 Compare the size of the resultant wave A + B in the regions where it was formed by constructive and by
destructive interference of the original component wave A and wave B.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

Further uses of ●● The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves coincide, their
superposition of displacements add to form a resultant wave.
sound waves will
●● When the crests and troughs from two component waves arrive at the same time, constructive
be discussed in
chapter 9. interference results.
●● When a crest from one wave coincides with a trough from the other wave, destructive
interference results.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 When two waves overlap, the resultant wave has a smaller amplitude than either component wave. What
type of interference is this?
8.4 2 In order to find the resultant wave’s displacement when two waves overlap, what calculation must be
performed?
3 After two waves have overlapped and superposition has occurred, does the speed of the two component
waves change?
4 Would it be possible for two sounds to be played simultaneously so that no sound would be heard?

224 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 8.5 Standing waves
A standing wave (often called a stationary wave) is one that does not appear to be travelling through
the medium or along the length of the string or spring. The particles in the medium will move in their
transverse or longitudinal vibration mode but the wave does not appear to go anywhere. If you shake
waves into a string that is fixed at the other end, the forwards-moving waves and the reflected waves
will interfere and superpose along the string. Usually the effect is messy, but at just the right frequency, a
fixed pattern of maximum and minimum displacements will appear. A standing wave has been formed.
Standing waves can be created in stretched strings, springs and in air columns in pipes. This is used
extensively in musical instruments to make resonant sounds.
A standing wave such as that shown in Figure 8.18 is created when two waves of the same frequency
and amplitude, but travelling in opposite directions, exist in a medium. The length of the string, spring or
air column must also have a relationship with the wavelength of the wave. Figure 8.18 shows the length
of the string being the wavelength of the wave in the string.
The nodes are points where destructive interference always occurs. At these points, at any moment in
time, the amplitudes of the two waves are always the same magnitude but in opposite directions. When a
crest of one wave passes through this point, a trough of the
same size from the reflected wave travelling in the opposite Node Node Node
direction is also passing this point. When the displacement
l
due to one wave is half the amplitude, the displacement
1 Source 2 Reflection point
due to the other wave is also half the amplitude, but in the
opposite direction, and so on. Whatever the displacement
due to one wave, the displacement due to the other is Displacement
the same size but the opposite direction. Superposition Distance
means that these two displacements add to give a total 2
displacement of zero at any time. This is why a particle at Antinode Antinode

a node does not move, even though waves are travelling

through the point.
FIGURE 8.18  A standing wave in a stretched string fixed at both ends
At the antinodes, the particles move up and down showing the nodes and antinodes. The solid line represents the string’s
repeatedly and reach the maximum displacement possible. displacement at an instant in time, and the dotted line the string’s
T 
The maximum displacement occurs when two crests (or displacement half a period   later.
2
two troughs) meet at this point to give a displacement
equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.
The frequency with which the particles in the medium
move up and down is the same as the wave frequency.
In between nodes and antinodes, the particles oscillate up and down with the same frequency, but
with smaller amplitudes, to produce the pattern shown in Figure 8.18.
Standing wave patterns are always characterised by an alternating pattern of nodes and antinodes.
The distance between consecutive nodes or between consecutive antinodes along the string or spring is
λ
half a wavelength, .
2
Despite their appearance, it is important to keep in mind that when standing waves are observed,
they are the result of two waves that are travelling in opposite directions. The standing wave is a result of
the superposition of the two travelling waves.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 225

 INVESTIGATION 8.7

Using standing waves to calculate the speed of waves in a spring

AIM
To observe the effect of stretching a spring on the speed of waves in a spring by observing and measuring
standing waves

HYPOTHESIS
Stretching a spring further increases the speed of the waves travelling in the spring.

MATERIALS

•• Slinky springs •• Stopwatch

•• Metre ruler •• Optional: digital camera or recording device (e.g.
phone, tablet or laptop)
METHOD

1 Extend a slinky spring along the ground and fix or hold one end still. Have another person at the free end
move the spring side to side and observe a travelling wave pass down the spring. Adjust the stretch of the
spring to ensure that the wave reaches the end of the spring.
2 Again with the other end of the spring held fixed, make the side-to-side motion regularly and gradually
increase the frequency until the waves in the spring appear to become stationary. You will observe nodes
and antinodes appear along the spring that do not appear to be travelling along the spring.
3 Maintain the frequency with which the spring is being moved while a second person uses a stopwatch to
time 10 full side-to-side motions. Record the result.
4 While step 3 is being performed, a third person measures the distance between two successive nodes in the
spring using a metre ruler. Note that the fixed end of the spring is also a node. Record this measurement.
5 If possible, have another person use a digital camera or recording device to record this investigation.
6 Repeat the above method after stretching the spring further.

RESULTS
As stated in the method, record the time taken for 10 full side-to-side motions to be completed and record the
distance between two successive nodes.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Calculate the period, T, of the waves in the spring by dividing the time taken for 10 full side-to-side
movements by 10.
1
2 Calculate the frequency of the waves using f = .
T
λ
3 Using the fact that the distance between two successive nodes is equal to (see Figure 8.18), calculate
2
the wavelength, λ, of the waves in the spring.
4 Finally, using v = f λ, calculate the speed of the waves in the spring.
Weblink 5 Repeat these calculations and analysis for the results taken with the spring stretched further.
Standing waves in
a string
DISCUSSION
This interactive
simulation can be
used to generate
1 Given that there is only one source of wave motion in the spring, explain how the reflection of waves plays
standing waves in the a part in the production of standing waves in the spring.
string.
2 Discuss why the amount of stretch in the spring affects the speed of waves in the spring.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the hypothesis of this
investigation.

226 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 KEY
CONCEPTS
●● Travelling waves can be seen moving through the medium.
●● Standing waves appear to be stationary (standing still); however, they are the result of the
superposition of two waves – one being the transmitted wave and the other the reflected wave.

CHECK YOUR
1 Give an example of a standing wave and describe what it looks like. UNDERSTANDING
2 Could a standing wave be produced from just one wave travelling in a medium without reflection? Explain
your answer. 8.5
3 Do reflected waves move with the same speed as the incident waves in a medium?
4 What is the name of the point on a standing wave where the displacement is:
a a maximum?
b always zero?
5 Outline a method that could be used to find the speed of a wave in a spring by observing standing waves
in the spring.
6 Why must there be a node at a fixed end of a spring?

8.6 Resonance in mechanical systems

If you blow across the mouth of a bottle, as shown in Figure 8.19,
the air in the bottle is made to vibrate and you will hear a note. WS

The frequency of this note is determined by the dimensions Worksheets

Resonance
Homework in
of the bottle. The sound results from the free vibrations of the bottles
air in the bottle.
If you purse your lips and blow through them, but don’t
whistle, you will hear the sound of the rushing air. This sound
is made up of waves of many different frequencies. This sort of
sound is called ‘white noise’ in analogy to ‘white light’, which is
composed of many frequencies of light.
When you blow air across the top of a bottle, you are providing
waves of many different frequencies to the air column inside the
bottle. Most of these waves transfer energy inefficiently to the
air column. But waves of one particular frequency, the natural or FIGURE 8.19  Blowing across an open
resonance frequency, transfer energy very efficiently and set up a bottle
standing wave in the bottle. The frequency of this standing wave
is the frequency of the note you hear.

Free vibrations
Free (natural) vibrations occur when an object is displaced from its equilibrium position and then left to
vibrate by itself. Restoring forces will cause the vibrating objects to accelerate back towards their rest
position.
When a tuning fork is struck, the prongs vibrate about their mean position. Elastic restoring
forces strongly pull the prongs back and forth. The tuning fork vibrates at its natural frequency. This
phenomenon can be observed in guitar strings, organ pipes, wind instruments, drums, pendulums and
masses hanging on the end of springs (think bungee jumping!) – all these have natural frequencies.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 227

FIGURE 8.20 Sound
waves produced from
the freely vibrating
tuning fork with a
frequency f, speed v
and wavelength λ

vw l vw
f

The frequency (and period) of vibration is determined by the properties of the vibrating object. For
example, a plucked guitar string vibrates at different natural frequencies depending on its length, mass
per unit length, and the tension in the string.
The only energy driving a free vibration is the initial energy. In time, these vibrations die away because
of friction – energy transfers to the surroundings.

Forced vibrations
A forced vibration occurs when one vibrating object makes another object vibrate. If a vibrating tuning
fork is struck on a rubber stopper, it emits a low-intensity sound that can only be heard with difficulty.
However, if the same vibrating tuning fork is held with its shaft on a wooden bench or tabletop, the sound
is heard throughout a classroom. Why is this?
The sound is louder when the fork is in contact with the bench because the fork causes the bench
to vibrate with the same frequency. The benchtop has a larger vibrating area than the tuning fork.
Consequently, these forced vibrations disturb a greater volume of air and produce a louder sound.

Resonance
Resonance occurs when the frequency of the forced vibration matches the natural ( free) vibration
frequency of the object. The source of the forced vibration enhances the free vibrations of the object
so that they are amplified. The amplitude of resonant vibrations can become very large and, in certain
circumstances, cause damage to the vibrating object.
When sound waves are projected towards a wine glass with a frequency that matches the resonant
frequency of the wine glass, it is possible to shatter the glass without physically touching it.
Resonance of vibrating objects can be observed in the laboratory using a strobe light to ‘freeze’ the
motion of the vibrating object.

Energy transfer within a system

When the frequency of the forced vibration coincides with the natural frequency of the system, energy is
transferred with maximum efficiency. For these examples, a standing wave is produced. As we have seen,
this phenomenon is called resonance. The energy from the speaker in front of the wine glass is transferred
to the wine glass with maximum efficiency if the sound from the speaker has the same frequency as the
natural resonance of the glass.

228 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 8.8

Resonance

AIM Critical and creative

thinking
To observe objects vibrating at their resonant frequency

MATERIALS

•• Wine glass
•• Beaker of water
•• Sonometer or guitar string
•• Strobe light with adjustable frequency
•• Frequency analyser (or suitable app on a smartphone)
•• Digital camera or recording device (e.g. phone, tablet or laptop)

WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?

A strobe light may induce seizures in some susceptible Ensure that no class member is susceptible to seizures or has
people. a history of epilepsy.

Wine glasses are made from delicate glass that, if broken, will Ensure that all present are wearing enclosed shoes and that
form very sharp pieces. instructions on how to handle broken glass are given prior to
this investigation.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Moisten your finger (using water from the beaker) and then rub your finger gently around the rim of the
wine glass until the glass begins to ‘sing’ at its resonant frequency.
2 Use the frequency analyser or smartphone app to measure this resonant frequency.
3 Darken the laboratory. Set the strobe light to the same frequency as the resonant frequency of the
wine glass.
4 Repeat step 1 with the strobe light illuminating the wine glass as it ‘sings’. Adjust the frequency of the
strobe light until the glass appears to move slowly. Observe carefully and record your observations on a
phone, tablet or laptop.
5 Pluck a guitar or sonometer string and again use the frequency analyser to measure the frequency of the
resonant vibration.
6 Set the frequency of the strobe light to this measured frequency.
7 In the darkened laboratory, illuminate the vibrating guitar or sonometer string and adjust the frequency of
the strobe until the string is observed to be moving from side to side slowly. Again, record the motion on a
suitable available device.
8 Repeat these steps for the glass and then for the string, but this time set the strobe light frequency to twice
the measured resonant frequencies of the glass and string. Observe carefully.

RESULTS

1 Observe where nodes and antinodes occur within the glass and along the string when they vibrate at their
resonant frequencies.
2 Discuss whether the vibrations observed are examples of travelling waves or standing waves.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 229

 DISCUSSION

1 Discuss why the vibrating objects appear to ‘freeze’ or move only slowly when the strobe light frequency is
set to match the frequency of the sound produced.
2 Explain why doubling the strobe light frequency can also produce ‘freezing’ of the vibrating objects.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Figure 8.21 shows the transfer of energy from one tuning

fork to another. The tuning forks are mounted on sounding
Weblink boxes made so that they will vibrate with a resonant
Energy transfer
between frequency equal to the tuning fork’s resonant frequency.
oscillating systems
Energy is transferred from the struck tuning fork and its
An animation of two
connected vibrating sounding box to the adjacent one, causing it to vibrate
oscillating systems
transferring energy as well. This happens if both tuning forks have the same
between them. Note resonant frequency.
that when both Resonant
systems have the air column When the frequencies of the two tuning forks are
same natural (or free Sound waves
vibration) frequency, from nearby different, the same effect is not observed. Resonance in the
the transfer of energy is
most efficient.
fork second tuning fork is not successful as the forced vibration
is not the same as the free vibration frequency of the second
FIGURE 8.21  Energy is transferred from one
tuning fork and causes the other to resonate tuning fork.

Weblink
Role of resonance
in the destruction
KEY
CONCEPTS

of buildings in ●● The amplitude of vibration of a resonating object will increase dramatically.

earthquakes ●● Resonance will only occur when the frequency matches the natural frequency.
This site contains
animations that explain ●● When an object is resonating, energy is being transferred very efficiently from the object
the role of the resonant oscillating to the object being oscillated.
frequency of buildings
and the damage they
are subjected to during
earthquakes.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 What is the difference between a free and a forced vibration?
2 Give two examples of:
8.6 a free vibrations.
b forced vibrations.
3 a Explain how blowing across the top of a bottle can produce a loud, clear note.
b What is this phenomenon called?
4 What conditions are required for a standing wave to form?
5 The vibrating air column in the bottle in Figure 8.19 (page 227) is a standing wave. Why is it called a standing wave?
6 How could you use one tuning fork to force another tuning fork to vibrate at the second tuning fork’s
natural frequency?
7 When a wave is reflected off a beach and meets an incoming wave, a larger wave is formed as they pass
through each other. Sketch diagrams to show the two waves:
a before they interact.
b in the middle of interacting.
c after interacting.

230 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 8.9

Energy transfer in resonating systems

Information and
AIM communication
To observe the transfer of energy from one resonating system to another technology capability

MATERIALS Numeracy

•• Several tuning forks mounted on sound boxes, two of which need to have the same frequency
•• Ruler
•• Audio signal generator or a signal generator app on a smartphone
•• Speaker that can be wired into the signal generator or smartphone

METHOD

1 Use the ruler to measure the length of the sound box from the opening to the back of the box.
2 Place the two identical tuning forks on sounding boxes facing each other, as shown in Figure 8.21.
3 Strike one tuning fork and listen carefully to the other tuning fork. Touch the other fork gently to feel for
vibrations. Record your observations.
4 Repeat with two tuning forks of different frequencies and record your observations after listening and
touching carefully.
5 Set the frequency of the audio generator or smartphone app to the frequency of one of the tuning forks
(usually stamped on the tuning fork itself ).
6 With the speaker from the audio generator facing the opening of the sound box, play a sound of a single
frequency into the sound box. Observe by listening and gently touching the tuning fork.
7 Vary the frequency of the source of the sound so that it is:
• double,
• triple, and then
• five times the frequency of the tuning fork.
Observe the strength of the vibration of the tuning fork at these frequencies.

RESULTS
Record your observations in a suitable table with headings ‘Frequency of sound’, ‘Observations of tuning fork’
and ‘Wavelength of sound’.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Using v = f λ , calculate the wavelength, λ, of the sound waves for each frequency used in the
investigation. Assume that the speed of sound in air, vsound = 340 m s−1.
2 Compare the wavelengths calculated with the physical length of the sound box (as measured from the
opening to the back of the box).

DISCUSSION

1 In which cases did energy transfer occur most efficiently?

2 Is there a mathematical pattern observed that relates the wavelengths that cause resonance to the length
of the sound box? If so, what is this relationship?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 231

 8   CHAPTER SUMMARY
◗◗ Waves reflect off surfaces obeying the law of reflection. The ◗◗ Destructive interference occurs when two waves passing
angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection: θi = θr. through each other result in a wave of lesser amplitude.

◗◗ Refraction of waves occurs when they change speed when ◗◗ Standing (stationary) waves result when two continuous
they enter a different medium at an angle other than 90°. waves travelling in opposite directions and having the same
frequency and amplitude superpose.
◗◗ Diffraction occurs when a wave passes through a narrow
opening and then spreads out. ◗◗ Nodes are points on a standing wave where no
displacement occurs.
◗◗ As the width of the opening decreases, diffraction becomes
more pronounced. ◗◗ Antinodes are points on a standing wave where maximum
displacement occurs.
◗◗ At any instant when waves are passing through each other,
constructive or destructive interference can occur. ◗◗ Objects will vibrate at their natural (free) frequency.

◗◗ Constructive interference occurs when two waves passing ◗◗ Resonance occurs when an external driving vibration
through each other result in a wave of greater amplitude. transfers energy to another system that has the same
natural (free) frequency of vibration.

8   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 What is a ‘normal’ to a surface? b What properties would need to be equal for the two
light waves for this to happen?
2 State the law of reflection.
11 In certain seats in a concert hall, the sound from the
3 With the aid of a sketch, show why a parabolic mirror is
orchestra sounds softer than it should. Using sketches,
used for satellite receiver dishes and radio telescopes.
show how reflection and destructive interference of the
4 Give two applications of refraction of waves. sound waves could cause this effect.
5 What property of waves causes refraction when a wave 12 Is it possible to make a standing wave using one source of
changes medium? one wave? If so, identify what other wave behaviour must
occur.
6 In what medium does light travel the fastest?
13 Using a child’s swing as an example,
7 The noise from a roadway can be heard from behind a
very thick brick wall. What property of waves is likely to be a describe what is meant by:
responsible for this? i driving frequency.
8 Using sketches to illustrate your answer, show how the ii natural frequency.
width of a single opening compared with the wavelength iii the amplitude of the motion involved.
of a wave determines the way in which the wave will b describe the most effective way to transfer energy from
diffract after it moves through the opening. another system to the swing.
9 Describe what is meant by ‘destructive interference’ and 14 Figure 8.22 shows two sound waves represented as
‘constructive interference’. transverse waves. Use the principle of superposition to
10 Light is a wave, and waves can undergo destructive plot the shape of the resultant wave.
interference when they coincide.
a Would it be possible for one light wave to completely
cancel out another light wave?

232 CHAPTER THREE

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063
 Displacement
Time

FIGURE 8.22

15 Surfers are familiar with the concept of  ‘sets’ of waves – b Compare and contrast the nature of the reflected rays
when several waves larger than normal appear. In and the applications that each of the reflecting shapes
between sets there is usually a period of comparative could have.
calm. Waves at the beach can be produced by more than 20 Figure 8.24 shows parallel waves approaching a slit in
one source from areas of wind hundreds of kilometres a barrier. Copy the diagrams and show the shape of
away in the ocean. Each source of waves may produce the wavefronts after they have passed through the slit.
waves with slightly different frequencies. Explain the Summarise the differences in the two situations.
phenomenon of wave ‘sets’ using information learned in
this chapter. a
16 It is possible to make a wine glass ‘sing’ by rubbing a damp
finger around the rim of the glass at just the right speed.
Explain what is happening here to make the glass ‘sing’.
17 It is possible for a wine glass to be broken by having
someone loudly sing a certain note while holding the
glass in front of their mouth. How could this happen?
18 Describe how energy can be transferred between
two vibrating systems that have the same natural
frequency.
b
19 a Copy and complete the diagrams shown in Figure 8.23
by tracing the rays after they have reflected from the
concave surface of each shape shown.

FIGURE 8.24

21 Discuss the application of acoustic design when a concert
hall is being planned compared with an assembly hall.
22 ‘Musical instruments must be constructed with resonance
FIGURE 8.23 in mind.’ Evaluate this statement.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 8 » WAVE BEHAVIOUR 233

 9 Sound waves
OUTCOMES Students:
INQUIRY QUESTION •• conduct a practical investigation to relate the pitch and loudness of a sound to its wave characteristics
What evidence suggests •• model the behaviour of sound in air as a longitudinal wave
that sound is a •• relate the displacement of air molecules to variations in pressure (ACSPH070)
mechanical wave? •• investigate quantitatively the relationship between distance and intensity of sound
•• conduct investigations to analyse the reflection, diffraction, resonance and superposition of sound waves
(ACSPH071)
•• investigate and model the behaviour of standing waves on strings and/or in pipes to relate quantitatively
the fundamental and harmonic frequencies of the waves that are produced to the physical characteristics
(e.g. length, mass, tension, wave velocity) of the medium (ACSPH072) ICT N
•• analyse qualitatively and quantitatively the relationships of the wave nature of sound to explain: CCT

(
– beats fbeat = f2 − f1 )
(v wave + vobserver )
– the Doppler effect f ′ = f
(v wave − v source )
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
iStock.com/emrah

234 9780170409063
 The wave model is a powerful tool that can be used to

iStock.com/Jokerbee12
explain observations of the behaviour of sound.
Sound is all around us. It is rarely that we can stop and
hear no sounds. Sound waves are mechanical waves, with
wave properties that have been explored in chapters 7
and 8. They require a medium to travel through and
have speeds that vary considerably according to the
arrangement of the particles in the medium and the density
of the medium. Being waves, sound can reflect, refract,
diffract and convey energy from one place to another. We
perceive sounds with associated pitch (how high or low
on the musical scale the sound is) and loudness. Human
hearing has a rather limited range of frequencies that can
be detected compared with some other mammals. We
can, however, hear sounds over a great range of intensities.
Over the millennia, musical instruments have been
produced that utilise the wave characteristics of sound.
From a simple flute to the huge pipe organs found in
cathedrals and concert halls around the world, the
science of music is a fascinating study. This chapter
presents some of the aspects of sound and uses the wave FIGURE 9.1  A pipe organ, one of the largest
model to explain them. musical instruments

9.1 Pitch and loudness

When we hear a sound, two characteristics are immediately obvious: the pitch of the sound, sometimes
WS
referred as being how high or low the ‘note’ sounds, and the loudness of the sound. It is useful to be able
to visualise the sound waves producing the sounds we hear so that they can be analysed and measured. PriorWorksheets
knowledge
Homework

An oscilloscope shows how electrical signals change with time on a screen. A microphone converts
the energy of sound waves into electrical signals. These can be sent to an oscilloscope. The vertical axis
on the oscilloscope represents the pressure variations in the sound waves, and the horizontal axis
represents the time over which these changes take place.
We can use an audio frequency generator, a loudspeaker and an oscilloscope to investigate
the waveforms of sound waves at the same time as they are being heard. This enables us to 1 cm
link what we hear to the characteristics of the sound waves.
To do this, a sound of known frequency is produced by the audio generator. This can be
heard through the loudspeaker and, using a microphone, viewed on the oscilloscope. The audio
Amplitude

generator vibrates the loudspeaker. Some of the same sound that causes our ears to vibrate also
causes vibrations in the microphone. The resulting electrical signal is fed into the oscilloscope.
The oscilloscope displays an apparently transverse wave. The vertical axis represents particle
movement at a point, and the horizontal axis represents time. The oscilloscope displays a
graph of amplitude versus time – it is not a snapshot of the wave at a particular time. Time (0.5 ms cm21)
The time-base scale (horizontal axis) enables the period of the wave to be determined FIGURE 9.2  Sound wave as it
appears on an oscilloscope
(Figure 9.2). The pitch of the note increases with frequency.
For the waveform in Figure 9.2, one complete wave on the oscilloscope is completed in 4 cm. If the
time-base scale of the oscilloscope is set on 0.5 ms cm−1, then each centimetre on the scale on the screen
is equivalent to half a millisecond. The period (T) of the wave is 4 cm × 0.5 × 10−3 s cm−1, and therefore
1 1
equal to 2.0 × 10−3 s. As f = , frequency f = , which is 500 Hz.
T 2.0 × 10 −3
9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 235
 Frequency can also be calculated as the number of waves passing per time taken:
n
f =
t
Figure 9.3 depicts how changes in frequency and changes in amplitude would appear on the display
as changes to the waveform. Increased frequency causes the waves to appear more ‘bunched up’. An
increase in the amplitude causes the waves to become taller.

FIGURE 9.3 Effects
of changes to Increased amplitude Increased frequency
frequency and
amplitude of a wave
on the waveform
displayed on an
oscilloscope
Original
Decreased amplitude trace Decreased frequency

What does a change in the frequency of a sound wave sound like to us? What does changing the
amplitude of a sound wave do to the sound we are listening to? The next investigation will explore these
questions.

INVESTIGATION 9.1

Pitch, frequency, loudness and amplitude of sound waves

AIM
To investigate the relationship between pitch and frequency as well as loudness and amplitude of sound waves
Write an appropriate hypothesis for this investigation. Ideally it should read as an ‘If … then …’ statement
(or statements).

MATERIALS

•• Audio signal generator

•• Oscilloscope or an equivalent app on a tablet or phone
•• Loudspeaker (e.g. strong computer speakers)
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT Devices plugged into 240 V mains power are a potential Devices plugged into 240 V mains power should be kept
source of electric shock. well away from water, and should have been tested and
tagged.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Connect the apparatus as represented diagrammatically in Figure 9.4.

2 Practice using the features of the oscilloscope you have, as models vary considerably.
3 With the audio generator set to produce a 500 Hz sound wave, measure the horizontal axis wavelength of
the waveform displayed to calculate the period, T, of the sound using the method shown previously. You
will need to know the horizontal axis scale on the display.

236 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4 Gradually increase the frequency on the audio generator while observing the Oscilloscope
change to the waveform displayed on the oscilloscope and the pitch of the
sound being heard. Audio frequency
generator
5 Next, vary the level of the output from the audio generator, again while
observing the change to the shape of the waveform displayed and the change Frequency
to the perceived loudness of the sound being heard. scale

RESULTS Frequency and

amplitude
1 Write down your observations of the change in the shape of the waveform controls Loudspeaker
displayed and the change in the perceived sound as the frequency of the
audio generator was being increased. FIGURE 9.4  Apparatus used to investigate
2 Write down your observations of the change in the shape of the waveform the waveform of sound waves. Note that the
oscilloscope is connected directly to the audio
displayed and the change in the perceived sound as the output level of the frequency generator. It is therefore showing the
audio generator was being varied. signal going into the speaker.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Deduce the relationship between pitch and frequency, and also between loudness and amplitude, for the
sound and the waves producing the sound. Summarise your findings.

DISCUSSION
Consider how these relationships could be extended to other types of waves such as light waves or
earthquake waves.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the hypothesis of this
investigation.

It is also possible to measure the frequency of a sound wave by displaying the waveform on an
oscilloscope.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.1

An oscilloscope has the time axis (horizontal axis) scale set to 5.0 ms cm−1. A sound wave is received by
a microphone connected to the oscilloscope’s input. The distance between two successive crests on the
screen is 3.0 cm. Find the period, T, and the frequency, f, of the sound wave.

ANSWER LOGIC
5.0 ms cm−1 (on the screen) •• Identify relevant data in the question.
λ = 3.0 cm (on the screen)
T = 3.0 cm × 5.0 ms cm−1 •• Identify the appropriate formula for period and substitute in
= 15 ms known values. Calculate the answer.
1 •• Identify the appropriate formula for frequency.
f =
T
1 •• Substitute in the known values, with units, into the formula.
=
15 × 10 −3 s
= 67 Hz •• Calculate the answer and express with correct significant
figures and units.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 237

 TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 The horizontal axis scale is set to 0.50 ms cm−1 on an oscilloscope. Two successive crests on a
waveform on a screen are 4.0 cm apart. Find the period and the frequency of the wave.
2 A sound wave with a frequency of 1200 Hz is displayed on an oscilloscope screen with a time axis
scale set to 0.20 ms cm−1. What is the distance between two successive crests on the waveform
displayed?

INVESTIGATION 9.2

Measuring the frequency of a sound wave

AIM
To measure the frequency of a sound wave using an oscilloscope

MATERIALS

•• Oscilloscope
•• 3 tuning forks of different frequencies with sounding boards
•• Microphone
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT Devices plugged into the 240 V mains supply are a Devices plugged into 240 V mains power should be kept
potential source of electric shock. well away from water and should have been tested and
tagged.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Set up the oscilloscope and adjust the display controls so that when a tuning fork is sounded near the
microphone, a steady waveform is shown on the screen. Do this by adjusting the time-base (horizontal
axis) input scale.
2 Measure the distance on the screen from one crest to the next, and convert this to the period.
3 Record your results in a data table as shown.
4 Repeat this procedure for the other tuning forks.
5 Calculate the frequency of the tuning forks and compare your results with the frequencies stamped
on the forks.

TIME-BASE SETTING CREST TO CREST

TUNING FORK (ms cm−1) DISTANCE (cm) PERIOD (ms) FREQUENCY (Hz)

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 What did you observe about the frequencies of the tuning forks and the pitch heard?
2 Describe how the amplitude of the displayed wave changed as the loudness of the sound from the
sounding boards changed.
3 Was there any relationship between frequency and amplitude observed?

238 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 DISCUSSION

1 Explain why the tuning forks were mounted on sounding boards.

2 Are the sounding boards for different frequency tuning forks the same? Describe any differences observed.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the sound wave.

●● The loudness of a sound is related to the amplitude of the sound wave.
●● An oscilloscope’s time axis, the horizontal axis, can be used to measure the period and calculate
the frequency of a sound wave.
●● A sounding box can be used to amplify the sound caused by a vibrating tuning fork.

CHECK YOUR
1 The distance between a crest of a wave and the next crest on an oscilloscope screen is 2.5 cm. The time- UNDERSTANDING
base axis scale is set to 2.0 ms cm−1.
a What is the period of this wave? 9.1
b What is the frequency of this wave?
2 On a set of axes, sketch a sound wave represented as a transverse wave. Using the same axes, sketch a
second wave that has a higher pitch and is louder than the wave you first sketched.
3 In music, the note known as concert pitch A has a frequency of 440 Hz. A note is played that has a higher
pitch than concert pitch A. Use a mathematical expression that shows what the frequency of this note
could be.
4 A wave with a period of 0.001 s is displayed on an oscilloscope with the time-base axis scale set to
0.5 ms cm−1. What is the distance between successive crests on the screen?

9.2 Sound in air is a longitudinal wave

In a sound wave in air, particle oscillations are always parallel to the direction of energy flow; therefore,
sound waves are longitudinal waves. This sound wave model is not perfect. For example, if the particles
of a gas are in constant random motion, how do they oscillate about a central mean (or rest) position?
Models have their limitations and cannot exactly describe physical reality.

Sound transmission as a longitudinal pressure wave

When sound travels through a medium, the particles form a series of compressions and rarefactions as in
Figure 9.5a (page 240). At compressions, the pressure is higher than the normal pressure. At rarefactions,
the pressure is lower than normal. The graph of pressure variation, Δp, from the normal air pressure
against the distance from source is shown in Figure 9.5b. Such graphs are often used to represent sound
waves as they are easier to sketch than those such as Figure 9.5a.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 239

 FIGURE 9.5 
a When sound travels a C R C R C
through a medium,
the particles form a
series of compressions
and rarefactions. b
This graph shows the
pressure variations,
Δp, with distance in a
sound wave. b Air pressure Compression
variation
1Dp
Normal air Distance from
pressure 100 101
source (m)
2Dp

Rarefaction

Further on in this chapter, the representation of pressure variation against distance, similar to
Weblink
Figure 9.5b, is used to explain sound waves in tubes or pipes. Attempting to do this using the
University of
Virginia representation used in Figure 9.5a would be difficult. If a microphone were being used to detect a
Animation of sound sound wave as it passed, the compressions and rarefactions would be displayed on an oscilloscope
travelling through air
as a longitudinal wave. screen as a function of time (rather than distance as shown in Figure 9.5).

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.2

As a sound wave passes a point, 30.0 compressions were detected in 0.100 s. What is the frequency of
this sound wave?

ANSWER LOGIC
n = 30.0; time = 0.100 s •• Identify relevant data in the question.

n •• Identify the appropriate formula (frequency is the number of

f = waves passing each second).
t

30.0 •• Substitute known values into formula.

=
0.10 s
= 300 Hz •• Calculate the answer and express with the correct significant
figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A sound wave results in 500 rarefactions passing a point in 0.20 s. Find the frequency of this wave.
2 How many compressions will a sound wave with a frequency of 600 Hz produce in 0.050 s?

240 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 9.3

Modelling sound as a longitudinal pressure wave

AIM
To use a slinky spring to model a sound wave as a longitudinal pressure wave

MATERIALS

•• Slinky spring
•• Ribbon
•• Ruler
•• Safety glasses
•• Video recording device (preferably with slow-motion playback capabilities)

WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? !
RISK
A stretched slinky spring can flick back and cause an Do not over-stretch the spring and do not let it go ASSESSMENT
injury. unexpectedly.
Wear safety glasses.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Stretch a slinky spring on smooth ground with a student holding each end.
2 Tie a ribbon around one of the coils of the slinky spring at about the midpoint of the spring.
3 Place a clearly marked ruler next to spring with the centre of the ruler at the ribbon.
4 Have one student move the end of the spring rapidly and smoothly backwards and forwards in a line with
the spring while the motion of the ribbon is videoed.

RESULTS
View the recording of the motion of the ribbon.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 If possible, view the motion of the ribbon in slow motion.

2 Describe the motion of the ribbon as a wave passes through the spring.

DISCUSSION
Describe how the spring’s motion models the motion of air particles as a sound wave passes.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Sound is a longitudinal wave with back-and-forth vibrations of air particles.

●● These vibrations result in compressions and rarefactions in air.
●● In air, compressions are regions of higher pressure and rarefactions are regions of lower
pressure.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 241

 CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 A sound with a frequency of 200 Hz was produced. How much time is there between each successive
compression in air?
9.2 2 Describe the motion of air particles as a sound wave passes through the air.
3 How much time is there between a compression and a rarefaction in a sound wave with a frequency of
500 Hz?
4 What is the frequency of a sound wave if there is 0.025 s between each successive compression in the air?

Relationship between distance

9.3
and intensity
The energy produced by a source of sound waves will spread out into the surrounding air, covering an
WS
increasingly larger area. As the energy of the waves spreads out, the intensity of the sound will decrease in
Worksheets
The inverse
Homework proportion to the inverse of the square of the distance from the source. Intensity is the amount of sound
square law energy (measured in joules, J) passing through a unit area (a square metre, m2) in 1 second. It has the unit
of joules per second (J s−1) per square metre. As 1 joule per second is the unit of power, watts (W), we get
the unit of intensity being W m−2.
We assume the source of sound is a point source and that there are no other objects in the vicinity to
reflect or absorb the sound. Such a relationship between intensity and distance is known as the inverse
square law:
1
I∝ 2
d
where I is the intensity of sound, d is the distance from the sound source, and the symbol ∝represents
the relationship ‘is proportional to’. In chapter 10, the inverse square law is investigated when applied to
light. Other natural phenomena such as gravitational and electrostatic forces are related to distance by
the inverse square law as well, but are not covered in this chapter.
I
It is useful to use the mathematical relationship between the ratio of the two intensities 1 and the
I2
ratio of the two distances d1 for the inverse square law:
d2
2
I 1  d2 
=
I 2  d1 

Measuring the intensity of sound in decibels

The decibel (dB) scale is commonly used for measuring the intensity of sound. It is a logarithmic scale,
due to the very large differences between the lowest intensity of sound that can be heard (the threshold
of hearing) and the loudest common sounds.
The accepted sound intensity for the threshold of hearing is 10−12 W m−2. This is assigned as zero
decibels and is written as:
Io = 10−12 W m−2
A sound intensity of 10  dB has 10 times the intensity of 0 dB, or 10−11  W  m−2. This increase
compounds so that a sound intensity of 20 dB has 10 times the intensity of a sound with 10  dB.
Table 9.1 gives examples of the dB scale and sounds typically associated with these intensities.

242 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 TABLE 9.1  The decibel (dB) scale of sound intensity

SOUND dB LEVEL INTENSITY (W m−2)

Threshold of hearing – lowest intensity 0 10−12
sound that can be heard
Quiet breathing 10 10−11
Whisper 20 10−10
Leaves rustling 30 10−9
Talking softly 40 10−8
Conversation 50 10−7
Noisy classroom 60 10−6
Busy road at 15 m away 70 10−5
Food processor 80 10−4
Lawn mower 90 10−3
Jackhammer 100 10−2
Loud concert 110 10−1
Jet take-off at 10 m away 120 1
Explosion causing hearing damage 130+ 10+
or loss

From the information in Table 9.1 it can be seen that the sound intensity at a loud concert is
1011 (100 billion) times the intensity of the threshold of hearing.
As almost all sound level meters and smartphone apps express sound intensity using the decibel
scale, converting to the units of W m−2 is required. This can be done using the relationship:
 dB − 12 
 
I = 10 10 
where I is the sound intensity in W m−2 and dB is the sound level in dB.

INVESTIGATING 9 . 4

Relationship between distance and intensity of sound

AIM
To investigate the relationship between the intensity of sound and the distance from the source
Write a hypothesis statement about the effect that the distance from the source of a sound is predicted to
have on the measured intensity of the sound.

MATERIALS

•• Constant sound source (e.g. signal generator and speaker, or an electric bell)
•• Decibel meter (or suitable app on a smartphone)
•• Measuring tape

METHOD

1 Select a suitable quiet area outdoors, preferably away from walls and other buildings that may reflect
sound.
2 With the constant sound playing, measure the reading on the decibel meter or phone app at 10 different
distances away from the source.
3 Record your results in a table as shown on page 244.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 243

 RESULTS
Record the readings on the meter and the distance from the source in the first two columns of the table.

DISTANCE FROM INVERSE OF DISTANCE

DISTANCE d FROM READING ON DECIBEL SOUND INTENSITY SOURCE SQUARED, 1
d2 (m2) SQUARED, 2 (m−2)
SOURCE (m) METER (dB) (W m−2) d

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Calculate the values for the third, fourth and fifth columns of the table. For the third column, use the
following formula to convert from decibels to intensity in W m−2:
 dB 
 − 12
10 
I = 10
where dB is the sound level reading in decibels (dB).

2 On a set of axes, plot I (in W m−2) versus 1 .

d2
3 a Alternatively, copy the fifth and then the third columns of data into a spreadsheet. The fifth column of
data from the table must be to the left of the third column or the axes will be transposed.
b Highlight the columns in the spreadsheet, select ‘Insert’, and then select the scatter graph chart type. A
graph will be inserted next to your data, which you can then label and give a title.
4 Draw a line of best fit to your plotted data points. This line should pass as close to the data points as
possible.

DISCUSSION

1 Does your data support the inverse square law for sound? Explain your answer.
2 Discuss which other factors may have had an effect on your data.
3 Suggest ways in which this investigation could be improved.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.3

The intensity of a sound wave is 4.00 × 10−4 W m−2 at a distance of 5.0 m from the source of the sound.
What will the intensity be at a distance of 22.0 m?

ANSWER LOGIC
−4 −2
I1 =  4.00 × 10 W m ; d1 = 5.0 m; d2 = 22.0 m; I2 = ? •• Identify relevant data in the question.
2 •• Identify the appropriate formula.
I1  d2 
=
I 2  d1 
I1 •• Rearrange the formula.
I2 = 2
 d2 
 d 
1

244 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC
−4 −2 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
4.00 × 10 W m
= 2
 22.0 m 
 5.0 m 
•• Calculate the answer and express the final answer with the correct
I 2 = 2.1 × 10 −5 W m−2
significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 How far away does a person need to move to reduce the intensity of sound from a jet engine to
1.00 × 10−3 W m−2 if, when 10.0 m away, the intensity is 2.50 × 100 W m−2?
2 By what factor does the intensity of sound from a single source increase if a person moves from a
distance of 500.0 m to 25.0 m away?
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Intensity of sound, I, is a measure of the amount of sound energy passing through a unit area
per second.
●● Intensity of sound is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from a point source
of sound.
1
●● The inverse square law is: I ∝ 2 .
d
2
 
●● Using the inverse square law, I 1 ∝ d 2 .
I 2  d 1 

CHECK YOUR
1 State the inverse square law for the relationship between the intensity of sound and the distance from the UNDERSTANDING
source.
2 a In theory, how far from a source of sound do you need to be so that the intensity from the source is zero? 9.3
b Does this apply in practice? If not, why?
3 Explain why workers such as gardeners use earmuffs when using a mower, but it is considered safe to walk
down the street when someone is mowing their lawn.
4 How many times further away would you need to go from a sound source to reduce the intensity of the
sound to 1% of the original intensity experienced?
5 If the intensity of a sound source increased by a factor of 4, how much further away would you need to
move from the source so that it sounded just as loud as before?

Reflection, diffraction and resonance

9.4
of sound waves
The characteristics of waves in general were covered in chapter 8. As sound propagates as a wave,
it can be reflected, diffracted, undergo superposition and cause resonance. The superposition of
waves will be investigated in a later section in this chapter when beats are discussed in detail. The
phenomenon of sound resonance will be examined in section 9.5 on standing waves in pipes and
musical instruments.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 245

 Reflection of sound
Sound is reflected or absorbed when it meets a surface. Smooth, hard surfaces are better reflectors of sound
than soft, rough surfaces. When a quick sharp sound reflects back to you quickly, it is perceived as being
prolonged rather than as a separate, distinct echo. If the furthest reflecting surface is no more than 17 m away,
the total distance covered by a reflected sound that you make is 34 m. If the sound is travelling through air
at 340 m s−1, this means that the time taken for the sound to be reflected back to you is no more than 0.1 s.
We perceive such a reflection as a prolonging of the original sound rather than two distinct sounds. When in
an empty room no larger than a typical classroom or laboratory, making a single sharp noise such as a clap
of your hands allows you to experience this. Such a prolonging of the original sound is called reverberation.
In contrast to a reverberation, an echo is heard when sound is reflected back to you from a surface
greater than 17 m away. The reflected sound wave arrives more than 0.1 s after the original sound, so it is
perceived as a separate, distinct sound. Echoes are produced when the reflecting surface is hard, such as
a rock wall, so that most of the sound energy is reflected rather than absorbed.
Simply cupping your hand over your ear results in more sound entering your ear canal. This is a result
of the sound waves reflecting off your curved hand and continuing into your ear.
The law of reflection will be dealt with fully in chapter 10. Investigation 9.5 will consider the reflection
of sound off a hard surface.

INVESTIGATION 9.5

Observing the reflection of sound waves

AIM
To observe cases of the reflection of sound waves

MATERIALS

•• 2 cardboard or plastic tubes, approximately 30–40 cm in length and 5–8 cm in diameter

•• Smooth, hard surface (e.g. a small portable whiteboard)
•• Portable source of sound (e.g. a smartphone playing music)
•• Protractor, paper and pencil

METHOD Hard surface

1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 9.6. The

smooth hard surface is vertical while the tubes lie on Tube 1 Tube 2
a flat horizontal surface such as a table top.
ui ur
2 Place the speaker of the sound source over the end
of tube 1. Play a soft sound into the tube (music is
suitable, or an app that plays the sound of a ticking
clock could be used). Sound Ear
source
3 Move the tubes so that:
• the angles that they make with a perpendicular FIGURE 9.6  The arrangement of the apparatus. Two
line drawn from the hard surface are the same (as tubes placed on a horizontal surface face a smooth
vertical surface. A soft sound such as music is played
shown in Figure 9.6); and
into the first tube, reflects off the smooth, hard
• the angles the tubes make with the surface, and travels back up the second tube where
it is heard.
perpendicular line are not equal.

246 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4 Compare how well the sound from tube 1 is heard through tube 2 for the different alignments of the tubes
as described.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 for several different angles.

RESULTS
Record your results and observations in a table.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Describe the alignment of the two tubes when the sound in tube 2 was heard the loudest.

DISCUSSION
As a result of your observations, discuss whether sound is reflected off a hard surface.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Diffraction of sound
The diffraction of waves in general was discussed in chapter 8. You should recall several important points
about the diffraction of waves.
◗◗ Diffraction occurs as a wave spreads out after passing through an opening.
◗◗ Waves with longer wavelengths will spread out more than shorter wavelengths.
An investigation to observe the diffraction of sound can also show how the range of wavelengths
of sound waves determines how much diffraction will occur. With music typically having a range of
frequencies from 100 Hz to around 5 kHz, we can use v = f λ to calculate the range of wavelengths,
with the speed of sound in air as 340 m s−1.
f = 100 Hz:
v= fλ
v
λ=
f
340 m s−1
=
100 Hz
= 3.40 m
f = 5 kHz:
v= fλ
v
λ=
f
340 m s−1
=
5 × 10 3 Hz
= 0.068 m
= 68 mm

Given that a doorway has a width of approximately 1 m, we would expect low frequency sounds to
diffract through a doorway more than high frequency sounds.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 247

 INVESTIGATION 9.6

Observing diffraction of sound waves

AIM
To observe the diffraction of sound and to relate the extent of diffraction to the wavelength of the sound
Write an appropriate hypothesis for this investigation.

MATERIALS

•• Loudspeaker (or sound system) playing music

•• A room with a doorway and a door that can close

METHOD

1 Set up the loudspeaker or sound system playing music inside the classroom or laboratory.
2 Move around inside the room and take notes about the quality of the sound you are hearing.
3 Now move outside the room, leaving the door open. Move around near the door so that you are:
• directly in front of the doorway
• to one side of the doorway
• as far to one side of the doorway as you can be.
4 Record your observations about the quality of the sound you can hear in the positions described, with
particular reference to the higher frequency sounds and the lower frequency sounds.

RESULTS
Which frequencies were more audible inside the room, and at the positions described outside the room?

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Relate your results and observations to the diffraction of sound and to the range of frequencies being heard.

DISCUSSION

1 If not for diffraction, would it still be possible to hear any of the sound from the loudspeaker when you are
outside of the room?
2 Summarise the role diffraction plays in hearing music coming from inside a room when you are outside of
the room.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the hypothesis of this
investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Sound is reflected from hard surfaces.

●● Sound is diffracted when passing through an opening.
●● Long wavelength sound waves diffract more than short wavelength sound waves.
●● An echo is a distance reflection of a sound wave.
●● Reverberation occurs when many reflections of sound are heard over a short period of time.

248 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 CHECK YOUR
1 Identify three examples where the reflection of sound can be observed. UNDERSTANDING
2 Outline the difference between the quality of sound heard when a person is speaking in:
a the school gymnasium. 9.4
b a cinema.
Link these qualities to the material covering the walls and floor.
3 Why do megaphones and loud hailers have a cone-shaped structure surrounding the loudspeaker?
4 When a car with an open window drives past, the music we can hear is often just the bass (low frequency)
component of what is being played inside the car. Explain why this happens.

9.5 Standing waves in strings

In chapter 8, the concept of standing, or stationary waves was explored. For strings and sound waves
in air, standing waves can be produced in instruments with the right dimensions that will give rise to
resonance. This is the basis of string and wind musical instruments.

Modes of vibrations in strings

Figure 9.7 shows possible vibration modes, or harmonics, for standing waves in a string or wire fixed at
both ends. There is a node at each fixed end for all modes of vibrations. WS

The fundamental mode of vibration is also referred to as the first harmonic. The other modes of Worksheets
Predicting
Homeworkthe
vibration are called the second harmonic, third harmonic, and so on. Wires and strings of musical fundamental
frequency
instruments can be made to vibrate at frequencies other than their fundamental frequency.

FIGURE 9.7  The first

Vibration mode Wave pattern and l five harmonics (four
overtones) of a string
fixed at both ends
Fundamental l1 5 2l
l
mode of vibration v
f1 5 2l
1st harmonic A B

1st overtone l2 5 l
2nd harmonic f2 5 2f1

2
2nd overtone l3 5 3 l
3rd harmonic f3 5 3f1

2
3rd overtone l4 5 4 l
4th harmonic f4 5 4f1

2
4th overtone l5 5 5 l
5th harmonic f5 5 5f1

Harmonics (other than the first harmonic) are also called overtones. Overtones are notes or tones of
higher frequency than the fundamental or natural frequency (and are of smaller amplitude). Thus, the
second harmonic is the first overtone; the third harmonic is the second overtone, and so on.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 249

 The frequency of each harmonic is its harmonic number times the fundamental frequency,
fn = nf1. If the fundamental frequency of a stretched string is 40 Hz, the fourth harmonic has a frequency
of 4 × 40 = 160 Hz.
The fundamental mode of vibration (the first harmonic) is generated when the stretched string is
plucked in the middle. If you look at the fundamental vibration mode in Figure 9.7, the pattern represents
half a wave, so wavelength λ1 is twice the length of the string:
λ
l= 1
2
The second harmonic ( first overtone) is generated when the stretched string is plucked a quarter of
the way along the string. The second harmonic mode in Figure 9.7 shows that the pattern represents a
complete wave, so the wavelength is the length of the string:
l=λ
The third harmonic is generated when the stretched string is plucked a sixth of the way along the
string. The third harmonic mode in Figure 9.7, the pattern represents one and a half complete waves so
the wavelength is two-thirds the length of the string:
3λ 1
l=
2
For strings attached at both ends to be resonating, the length of the string is related to the resonating
wavelength by the relationship:
λ
You will also see this l=n n
relationship later for 2
open pipes.
where l is the length of the string and λ n is the wavelength of the nth harmonic (n = 1, 2, 3 ...).
Putting this together with v = f λ , the following relationships become apparent.
v v
Numeracy
◗◗ The fundamental or first mode has frequency f1 = =
λ1 2 l
v 2v
◗◗ The second harmonic has frequency f 2 = = = 2 f1 .
λ 2 2l
To generalise, the nth harmonic has frequency:
v nv
fn = = = nf1
λ n 2l

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.4

The fundamental frequency of a string 2.4 m long, fixed at both ends, is 20 Hz.
1 What are the frequencies of the first three overtones?
2 Is it possible to produce standing waves of frequency 50 Hz in this string?
3 What is the speed of the waves in the string?
4 What is the wavelength of the first harmonic?

250 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

1 The frequency of each harmonic is its harmonic number •• The overtone number is one less than the harmonic
times the fundamental frequency: fn = nf1 number.

1st overtone = 2nd harmonic:

2 × 20 Hz = 40 Hz
2nd overtone = 3rd harmonic:
3 × 20 Hz = 60 Hz
3rd overtone = 4th harmonic:
4 × 20 Hz = 80 Hz
2 As 50 Hz is not the frequency of one of the harmonics of •• Check possible harmonic frequencies.
this string (a whole-number multiple of the fundamental
frequency), it is not possible to produce standing waves of
this frequency with the string under the same tension.
3 f1 = 20 Hz; l = 2.4 m •• Identify relevant data in the question.

v •• Identify the appropriate formula.

f1 =
2l
v = f1 × 2 l •• Rearrange the formula.

  = 20 Hz × (2 × 2.4 m) •• Calculate the answer.

−1
v = 96 m s •• Express the final answer with the correct significant
figures and units.
4 The first harmonic is the fundamental frequency; the •• Identify the appropriate formula, and calculate the
wavelength is 2l, so the wavelength is: answer.
2 × 2.4 m = 4.8 m

TRY THESE YOURSELF

A guitar string is 0.66 m in length. When plucked at its centre, it produces a fundamental note of 80 Hz.
1 What is the wavelength of the note?
2 A guitarist presses the string against the fret, shortening the string to produce notes of different
frequencies. How long should the string be to produce a note with a fundamental frequency of
160 Hz?

Velocity of a wave in a string

knilbeW
The velocity of a wave in a stretched string depends on two factors: the tension, T, in the string and the
Frequency of
mass per unit length, m l −1, of the string. The mass per unit length is usually given as kilograms per metre, a vibrating
string
and the tension is given in newtons.
Investigate further
As anyone who has played a string musical instrument knows, increasing the tension in the string the factors affecting
the frequency of
will increase the frequency of its pitch by causing the string to vibrate faster in its fundamental mode. vibration of a string.
Investigating the strings in a piano will reveal thicker wires for the lower notes and thinner wires for the
higher notes in addition to variations in their lengths.
knilbeW

The speed of a wave travelling in a string is given by the relationship:

T Wave velocity
v= in a string
m l −1
Investigate the
where T is the tension in the string (expressed in newtons), m l −1 is mass per unit length of the string (in effects of the
variables on the
kilograms per metre), and v is the speed of wave in the string (in metres per second). wave velocity in a
stretched string.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 251

 Information and The fundamental frequency of a vibrating string can be found using v = f λ and the fact that the
communication
technology wavelength of this wave must be twice the length, l, of the string. Therefore,
capability
v
f1 =
λ
v
=
2l
T
−1
= ml
2l
T
= ÷ 2l
m l −1
1 T
=
2 m l −1 l 2
1 T
=
2 ml
It is clear that the more tension there is in a string, the faster it will vibrate. More massive strings will
WS
vibrate slower and longer strings will also have a lower frequency. These characteristics are familiar to
Worksheets
Sound waves
Homework those who have ever played a string instrument.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.5

A string in a piano is 80 cm long and has a mass of 20 g. When the tension in the string is 350 N, what is
the fundamental frequency of the vibrating string?

ANSWER LOGIC
l = 0.80 m; m = 0.020 kg; T = 350 N •• Identify relevant data in the question and convert to SI units.
•• Identify the appropriate formula.
T
m l −1
f1 =
2l
•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
350 N
0.020 kg
0.80 m
=
2 × 0.80 m
f1 = 74 Hz •• Calculate the answer with the correct significant figures and
units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 What is the fundamental frequency of a vibrating string with a length of 40 cm and mass of 15 g
when the tension in the string is 300 N?
2 Without re-calculating the previous question, what would the fundamental frequency change to if
the tension in the same string was increased to 1200 N, four times the previous value?

252 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● A vibrating string has a node at both ends.
●● The fundamental mode of vibration in a string is also the first harmonic.
●● The wavelength λ of the fundamental mode is 2l, or twice the length of the string.
λn
●● For harmonics in a string, l = n where n = 1, 2, 3 …
2
●● The speed, v, of a wave in a string is determined by the length of the string, l, the tension, T and
−1 T
the mass per unit length, m l   , according to the relationship: v = .
m l −1
v
●● The fundamental frequency of vibration in a string, f1 is given by f 1 = .
2l

CHECK YOUR
1 What is the difference between the fundamental mode and the first harmonic mode of vibration in a string? UNDERSTANDING
2 A standing wave in a spring results from the interference between an incident wave and its reflection. The
two waves cancel at the nodes. Does this mean that energy is destroyed? Explain your answer. 9.5
3 When the two component waves producing a standing wave pattern, each has a wavelength of λ. What is
the distance between:
a adjacent nodes?
b adjacent antinodes?
c a node and the closest antinode?
4 Which pattern(s) in Figure 9.8 could represent a standing wave pattern on a string of length l, fixed at both ends?

a b c d

FIGURE 9.8

5 The apparatus used to investigate the vibrations of a stretched string or vibrating wire is called a
sonometer (see Figure 9.9).

Tuning fork FIGURE 9.9 The

Vibrating sonometer. A paper rider
wire is a small piece of paper
Pulley
Peg Paper rider taped to the stretched
string. The bridges labelled
F M F F are fixed, while the one
l labelled M is movable so
as to adjust the length of
the wire, ℓ, that is allowed
Wooden sound board to vibrate. Here, ℓ is the
Slotted distance from F to M as
F = fixed bridges shown.
M = movable bridge masses

The stretched wire on the sonometer has a length l of 0.80 m, and it can vibrate.
a What is the wavelength of the fundamental mode of vibration?
b If the speed of the wave in the wire is 200 m s−1, what is the fundamental frequency?
c If the vibrating length of the wire is shortened, does the fundamental frequency increase or decrease?
Give a reason for your answer.
d If you added more slotted masses to the sonometer, the frequency of the note it produces will increase.
Why is this?
6 What is the longest wavelength of a standing wave that can be created between fixed supports 12 cm apart?
7 Two successive overtones of a vibrating string are 300 Hz and 360 Hz. What is the fundamental frequency
of the string?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 253

 9.6 Vibration in air columns

Shutterstock.com/sirtravelalot
FIGURE 9.10
Trombones change
the length of the
resonator by sliding
one tube through
another.

Longitudinal standing sound waves can be created in both open and closed pipes. Resonance occurs
when sound waves match one of the harmonic wavelengths of the pipe. Open pipes are pipes that are
open at both ends, and closed pipes are open at only one end. Resonance in air columns is related to the
length of the pipe and the speed of sound in air, which is temperature dependent.

Reflection of sound waves in pipes

Waves confined in pipes travel as plane waves, the same as they do in the open air. As a compression
travels along the pipe, it continually reflects off the walls of the pipe. This maintains the compression.
When the compression reaches the end of an open pipe, it is no longer confined and rapidly expands into
the air, leaving behind a rarefaction that travels back down the pipe. The compression has been reflected
as a rarefaction. This is similar to a fixed-end reflection in strings and springs.
When a rarefaction travels along the pipe, it also continually reflects off the walls of the pipe. This
maintains the rarefaction. When the rarefaction reaches the end of an open pipe, the higher pressure air
outside the pipe rapidly expands into the rarefaction creating a compression that travels back down the
pipe. The rarefaction has been reflected as a compression.
When a compression strikes the closed end of a pipe, it is reflected as a compression. This is similar
to a free-end reflection in strings and springs.
Rarefactions are also reflected as rarefactions from the closed end of the pipe. The standing wave
formed in the tube has its maximum air displacement (an antinode) at the open end. This means there
will be a pressure node at the open end of the pipe and a pressure antinode at the closed end.

Stationary waves in open pipes

To indicate the stationary wave pattern in an air column, either the pressure variation, Δp, or the particle
displacement, Δx, could be used. These were shown earlier in Figure 9.5 (page 240). Figure 9.11 represents
the particle displacement, Δx, and pressure variations, Δp, in an open pipe. In all open pipes, the maximum

254 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 air displacements (displacement antinode or a pressure node) occur at both ends of the tube, so that its
natural frequencies are different from those of a tube closed at one end.
For pipes open at both ends to resonate, the length of the pipe must be related to the resonating
wavelength by the relationship:
λ
l=n n
2
where l is the length of the pipe, λn is the wavelength of the resonance frequency, and n is a whole number
relating to that harmonic at which it is resonating (n  =  1, 2, 3 …). In open pipes, all harmonics are possible.
That is, every integer multiple of the fundamental frequency, f1, is a possible overtone.

FIGURE 9.11 
Vibration mode Particle displacement Pressure variation and l The particle
displacement, Δx, and
l
Fundamental Node Node l1 5 2l pressure variations,
mode of vibration Antinode Antinode v
Δp, of the resonant
1st harmonic f1 5 2l frequencies of a
tube open at both
l2 5 l ends. Compare this
1st overtone
to Figure 9.7 for
2nd harmonic f2 5 2f1 vibrations in strings.

2
2nd overtone l3 5 3 l
3rd harmonic f3 5 3f1

3rd overtone l4 5 24 l
4th harmonic f4 5 4f1

4th overtone l5 5 25 l
5th harmonic f5 5 5f1

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.6

Calculate the length of a pipe open at both ends whose fundamental frequency is 320 Hz, when the
temperature is such that the speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
f1 = 320 Hz; v = 340 m s •• Identify relevant data in the question.
v •• Identify the appropriate formula.
f1 =
2l
v •• Rearrange the formula.
l=
2 f1
340 m s −1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
=
2 × 320 Hz
l = 0.53 m •• Calculate the answer and express with the correct significant
figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 The fundamental harmonic of a pipe open at both ends is 640 Hz. What is its length?
2 A 2.2 m pipe open at both ends is resonating at its second harmonic frequency.
a What is the wavelength of the stationary wave?
b What is the frequency of the second harmonic?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 255

 Stationary waves in pipes closed at one end
Consider an air column that is in a tube closed at one end. When it is resonating, a pressure antinode
(displacement node) occurs at the closed end. Figure 9.12 represents the particle displacement and
pressure variations in a pipe closed at one end.
The fundamental resonance mode when n = 1:
λ
l=
4
The resonance mode when n = 2 (third harmonic):
3λ
l=
4
The resonance mode when n = 3 ( fifth harmonic):
5λ
l=
4
For a closed pipe to resonate, the length of the pipe must be related to the resonance wavelength by
the relationship:
λ
l = (2 n − 1)
4
For any integer n, (2n – 1) will be an odd value.
Only the odd harmonics are present in a closed pipe. This means that musical instruments with
closed pipes can only play half the notes that those with open pipes can play (see Figure 9.11, page 255).

FIGURE 9.12 Particle
displacement, Δx, and Vibration mode Particle displacement Pressure variation and l
pressure variation,
Δp, for pipes closed Fundamental
at one end. Only the l1 5 4l
mode of vibration v
odd harmonics are f1 5 4l
produced in these 1st harmonic
pipes.
Antinode Node Node Antinode
4
1st overtone l2 5 3
l

3rd harmonic f2 5 3f1

4
2nd overtone l3 5 5
l
5th harmonic f3 5 5f1

4
3rd overtone l4 5 7
l

7th harmonic f4 5 7f1

4th overtone l5 5 49 l
9th harmonic f5 5 9f1

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.7

When the air is at 0°C, the speed of sound in air is 331 m s−1. What will be the fundamental frequency, f1,
and the frequency of the first two overtones, f2 and f3, for an organ pipe 2.4 m long if it is:
1 open at both ends?
2 closed at one end?

256 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC
1 v = 331 m s−1; l = 2.4 m •• Identify relevant data in the question.
v •• Identify the appropriate formula.
f1 =
2l
331 m s −1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
=
2 × 2.4 m
f1 = 69 Hz •• Calculate the answer and express with the correct significant
figures and units.
For pipes open at both ends, the first two overtones are
2f1 and 3f1, i.e. 140 Hz and 210 Hz.
v •• Identify the appropriate formula.
2 f1 =
4l
331 m s −1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
=
4 × 2.4 m
f1 = 34 Hz •• Calculate the answer and express with the correct significant
For pipes closed at one end, the first two overtones are 3f1 figures and units.
and 5f1, i.e. 100 Hz and 170 Hz.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

A girl blows across the mouth of a bottle and sets the air column inside it resonating at its third
harmonic of 930 Hz. The speed of sound in the air is 340 m s−1.
1 What is the length of the bottle?
2 What is the frequency of the next harmonic?

INVESTIGATION 9.7

Finding the speed of sound by air column resonance

knilbeW
The speed of sound in air varies with temperature, moisture content and the local atmospheric pressure.
Animations
AIM and
visualisations
To find the speed of sound in air in your classroom of standing
sound waves
in pipes
MATERIALS
Use these
visualisations to
•• Large graduated cylinder increase your
•• Glass tube of about 2–3 cm in diameter and about 30 cm long understanding of
standing sound
•• Tuning fork with a fundamental frequency of 440 Hz waves in pipes.

•• Ruler
•• Marking pen that can write on wet glass

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 257

 !
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT The glass tube may break and produce sharp edges. Take care handling the glass equipment.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD Tuning fork

1 Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 9.13.

2 Fill the graduated cylinder with water to just below the top.
Glass tube
3 Lower the glass tube until the top is just above the
surface of the water.
4 Strike the tuning fork on a surface that will get it Resonance
oscillating strongly and hold it near the open end tube length
of the tube. Length of
5 Raise the tube slowly until it begins to resonate. tube

6 With the pen, mark the base of the tube where it

contacts the water when the loudest resonance is Water
detected. Graduated
8 Repeat the procedure twice and average the three cylinder
values.
9 Analyse the results given that, for the fundamental
λ
frequency, the resonance length is l = . FIGURE 9.13  Experimental set-up. The glass
4
tube fits inside the graduated cylinder (large
RESULTS measuring cylinder), and can be moved up and
Record your results in a table. down to vary the length of the air column inside.

DATA TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3 AVERAGE

Frequency of the tuning fork
First resonance length

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Use the data to calculate your best estimate of the speed of sound. Include the uncertainty in this value.
2 A commonly accepted value for the speed of sound is 340 m s−1. Compare your best estimate with this
accepted value. Do this by first calculating the percentage difference between the best estimate of the
accepted value and your best estimate of the value.

DISCUSSION

1 What atmospheric conditions may have affected your result?

2 If you conducted the experiment on another day when the temperature in the room was hotter, how
would your result change? Explain your answer.
3 What changes could you make to the experiment so the data gathered was more accurate?
4 If you replaced the air in the glass tube with carbon dioxide, would the value of the speed of sound
change? Explain your answer.
5 Draw a diagram showing the pressure node and antinode in the closed tube when it was resonating at the
tuning fork’s fundamental frequency.
6 If you repeated the experiment with a tuning fork that had a higher fundamental frequency, would the first
resonance occur in a longer or shorter air column? Justify your answer.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

258 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Open pipes have an antinode at both ends.
●● The fundamental wavelength is twice the length of the pipe.
●● Open pipes have every harmonic; f n = nf 1 where n = 1, 2, 3, …
●● A node exists at a closed end of a pipe.
●● An antinode exists at the open end of a pipe.
●● The fundamental mode of vibration is also the first harmonic.
●● A closed pipe has only odd harmonics; f n = nf 1 where n = 1, 3, 5, …
λ
●● The length of a closed pipe is l = (2n − 1) .
4

CHECK YOUR
Unless otherwise stated, take the velocity of sound in air at room temperature to be 340 m s−1. UNDERSTANDING
1 A tube of length l is open at both ends. A standing wave is set up in the tube. Only waves with certain
frequencies will cause resonance within the tube. Which of the following gives the set of wavelengths that 9.6
can exist in a tube open at both ends (n = 1, 2, 3, …)?
l
A nl B
n
4l 2l
C D
2n − 1 n
2 Water is poured into a long metal tube closed at one end until the shortest
resonant length is found for a fork of frequency 256 Hz. If the length of the air
column in the tube is 31.0 cm, what is the velocity of sound in the air at the time?
3 A vertical pipe of length 1.40 m is filled with water, which is allowed to run out
slowly from the lower end, while a vibrating tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz is held
over its open end. How many positions of resonance will be obtained?
4 The human ear is most sensitive to sounds of a frequency of about 5000 Hz.
The outer ear canal can be modelled as a tube closed at one end (Figure 9.14).
Assuming that this frequency corresponds to the fundamental frequency, what is
the length of the outer ear canal of a human?
5 The frequency of the maximum sensitivity for a domestic cat is different from
that of humans. Assuming all other factors are the same, the frequency depends
FIGURE 9.14  The human outer ear canal can be
on the length of the ear canal. Will the frequency of maximum sensitivity for the modelled as a tube closed at one end.
cat be higher or lower than that for humans? Explain your answer.

9.7 Beats and the Doppler effect

The wave nature of sound gives rise to phenomena such as beats and the Doppler effect.

The superposition of sound producing beats

The superposition of waves was discussed in chapter 8. A very useful phenomenon arises due to
WS
superposition when two sounds are produced simultaneously.
Worksheets
If two sound sources have slightly different frequencies, the resultant wave will alternate between Superposition
Homework of
waves
constructive and destructive interference, growing and shrinking with a third frequency known as
the beat frequency. This beat frequency is equal to the difference between the two source frequencies.
Experienced musicians and piano tuners use this phenomenon to tune their instruments. Figure 9.15
(page 260) shows the resultant sound wave produced when two component sound waves with slightly
different frequencies superpose.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 259

 FIGURE 9.15
When two sound Two sound waves with
waves with slightly
slightly different
different frequencies
superpose, the frequencies coinciding
resultant sound wave
grows and shrinks
with time – its beat
frequency. The Resultant sound wave–
dashed lines are the the sound that is heard,
‘wave envelope’ of the with the wave envelope
sound that is heard. shown as a dashed line

Mathematically, the beat frequency can be represented as:

f beat = f 2 − f1
Weblink
Beat frequency where f2 and f1 are the two source frequencies.
Various beat Beats are sometimes heard from aircraft or boats with two engines operating at slightly different
frequency animations
can be heard here. speeds. Many people would not notice this effect, but when you are listening for them, beats can be heard
in many situations where two sound sources are involved.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.8

A musical instrument is played with a frequency of 359 Hz. Another instrument is played at the same
time with a frequency of 361 Hz. What beat frequency is heard?
ANSWER LOGIC
f1 = 359 Hz; f2 = 361 Hz •• Identify relevant data in the question.
f beat = f 2 − f1 •• Identify the appropriate formula.

= 361 Hz – 359 Hz •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.
fbeat = 2 Hz •• Calculate the answer and express with correct significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Two sounds are played simultaneously. A beat frequency of 5 Hz is heard. One of the component
frequencies is known to be 500 Hz. What could be the frequencies of the second sound?
2 What beat frequency will be heard if two sounds are played at the same time, one with a frequency of
348 Hz and the other 372 Hz?

INVESTIGATION 9.8

Critical and Beats

creative thinking

AIM
To observe beats in sound

MATERIALS

•• 2 signal generators with speakers (or phone apps with external speakers)

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 !
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
Electrical equipment is dangerous if water is present. Devices plugged into 240 V mains power should be kept ASSESSMENT
well away from water.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Set each signal generator to a frequency of 400 Hz. Listen to the resulting sound produced.
2 Now set the first signal generator to 399 Hz while keeping the second at 400 Hz. Listen and observe the
sound created.
3 Change the frequency of the first signal generator to 398 Hz. Listen and observe again.
4 Set the signal generators’ frequencies to different values a few Hz apart. Listen and observe the beating.
5 Measure the beat frequency heard by counting or tapping every peak in sound intensity over a period of
10 seconds, then divide by 10. This reduces the error in the measurement.
6 Change the signal generator’s frequencies so that they are more than 20 Hz apart, and listen carefully.

RESULTS
Record your observations for each of the settings used.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 How did the beat frequency relate to the difference between the two source frequencies?
2 Describe what was heard as the difference between the two source frequencies was increased to beyond 20 Hz.

DISCUSSION

1 With the aid of a diagram, explain the cause of the phenomenon you have just observed.
2 Explain why beat frequencies are not heard when the difference between the source frequencies is greater
than 20 Hz.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

The Doppler effect

When the distance between the observer and the source of a sound is changing, the time between
successive compressions and rarefactions of sound waves reaching the observer also changes. If
this distance is decreasing, successive compressions will be encountered sooner than if there was no
relative motion. This results in the apparent (or observed) frequency of the sound being higher than the
frequency of the source. If the distance is increasing, it takes longer for successive compressions to reach
the observer, so the observed frequency is lower than the source.
When the source of a sound is moving closer to you, the soundwaves become closer together. The
source of the sound waves ‘chases’ the waves it is emitting – the wavelength decreases. This results in the
frequency you hear being increased. This increased frequency is heard as a higher pitched sound. Recall
that v = f λ, and if the velocity of the sound in the air is constant, a decrease in the wavelength results in
an increase in the frequency.
This phenomenon is called the Doppler effect. For sound, it can be noticed when a fast-moving noisy
source approaches and passes an observer. An ambulance siren, racing motorbikes or aircraft doing a

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 261

 Wavelength as low-altitude flypast are typical examples
Wavelength emitted from Wavelength of when the Doppler effect is observed.
extended the siren compressed
Figure 9.16 shows sound waves from a
siren moving from left to right. Observers
to the right of the siren observe the siren
approaching and hear a higher pitch.
Observers to the left of the siren observe
the siren moving further away and hear a
lower pitch.
In the example shown in Figure 9.16,
for a stationary observer to the right of the
Wavelength Wavelength
siren, the velocity of the siren, vs, is towards
the observer. The frequency observed,
f ′, is given by:
v
Pitch of siren is lower than if stationary Pitch of siren is higher than if stationary f′= f , as f ′ > f .
( vs )
v −
Sound heard at Sound heard at Sound heard at
emitted pitch a higher pitch
Table 9.2 shows the Doppler effect
a lower pitch
formula for the other possibilities involving
FIGURE 9.16  The Doppler effect for a siren moving from left to right. The siren ‘chases’ the the relative motion of the source and the
waves it emits, causing a decrease in the wavelength of the sound waves measured by an
observer to the right of the siren. The reverse occurs for an observer to the left of the siren as the observer.
siren moves away.

TABLE 9.2 Motion of the source of sound and the observer and the relationship between the source frequency,
f , and the observed frequency, f ′
WS

Worksheets MOTION OF OBSERVER MOTION OF SOURCE f ′ COMPARED WITH f FORMULA

Sound summary
Homework

v
stationary towards observer f′ > f f′ = f
(v − vs )
v
stationary away from observer f′ < f f′ = f
(v + vs )

towards source stationary f′ > f f′ =

(v + vo ) f
v

away from source stationary f′ =

(v − vo ) f
f′ < f v

Whenever the distance between the source and the observer is decreasing, f ′ > f . When this
distance is increasing, f ′ < f .
If the speeds of the source, vs, and the observer, vo, are known, the observed frequency f ′ can be
calculated using:
(v + vobserver )
f ′ = f wave
(v wave − vsource )
Weblink
where v is the speed of sound and f  is the original source frequency. In our calculations, we will use the
Doppler effect
Animations showing
velocity of sound in air as v = 340 m s−1.
the Doppler effect in An interesting consequence of relative motion between source and observer is that if the source of
action as the source
and/or the observer the sound is moving faster than the speed of sound, no sound will be heard before the source passes
move relative to each the observer. The source ‘chases’ and overtakes the sound waves it is emitting. This can be seen as an
other.
animation in the weblink.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE 9.9

The siren from an approaching ambulance has a frequency of 800 Hz. The ambulance is travelling at
25.0 m s−1. A car is moving towards the approaching ambulance at 15.0 m s−1. What is the frequency of
the sound heard by an occupant of the car?
Hint: refer to Table 9.2 and combine both of the appropriate cases into the one formula. Use common
sense to determine the sign of both vs and vo.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1 −1
f  = 800 Hz; v = 340 m s ; vo = 15.0 m s •• Identify relevant data in the question.

vs = 25.0 m s−1

f′=
( v + vo ) f •• Identify the appropriate formula.

( v − vs )
•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
340 m s −1 + 15.0 m s −1
= × 800 Hz
340 m s −1 − (25.0 m s −1 )
f ′ = 902 Hz •• Calculate the answer and express with correct significant
figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A racing car is moving towards a stationary observer with a speed of 60.0 m s−1. Its engine is emitting
a sound with a frequency of 1.80 kHz. What frequency is heard by this observer?
2 The same racing car is now moving away from the observer at 80.0 m s−1, emitting the same
frequency. What frequency is heard by the observer?
KEY CONCEPTS

knilbeW
●● When two sounds waves with slightly different frequencies superpose, a third frequency, the
beat frequency, is heard.
●● The beat frequency, fbeat, is the difference between the two component waves’ Sonic booms
frequencies: f beat = f 2 − f 1 . Information relating
to the Doppler
●● The Doppler effect occurs when there is relative motion between the source of the sound and effect and sonic
the observer. booms, showing
how a source
●● An increase in observed frequency occurs when the source and the observer are approaching moving faster than
each other. the speed of sound
●● When there is relative motion between the source and the observer, the observed overtakes the
sound waves it is
(v wave + vobserver ) emitting.
frequency is given by: f ′ = f .
(v wave − vsource )

CHECK YOUR
1 By referring to the Doppler effect formula, explain why a source of sound needs to be moving quickly UNDERSTANDING
before the Doppler effect for sound is observed.
2 A sound source emitting a frequency of 500 Hz is moving towards a stationary observer at 200 m s−1. What 9.7
is the frequency of the observed sound?
3 Would the Doppler effect be observed if the source of the sound and the observer are both moving at the
same speed in the same direction? Apply this situation to the Doppler effect formula to test your hypothesis.
4 With reference to the Doppler effect, explain why the pitch of an approaching ambulance siren decreases
after it passes an observer.
5 If a source of sound is moving away from the observer faster than the speed of sound, will the observer
hear anything? Check your answer by applying the Doppler effect formula.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 263

 9   CHAPTER SUMMARY
•• The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the •• The wavelength, λ, of the fundamental mode is 2l, or twice
sound wave. the length of the string.
λ
•• The loudness of a sound is related to the amplitude of the •• For harmonics in a string, l = n n where n = 1, 2, 3, …
2
sound wave. •• The speed, v, of a wave in a string is determined by the
•• An oscilloscope’s time-base axis, the horizontal axis, can be length of the string, l, the tension, T, and the mass per unit
used to measure the period and calculate the frequency of T
a sound wave. length, m l −1, according to the relationship: v = .
m l −1
•• A sounding box can be used to amplify the sound caused •• The fundamental frequency of vibration in a string, f1,
by a vibrating tuning fork. v
is given by f1 = .
•• Sound is a longitudinal wave with back-and-forth vibrations 2l
of air particles. These vibrations result in compressions and •• A node exists at a closed end of a pipe.
rarefactions in air.
•• An antinode exists at the open end of a pipe.
•• In air, compressions are regions of higher pressure and
•• The fundamental mode of vibration is also the first
rarefactions are regions of lower pressure.
harmonic.
•• Intensity of sound, I, is a measure of the amount of sound
•• A closed pipe has only odd harmonics; fn = nf1 where
energy passing through a unit area per second.
n = 1, 3, 5, …
•• Intensity of sound is inversely proportional to the square of λ
•• The length of a closed pipe is l = (2n − 1) .
the distance from a point source of sound. 4
1 When two sounds waves with slightly different frequencies
•• The inverse square law is I ∝ 2 . ••
d superpose, a third frequency, the beat frequency, is heard.
2
I1  d2  •• The beat frequency, fbeat, is the difference between the two
•• Using the inverse square law, ∝   .
2 I d 
1 component waves’ frequencies: fbeat = f2 − f1 .
•• Sound is reflected from hard surfaces. •• The Doppler effect occurs when there is relative motion
•• Sound is diffracted when passing through an opening. between the source of the sound and the observer.
•• Long wavelength sound waves diffract more than short •• An increase in observed frequency occurs when the source
wavelength sound waves. and the observer are approaching each other.
•• A vibrating string has a node at both ends. •• When there is relative motion between the source
•• The fundamental mode of vibration in a string is also the and the observer, the observed frequency is given by:
first harmonic.
f′=f
(v wave + vobserver ) .
(v wave − v source )

9   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

Qz

Review quiz

In all these review questions use 340 m s−1 as the value for the 5 a Why are sound waves often represented as transverse
speed of sound. waves in diagrams?
1 For a soundwave, outline the relationship between: b What do the crests and troughs in the transverse wave
diagrams represent in sound waves?
a pitch and frequency.
b loudness and amplitude. 6 Using a sketch, explain the difference between a ‘closed’
air column and an ‘open’ air column.
2 Describe a way in which a sound wave could be modelled
in a school laboratory. 7 What length of air column, closed at one end, will have a
fundamental frequency of 256 Hz?
3 Outline the meaning of ‘superposition’.
8 How does the slide on a trombone enable different notes
4 Using a sketch, explain what compressions and to be played?
rarefactions are.

264 CHAPTER THREE

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063
 9 Pipe organs make use of both open and closed pipes. c What is the length of this model of clarinet?
Calculate the frequencies of the first three harmonics of an d What other frequencies are possible in this model?
organ pipe of length 0.50 m that is:
13 Using a simple diagram, show how a fast-moving source
a closed at one end.
of sound could overtake the sound waves that it is
b open at both ends. emitting.
10 The length of a vibrating guitar string is 60 cm. 14 Describe the reason for the formation of beat frequencies
a What is the wavelength of the fundamental mode of when two sounds close in frequency are played
vibration? simultaneously.
b If the speed of the wave in the guitar string is 360 m s−1, 15 A plastic tube open at both ends can produce a musical
what is its fundamental frequency? note if whirled in a horizontal circle.
c If the vibrating length of the guitar string is increased, a The effective length of one such tube is 1.2 m. What
does the fundamental frequency increase or decrease? would be the fundamental frequency of the note
Give a reason for your answer. produced when the tube was whirled in a horizontal
11 The velocity of the transverse waves in a guitar string is circle?
350 m s−1. When the guitar string is plucked, it vibrates b What is the frequency of the first two overtones?
with a fundamental frequency of 330 Hz. c Which one of the following best describes the
a What is the wavelength of the standing waves in the displacement nodes for the fundamental mode of the
plucked guitar string? vibration?
b What is the length of the guitar string? A There is only one displacement node in the tube,
c How far apart are the nodes in the standing waves in and this is at one end.
the string? B There is only one displacement node in the tube,
and this is in the centre.
12 A clarinet acts as a tube closed at one end (the
mouthpiece) and open at the other end. Vibration of the C There are displacement nodes at each end, and none
air column is produced in the mouthpiece. A particular in between.
clarinet has a fundamental frequency of 150 Hz. D There are two displacement nodes in the tube, at
a What is the wavelength of this sound? 0.40 m and 0.80 m from one end.
b Which one of the graphs (A–F) of displacement d Explain why only a few frequencies are audible even
amplitude plotted against distance from the open end, though there will be a range of frequencies produced
in Figure 9.17, best illustrates the amplitude of vibration by the tube.
of air particles at the fundamental frequency of 150 Hz? e What difference would it make if a longer tube was
(On the distance axis, X is the open end of the clarinet used?
and Y is the mouthpiece.)

FIGURE 9.17
A B C
Displacement amplitude

Displacement amplitude

Displacement amplitude

X Y X Y X Y
Distance Distance Distance

D E F
Displacement amplitude

Displacement amplitude

Displacement amplitude

X Y X Y X Y
Distance Distance Distance

9780170409063 CHAPTER 9 » SOUND WAVES 265

 16 What is the beat frequency heard when sounds 25 Figure 9.18 shows wavefronts moving away from a point
with frequencies of 344 Hz and 347 Hz are played source of sound energy.
simultaneously?
17 Estimate the length of a didgeridoo, and use this estimate
in the following questions.
a Calculate the fundamental wavelength of the sound
waves produced by the didgeridoo.
b What is the fundamental frequency of the didgeridoo?
18 a Draw a diagram of a didgeridoo resonating at its
fundamental frequency. On the diagram, show the
pressure variation and displacement variation.
b Explain why the air at the closed end is a pressure
antinode and a displacement node.
19 When a loud clap is made in a room with large glass
surfaces, the sound is heard to be prolonged, or
reverberates. Explain how this is caused by the reflection
of sound.
20 A student finds the speed of sound by measuring how FIGURE 9.18

long it takes the echo of a short clap to return from a wall
25.0 ± 0.1 m away. The time measured is 0.15 ± 0.02 s. By measuring the radius (r) and the circumference (c) of
each wavefront shown, show how the inverse square law
a What is the speed of sound measured by the student?
applies to the intensity of the sound as its distance from
b What is the absolute uncertainty in the result? the source varies.
c What result should the student report?
26 A standing wave in a string 40 cm in length, as shown in
d Is the student’s result consistent with the reported Figure 9.19, produces a sound wave with a frequency of
value for the speed of sound in air of (341 ± 5) m s−1? 500 Hz.
21 The Sydney Harbour Tunnel is 2.25 km in length.
a What is the fundamental resonance frequency for
sound in the tunnel? Assume the tunnel functions as a
pipe open at both ends.
b Did the designers of the tunnel need to take this
resonance into consideration in their design? By
referring to the range of frequencies that humans can
hear (20 Hz–20 kHz), explain your reasons.
40 cm
22 With the aid of a diagram, explain why the pitch of a
sound increases when the source is approaching the FIGURE 9.19
observer.
a What is the wavelength of the standing wave?
23 What frequency is heard when a source emitting a 700 Hz b Find the fundamental frequency for this string.
sound is moving away from an observer with a relative
speed of 120 m s−1? c Calculate the frequency of the next overtone in this
string.
24 Explain why the Doppler effect is not noticed when a
person talking to you is walking towards you.

266 CHAPTER THREE

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063
 10 Ray model of light

OUTCOMES
Students:
INQUIRY QUESTION •• conduct a practical investigation to analyse the formation of images in mirrors and lenses via reflection and
What properties can be refraction using the ray model of light (ACSPH075)
demonstrated when using •• conduct investigations to examine qualitatively and quantitatively the refraction and total internal reflection
the ray model of light? of light (ACSPH075, ACSPH076)
•• predict quantitatively, using Snell’s law, the refraction and total internal reflection of light in a variety of
situations CCT
•• conduct a practical investigation to demonstrate and explain the phenomenon of the dispersion of light CCT
•• conduct an investigation to demonstrate the relationship between inverse square law, the intensity of light
and the transfer of energy (ACSPH077)
•• solve problems or make quantitative predictions in a variety of situations by applying the following
relationships to: CCT N
c
• nx = for the refractive index of medium x, vx is the speed of light in the medium
vx
• n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2 (Snell’s law)

n2
• sinθc =
n1
2 2
• I1r1 = I2 r2 to compare the intensity of light at two points, r1 and r2

Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

iStock.com/ktsimage

9780170409063 267
 The ray model of light states that light can be modelled

Science Photo Library/

Dorling Kindersley/UIG
as a series of rays (lines) that can be represented on a
diagram. These rays are perpendicular to the wavefronts.
Of course, light can still be a broad glow, such as that
given off by a globe. The ray model largely ignores the
wave nature of light, but it is useful in a number of ways.
In explaining the formation of images using mirrors and
Prior knowledge
lenses, the ray model allows for the use of simple line
FIGURE 10.1  A light ray travels in a straight line drawings showing the reflection and refraction that
unless it is refracted by a prism. occurs as light is incident on (strikes) mirrors or as it
passes through lenses.
The path of refracted light can be predicted using Snell’s law. Total internal reflection is a
phenomenon essential for modern fibre optic communications. This too can be explained and shown
using the ray model of light.

10.1 Images in mirrors and lenses

For many centuries, mirrors and lenses have been used to manipulate light. In today’s society, the
manipulation of light to form images using mirrors and lenses is used in a huge variety of applications.
Examples include rear-view mirrors in cars and sophisticated endoscopes used by surgeons. Reading
glasses use the refraction of light to assist a person’s eyes. Huge mirrors, metres in diameter, are used in
telescopes to probe the depths of our universe. The ray model of light can be used to help analyse the
formation of these images.

Reflection and the ray model

When a beam of light is incident on a smooth, polished surface, such as a plane mirror or a still water
surface (such as shown in Figure 10.2), the rays of light forming the beam are reflected in a predictable
and regular way. A clear image of the reflecting light from objects in the scene can be observed.
Most surfaces reflect incident light in all directions. This is known as diffuse reflection. For example,
a sheet of paper or a painted wall appears smooth, but a microscopic examination will show that it is

Shutterstock.com/puttsk
FIGURE 10.2 An
almost-perfect
reflection in a still
pool of water

268 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 rough when compared with the wavelength of the light. Parallel rays incident on a rough surface are
scattered in all directions. This is a particularly important property as it allows objects to be visible from
many different angles. Figure 10.3 illustrates both diffuse and regular reflection.

FIGURE 10.3 Diffuse
Picture Source/Terry Oakley

and regular reflection

from a mirror in front
of a white piece of
paper. The mirror is
mainly dark because
light is reflected, but
not into the camera,
while the paper
reflects light in all
directions, including
towards the camera.
The candle and its
image are recorded by
diffuse reflection to
the camera.

The quantity of light reflected from a surface depends on the nature of the surface and the direction
of the incident light. A good quality mirror, made by backing a sheet of glass with a thin layer of metal,
reflects about 95% of the incident light. Optical fibres totally internally reflect more than 99% of the
incident light.

Law of reflection
Reflection from surfaces always follows the law of reflection, as discussed in chapter 8. This is true for
regular and diffuse reflection; however, it is easier to observe regular reflection, also called specular
reflection.
1 The incident ray, the normal perpendicular to the surface and the reflected ray all lie in the same flat
plane.
2 The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection: θi = θr.
3 The law of reflection applies at each point on a surface.
Figure 10.4 compares reflection from a smooth surface and from a rough surface.

a Normal b

ur9
Incident Reflected ui9
ray ray
ui ur

ui u
r
ui0
ur0
Mirror

FIGURE 10.4  Reflection of light showing solid lines for rays of light and a dashed line representing the normal to the surface at the
point of reflection. a Regular reflection. b Diffuse reflection, showing parallel incident rays being reflected at different angles. Angles
θi, θi′ and θi″ represent three different angles of incidence.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 269

 Reflection using the ray model
If we measure the angle between the surface and the reflected ray, and the
Normal surface and the incident ray, we find that the angles are equal. This applies at
Incident Reflected any point on a surface, as shown in Figure 10.4. Figure 10.4a shows the simple
ray ray case of a flat surface, and hence is regular reflection. Figure 10.4b shows the
Wavefronts
case of a rough surface, and hence shows diffuse reflection. In both cases,
ui ur the angle between the surface and the incident ray, and the surface and the
reflected ray, are equal at the point where reflection occurs.
The law of reflection states that the angle of reflection is always equal to
Mirror the angle of incidence.
Figure 10.5 shows this law using light represented as a series of
FIGURE 10.5  Using the wave model, the ray is wavefronts. The directions of travel of the incoming and reflected
perpendicular to the wavefronts. For clarity, the waves wavefronts are shown by the rays drawn perpendicular to the wavefronts.
interacting at the surface are not shown.
Rays are drawn perpendicular to the wavefronts.

Images formed in plane mirrors

Light radiates from a point source in all directions. When the rays strike a plane mirror, they reflect
(θi = θr). They appear to come from an image point, a virtual image, behind the mirror. The rays that enter
our eyes affect our retinas. Reflected rays form a real image in our eyes. We perceive a virtual image of the
object to be where it is not physically present.
A virtual image is an image that is formed when rays of light appear to diverge from a point where an
object does not actually exist. Virtual images cannot be cast onto a screen in the way that real images can.
Rays drawn on a ray diagram do not pass through a virtual image. For a real image, rays of light diverge
from the actual object being observed. The virtual image appears at the same distance behind the mirror
surface as the object is in front. The image is the same size as the object; that is, the magnification M = 1.
Magnification, M, is defined as being the ratio of the height of the image, hi and the height of the
object, ho.
h
M= i
ho

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.1

An object that is 5.0 cm high has an image formed that appears to be 15.0 cm high. Calculate the
magnification.

ANSWER LOGIC

ho = 5.0 cm; hi = 15.0 cm •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

hi •• Identify the appropriate formula.

M=
ho
•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
15.0 cm
= •• Calculate and express the final answer with the correct significant figures.
5.0 cm
M = 3.0 •• Note that as magnification is a ratio, it does not have units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A virtual image of an object is 20 cm high. The magnification M = 4. What is the height of the object?
2 What magnification is needed so that an object 1.5 × 10−4 m in diameter appears to have a diameter
of 3.0 mm?

270 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 E NA NB E
O O
ui
ui
ur ho ur
ur9 ur9
M A N M M9
B A B
ui9 ui9
hi

I I
FIGURE 10.6  Reflected rays are perceived to be FIGURE 10.7  Geometric construction to show virtual image
coming from behind the mirror. The image is virtual formation in a mirror. The line M–M´ is the mirror surface, ho the
because the rays do not pass through the image. A height of the object, hi the height of the image. NA and NB are
real image is formed on the retina of the eye or in a the normals drawn from the surface of the mirror where the
camera. light rays are being reflected.

Figure 10.6 shows how an image is formed and seen by an observer. Rays of light from the object, O,
travel to the mirror and reflect such that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Two
rays are shown, which reflect at points A and B. When we look towards points A and B on the mirror, it
appears that light is coming from these points. If we extend the rays behind the mirror, they intersect at
point I behind the mirror. Point I is the position of the image.
Figure 10.7 shows a geometric construction using the law of reflection that allows us to find the
magnification and position of the image. This sort of diagram is called a ray diagram. We draw our object
as having some actual size, such as the arrow. We draw two rays coming from the top of the object and
reflecting from the mirror. The rays must obey the law of reflection, as shown. We again extend the
reflected rays behind the mirror to the point at which they intersect. This point corresponds to the top
of the image, the arrowhead. Our object has a height equal to the distance between the mirror, M, and
point O. The image has a height equal to the distance between the mirror, M, and point I. The ratio of
h h
these distances is the magnification, M = i . For a plane mirror, M = i = 1. For curved mirrors, the
ho ho
magnification may be greater or less than 1.

INVESTIGATION 10.1

Image formation in plane mirrors

AIM
To analyse the formation of an image in a plane mirror

MATERIALS

•• Small plane mirror •• Adhesive such as blu-tack

•• A4 paper •• Pen, pencil and ruler
•• Matchsticks (or small pencils) •• Camera (or mobile phone, laptop or tablet)
!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
Mirrors may break if dropped, producing shards of Take care handling glass mirrors and keep them away from
sharp glass. the edges of desks.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 271

 METHOD

1 Place the mirror vertically in the middle of a sheet of paper. Use an adhesive to hold the mirror up if necessary.
2 Place the matchstick in a blob of adhesive so it stands vertically.
3 Move the matchstick so it is about 10 cm in front of the mirror.
4 Move your eyes down to the level of the desk and observe the image of the matchstick. Does it appear to be in
the mirror or behind it?
5 Place a second matchstick behind the mirror so that the top of the matchstick that is visible above the mirror is
aligned with the image and appears the same size.
6 Measure the distances from each matchstick to the mirror.
7 Photograph the apparatus as it is.
8 Compare the two distances found in step 6.
9 Repeats steps 3–7 using different positions for the matchstick.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Construct a ray diagram of the apparatus showing the formation of the image.

DISCUSSION

1 Is the image formed virtual or real? Give reasons for your answer.
2 What is the magnification of the image formed in the mirror in this investigation?

CONCLUSION
By considering the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● The ray model of light models light as a series of rays, or lines, drawn perpendicular to the
wavefronts.
●● Reflection of light can be either diffuse or specular.
●● Ray diagrams are construction diagrams showing the path of light as rays.
●● The law of reflection states that θi = θr.
●● All angles are measured away from the normal.
●● Mirrors can be used to form virtual images.
●● Magnification, M, is the ratio of the height of the image, hi and the height of the
hi
object, ho: M = .
ho
●● The magnification for plane mirrors is M = 1.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Write the statement for the law of reflection. Draw a diagram to show this law.
2 Use the ray model of light to illustrate diffuse reflection.
10.1a 3 A ray from a single point strikes a plane mirror at an angle of
L
incidence of 30°. Use a carefully measured diagram to show that O
the object and the image are equidistant on opposite sides of the K
mirror. Mirror
4 How do we see a virtual image in a plane mirror? Use a ray diagram
to assist in your explanation.
5 Object O is placed in front of a plane mirror, as shown in Figure 10.8.
a Copy the diagram and locate the position of the image by
constructing appropriate waves on the diagram. FIGURE 10.8

272 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 b Construct a ray model diagram to show that an observer at L can see the image of O.
c From the point of view of an observer moving from L to K, how does the image of O move?
6 The eyes of a 170 cm tall woman are 160 cm above the ground. She stands 0.60 m in front of a plane mirror
that is mounted vertically and sees her entire image. What is the shortest mirror that can be used for such a
purpose? Illustrate your answer with a diagram.
7 Prove that the image is exactly the same distance behind a flat mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
8 State two ways that reflection affects your everyday experiences.

Images formed by refraction and reflection

Lenses are shaped, transparent objects. They may be convex, such as the cornea and lens in the eye, or
concave. Converging (convex) lenses are thicker at the centre and thinner at the edges. Diverging (concave)
lenses are thicker at the edges than at the centre. Lenses can produce real or virtual images by refraction.
Figure 10.9 shows a variety of lens shapes and the names of these shaped lenses.
Curved mirrors can be concave or convex. They can produce real or virtual images by reflection.
Figure 10.10 shows a variety of different mirror shapes. The black line represents the surface of the mirror.

Converging lenses (thicker in the centre)

Bi-convex Plano-convex Converging

meniscus Concave spherical Concave parabolic

Diverging lenses (thinner in the centre)

Bi-concave Plano- Diverging

concave meniscus Convex spherical Convex parabolic

FIGURE 10.9  Different shapes of converging and FIGURE 10.10  Different shapes of converging and
diverging lenses, with names diverging mirrors, with names

Images formed by refraction in lenses

Figure 10.11 (page 274) shows how rays of light are refracted in converging (convex) and diverging
(concave) lenses. The principal axis is drawn perpendicular to the lens, passing through its centre. The
converging lens refracts parallel incoming rays towards the principal axis. The rays converge and cross
at the focal point (F). The focal point is on the opposite side of the lens to the source of the light. The
converging lens forms a real image on the opposite side of the lens to the object. Remember, a real image
is formed when the rays of light are actually coming from the point they appear to be coming from. A
screen placed at this point will have an image on it, and a photodetector or camera placed at this point
will detect light.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 273

 a The diverging lens (Figure 10.11b) refracts light so that the
parallel rays diverge, and do not cross each other on the far
F
side of the lens from the source. However, if we trace the rays
backwards from the right-hand side of the lens, we see that
Converging lens Principal axis they appear to originate from a focal point (F) on the same side
of the lens as the object from which the parallel rays of light are
b originating. A diverging lens forms a virtual image, which is an
F image formed at a position where the light rays do not actually
converge. A photodetector or camera placed at this point (labelled
F in Figure 10.11b) will not detect light, nor will a screen show an
Principal axis Diverging lens image here. This is similar to the way a plane mirror forms a virtual
FIGURE 10.11  Rays that are parallel to the principal axis refract image. The image still exists, and can be seen and photographed,
to: a a real focus (F) in a converging lens; b a virtual focus in a it is just not due to light coming from the image position. Instead,
diverging lens.
the light making the image is being collected by the lens to form a
real image in the camera.
Lens Our eyes contain a convex lens that converges the rays of light
axis
incident on our eye to a focal point. If the lens and cornea of the
eye forms an image in front of or behind the retina (rather than
Principal
axis L
exactly on the light-sensitive cells of the retina), the result is blurry
vision.
F Focus F Focus
Optical When the image is formed in front of the retina, this is usually
(focal point) (focal point)
centre
because the lens and cornea are too strongly converging, or the
f eyeball is too long. The result is that the person can focus on objects
f
up close, but not far away. This is called myopia (short- or near-
Focal length
sightedness). When the image is formed behind the retina, usually
FIGURE 10.12  Geometry of the convex lens image-forming because the lens is not converging enough, the person can focus
system showing lens axis, principal axis, optical centre and
two foci on objects far away but not up close. This is a called hyperopia
(long-sightedness). When it is due to ageing of the eyes and the
Point source
muscles that control the shape of the lens, it is called presbyopia
of light (literally ‘old-age vision’).

Ray tracing biconvex lenses

Figure 10.12 shows the geometry of a biconvex lens system. The
Principal axis
principal axis is a line that passes through the centre of the lens at
F F a right angle to the plane in which the lens stands. The lens axis
passes through the centre of the lens as shown. The optical centre
Converging is the point at which these two axes cross. The focal point (or
convex lens Real image
focus) F nearest the object is at the focal length, f. The other focal
point F is placed symmetrically on the opposite side of the lens.
FIGURE 10.13  Some of the many rays that leave an object
shown as a point source. These rays represent the waves Light leaves a point on an object, passes through the biconvex
emanating from the point in all directions. lens, and is recombined on the other side to form a real image, as
shown for a point source of light in Figure 10.13.
The waves that leave the point all radiate uniformly into the surrounding space. Some parts of the
wavefronts reach the lens and are refracted. The rays shown are representations of the direction of propagation
of the wavefronts. There are, therefore, many rays that leave the point and reach the lens. All these rays are
recombined beyond the lens to form a real image.

274 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Paraxial assumptions
If an exact image is to be constructed by ray tracing, the exact lens surfaces need to be drawn and the rays
traced exactly into, through and out the other side of the lens. It is possible to draw reasonably accurate
( first approximation) ray tracing diagrams, but this requires certain assumptions to be made. These are
called paraxial assumptions, and are as follows.
◗◗ The rays striking the lens or curved mirror are not too far away from the principal axis.
◗◗ The lens or curved mirror is small and thin so that it can be replaced in the diagram with a straight
line. (However, we always draw a small lens or curved mirror around the centre to remind us of what
we are doing!)
◗◗ When a ray strikes the straight line that represents a lens or curved mirror, it refracts or reflects
respectively as though the line were the lens or curved mirror.
The paraxial assumptions only apply for thin lenses and curved mirrors. Highly accurate image
reconstruction requires more sophisticated assumptions.
We can define any number of rays leaving a point on the object because the wavefront is continuous.
Of these, three rays are useful to help trace the rays to the image in a convex lens:
1 A ray directed through the centre of the lens travels to the image unrefracted (Figure 10.14a)
2 A ray parallel to the principal axis refracts through the lens and passes through the focus on the other
side (Figure 10.14b)
3 A ray through the focus nearer the object refracts at the lens and travels parallel to the principal axis
(Figure 10.14c).

FIGURE 10.14 Ray
a b c paths for three
significant rays
L L that can be used to
L F F locate the image in
a convex lens: a the
ray directed at the
optical centre; b the
A ray through the optical A ray parallel to the A ray arriving through
ray parallel to the
centre L is undeviated. principal axis is refracted F is refracted parallel principal axis; c the
(by the lens) to pass to the principal axis. ray through the focus
through F. nearer the object

Thin lens equation

An image may be inverted or upright with respect to the object, and it may be a different size from the
object (enlarged or diminished). As described earlier, the magnification, M, is the ratio of image height, hi
to the object height, ho.
h
M= i
ho
+
Figure 10.15 enables us to deduce a mathematical B C
relationship, the thin lens equation, which connects the ho L F v–f
F
position of the object, u, the position of the image, v, and the D
A –f f
focal length, f. hi
E
The thin lens equation is deduced from similar triangles. u
–
v
In ∆ABL and ∆DEL:
FIGURE 10.15  Ray tracing diagram to find an image in a
hi v biconvex lens, where u is the distance from the lens axis to the
= object, v is the distance of the image to the lens axis, f is the focal
ho u length of the lens, and F show the positions of the focal points.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 275

 In ∆EDF and ∆FLC:
hi v
=
ho u
hi v− f
= (CL = ho , DF = v − f )
ho f
v v− f
=
u f
vf = uv − uf

Divide by uvf:
vf uv uf
= −
uvf uvf uvf
1 1 1
= −
u f v
1 1 1
+ =
u v f

Therefore, the thin lens equation is:

1 1 1
+ =
u v f

The principal axis can be considered as a number line with distances to the left of the lens being
negative, and distances to the right of the lens being positive. If the thin lens equation produces a
negative value for v (the distance to the image), then the image is a virtual image produced on the
same side of the lens as the object itself. A negative focal length means that the lens is a diverging
lens, not converging.
For real images, M is negative (as real images are inverted). For virtual images, M is positive (as
virtual images are upright).
− hi v
M= =−
+ ho u

A small light forms a real image on a screen when it shines through a convex lens. The light
must be further from the lens than the focal distance. The image may be enlarged, equal to, or
diminished relative to the actual light. This depends on the distance of the object from the lens.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.2

An object 3.0 cm high is placed 16.0 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 10.0 cm.
1 Draw an accurate ray tracing diagram.
2 Use the diagram to find the following properties of the image.
a Image position (upright or inverted)
b Image nature (real or virtual)
c Size of the image (enlarged or diminished)
d Magnification

276 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

1 •• Draw the axes correctly, label the foci and mark

in the object correctly. Use a consistent scale.
O 3 cm
•• Draw two useful rays to and from the mirror.
F F
10 cm 5 cm •• Locate the image correctly. It must be located
16 cm correctly, both horizontally and vertically.
26.7 cm
FIGURE 10.16

2 From the accurately drawn ray diagram: •• Measure the distance from the lens to the image
on your diagram.
a The image arrow is pointing down, so it is inverted.
b The image is real. •• The rays pass through the image, so it is real.

c Size = −5.0 cm •• Measure the height of the image on your

diagram.
The size of the image is enlarged and the height is negative due to the
image being inverted.

− hi •• Identify the appropriate formula.

d M =
ho
−5 cm 26.7 cm •• Substitute known values from diagram into the
M= =− = −1.7 formula and calculate the answer.
3 cm 16 cm

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 An object 6.0 cm high is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 5.0 cm. The object is at
double the focal distance (i.e. 10.0 cm) from the lens. Use an accurately drawn ray tracing diagram to
find the following properties of the image.
a Image position (upright or inverted)
b Image nature (real or virtual)
c Size of the image (enlarged or diminished)
d Magnification
2 An object 4.0 cm high is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 6.0 cm. The object is at a
position that is less than double the focal distance (i.e. less than 10.0 cm) from the lens but greater
than the focal distance. Use an accurately drawn ray tracing diagram to find the following properties
of the image.
a Image position (upright or inverted)
b Image nature (real or virtual)
c Size of the image (enlarged or diminished)
d Magnification

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 277

 WORKED EXAMPLE 10.3

A 2.0 cm high object is 6.0 cm from a lens of focal length 10.0 cm. (The object is inside the focal length).
1 Draw an accurate ray tracing diagram.
2 Use the thin lens equation to find the following properties of the image.
a Image position (upright or inverted)
b Image nature (real or virtual)
c Magnification
d Size of the image (enlarged or diminished)

ANSWERS LOGIC

•• Draw the axes correctly, label the foci and mark in

1 the object correctly. Use a consistent scale.
•• Draw two useful rays to and from the mirror.
•• Locate the image correctly. It must be located
hi
correctly, both horizontally and vertically.
5 cm ho
2 cm
F F
6.0 cm

10.0 cm

15.0 cm

FIGURE 10.17

2 From the diagram, it can be seen that the image is magnified, •• Identify the appropriate formula.
upright and on the same side of the lens as the object, hence
virtual.
a u = 6.0 cm; v = ?; f = 10.0 cm
By calculation:
1 1 1
+ =
u v f
1 1 1 •• Rearrange the formula to make v the subject.
= −
v f u
1 u− f
=
v fu
fu
v=
u− f
10 cm × 6 cm •• Substitute in the known values.
=
6 cm − 10 cm
v = −15 cm •• Calculate the answer.

Image is 15 cm from the lens on the same side as the object, •• State the numerical answer with an appropriate
and it is upright. description to address the question.

b The image is virtual. •• A negative result in part a means a virtual image.

278 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 v •• Identify the appropriate formula.
c M =−
u
−15 cm •• Substitute in the known values.
=−
6 cm •• Calculate the answer.
M = +2.5
hi •• Identify the appropriate formula.
d M = h
o
hi
=M
ho
hi = Mho
= 2.5 × 2.0 cm •• Substitute in the known values.
hi = 5.0 cm
The image is enlarged. •• Calculate the answer.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 An object 2.0 cm high is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 10.0 cm. The object is
placed at half the focal distance (i.e. 5.0 cm) from the lens. Use an accurately drawn ray tracing
diagram to find the following properties of the image.
a Image position b Image nature
c Magnification d Size of the image
2 An object 2.0 cm high is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 8.0 cm. The object is close
to the focal distance away from the lens, at 6.0 cm from the lens. Use an accurately drawn ray tracing
diagram to find the following properties of the image.
a Image position b Image nature
c Magnification d Size of the image

The thin lens equation applies equally Lens axis

to a biconcave lens, which is an example of a
diverging lens. Figure 10.18 shows the three a
rays that can be used on a ray diagram to locate b
Object c
the virtual image formed. In this example, the Image
object is placed more than two focal lengths
2F F F 2F
away from the lens axis. Notice that it is a
virtual image as it only appears to be where
the rays of light have originated. The rest of the
object’s image can be constructed in the same
knilbeW

way at any point on the object.

In Figure 10.18, the object is further than FIGURE 10.18  Three construction rays originating from the
Image
tip of the object. Ray a is parallel to the principal axis before formation
two focal lengths from the lens, creating a being refracted in a direction as if it had originated from the using mirrors
virtual, upright and diminished image. The focal point. Ray b travels towards the focal point on the other and lenses
side of the lens and is refracted parallel to the principal axis.
magnification, M, is less than 1 and can be Ray c passes through the centre of the lens and does not
This interactive site
includes activities
calculated by measuring the distance from change direction as a result of being refracted. The image with converging
point is located by extending the rays behind the lens to their and diverging
the lens to the object, u, and the distance to point of intersection. lenses and mirrors.
the image, v.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 279

 INVESTIGATION 10.2

Images in a convex lens

AIM
To apply the thin lens equation to data to find the focal length of a convex lens

MATERIALS
•• Small convex lens and lens holder
•• Vertical white screen
•• Small bright light source (a single-filament globe is best) in a globe holder
•• 9-volt DC battery pack
•• Rubber band
•• Metre rulers
•• Tape
•• Darkened space
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
While the room is darkened, trip hazards may not be visible. Remove all bags and trip hazards out of the way.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Tape two rulers end to end along a table.

2 Put the lens in the lens holder and place it where the rulers join.
3 Adjust the height so the filament of the globe is at the same height as the centre of the lens.
4 Move the globe to one end of the rulers.
5 Place the screen on the opposite side of the lens to the globe.
6 With the globe as far from the lens as possible, move the screen so as to estimate the focal length of the
lens. Record this length.
7 Move the lens and screen until a clear, focused image appears on the screen. Do this for at least three
positions of the object (the filament of the globe).

RESULTS
In a properly constructed data table:
1 Record object and image distances from the lens.
2 Show the computed value for the focal length of the lens, to an appropriate number of significant figures,
by applying the thin lens equation to the three sets of distances measured.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 What was the average focal length for the lens?

2 What is a reasonable estimate of the uncertainties in the distance measurements and in the derived focal length?

DISCUSSION

1 Compare the computed average focal length with your experimental estimate of the focal distance.
2 Explain the basis for the direct experimental estimate of the focal length.
3 Justify quantitative estimates of the uncertainty in the data.

CONCLUSION
By considering the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

280 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Images formed by reflection in curved mirrors
When you take the converging lens geometry and reflect it in the plane in which the lens stands, you
produce the converging, concave mirror diagram. This diagram has all the same triangles as the convex
lens diagram, only this time they are on the same side as the object (see Figure 10.19).

FIGURE 10.19 
The geometry for a
B C converging mirror
(red) is the reflection
of the geometry for
ho the converging lens
D F F D (green).
A L
hi hi
ƒ ƒ
E E
v v
u

Curved mirrors simply reflect rays where lenses refract rays. The reflected geometry produces the
same relationships between triangles. Hence the curved mirror formulae are the same as the thin lens
formulae:
v
M =−
u
1 1 1
+ =
u v f

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.4

An object 3.0 cm high is placed 16 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10.0 cm.
1 Draw an accurate ray tracing diagram.
2 Use the diagram to find the following properties of the image.
a Image position
b Image nature
c Size of the image
d Magnification

ANSWERS LOGIC

16 cm •• Draw the axes correctly, label the foci and mark in

1 the object correctly. Use a consistent scale.
3 cm O F •• Draw two useful rays to and from the mirror.

5 cm 10 cm •• Locate the image correctly, both horizontally and

vertically.
26.7 cm
FIGURE 10.20

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 281

 ANSWERS LOGIC

2 From the accurately drawn ray diagram in Figure 10.20: •• Measure the position of the image on your diagram.
a The image is 26.7 cm from mirror on the opposite side of
the lens axis, and it is inverted.
b The image is real. •• Determine the location of the image relative to the
object and the lens.

c Size of image is 5.0 cm. •• Measure the height of the image on your diagram.

hi •• Identify the appropriate formula.

d M =
ho
−5 cm •• Substitute in the known values and calculate the
M= = −1.7
3 cm answer.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 An object 6.0 cm high is placed 10 cm in front of a converging (concave) mirror. Use an accurately
drawn ray tracing diagram to find the following properties of the image.
a Image position
b Image nature
c Size of the image
d Magnification
2 An object 4.0 cm high is placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 6.0 cm. The object is at a
position that is more than double the focal distance, at 15.0 cm from the mirror. Use an accurately
drawn ray tracing diagram to find these properties of the image.
a Image position
b Image nature
c Size of the image
d Magnification
KEY CONCEPTS

−v
●● For curved mirrors as well as converging lenses, magnification is given by M =
u
h
and M = i .
ho
1 1 1
●● The thin lens equation is + = .
u v f
●● A virtual image has a negative value of v, the distance to the image.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Draw diagrams to show the defining feature of:
a convex lenses.
10.1b b concave lenses.
c convex mirrors.
d concave mirrors.

282 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 2 a List the paraxial assumptions for the ray tracing representation of image formation in lenses and curved
mirrors.
b Illustrate these assumptions on a diagram.
3 a Write the equations used when calculating image positions and magnification.
b Sketch and annotate a ray diagram showing real image formation in a convex lens.
4 An object 5.0 cm tall is placed 20 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. Calculate the
distance of the image from the mirror.
5 Using a scale drawing, determine the position, nature and size of the image of an object 5.0 cm tall placed
10.0 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20.0 cm.
6 An object 15.0 cm high is placed 35.0 cm from a converging lens of focal length 10.0 cm. Using calculations,
determine the position, nature and size of the image formed.

 Refraction, Snell’s law and total

10.2
internal reflection
In chapter 8, the refraction of waves was introduced and discussed. We will now consider refraction
quantitatively and show how light can be ‘trapped’ inside a medium so that it can be guided through
narrow strands of glass called optical fibres.

Law of refraction

Science Photo Library/

ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY
When a ray of light travels from one transparent medium
Measuring the
into another, it changes direction. This phenomenon is called speed of invisible
electromagnetic
refraction. The amount of refraction is mainly related to differences radiation – Heinrich
in the electrical properties of each medium. The electromagnetic Hertz

wave changes speed depending on how well the electromagnetic

wave is permitted to move through the medium.
Refraction is responsible for many strange optical effects, such
as the apparent bending of a straight pencil that is partly in water
and partly in air, as shown in Figure 10.21.
FIGURE 10.21  A straight pencil
Refractive index and Snell’s law apparently bends or breaks at the
Refraction refers to both the change of speed and the change interface between air and water.

in direction of the light. Refraction occurs whenever light

passes from one medium into another. We can characterise any medium by its refractive index, n. A
medium’s refractive index is a relative measure of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light
in the medium.
The value of the refractive index of a vacuum is defined as the value 1.00. Relative to a vacuum, all
other values are greater than 1.00 for visible light.
The expression for the value of n is:
c
nx =
vx
where nx is the refractive index of medium x, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and vx is the speed of
light in medium x.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 283

 When light moves from one material to a second material with a similar refractive index there is very
little refraction. This is the case when light moves from a vacuum to air, which has a refractive index close
to 1.00. When light moves from one medium to a second medium with a very different refractive index,
there is strong refraction. For example, diamond has a refractive index of 2.42 for visible light. Hence, light
entering a diamond from air is slowed down a lot and bends a lot.
The values given for refractive indices are generally an average value for visible light. The refractive
index is actually different for different wavelengths. This variation of refractive index with colour for a
particular medium is important. It gives rainbows their colours and diamonds their sparkle. Diamonds
sparkle because the refractive index for blue light in diamond is larger than for red light. Hence, blue light
bends more than red light, and the different colours are separated. This phenomenon will be discussed
further later in the chapter.
Most materials have refractive indices of between 1.00 and 1.60, but some materials have very high
refractive indices. The refractive indices of some substances are given in Table 10.1. Diamond has a very
high refractive index of 2.42, while pure silicon’s refractive index is an even higher 4.01.

TABLE 10.1  Some common substances and their refractive indices

MEDIUM REFRACTIVE INDEX

Vacuum 1 (exactly)

Air 1.00029

Water 1.33

Glass 1.50

Flint glass 1.65

Diamond 2.42

Silicon 4.01

Normal When a light ray travels from one medium with a refractive index
Medium 1 n1, and enters a second medium with a refractive index n2, it makes an
u1
angle of incidence with the normal to the boundary in the first medium.
Boundary
As this is the first angle produced, it is labelled θ1. The refracted ray
Medium 2 makes an angle of refraction in the second medium, θ2.
u2
All experiments conducted along similar lines for refraction at a
boundary demonstrate the two laws of refraction:
FIGURE 10.22  Angles are
measured in a refraction 1 The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray are coplanar (in
experiment
the same plane).
2 Snell’s law is obeyed.
Snell’s law is the quantitative expression of the relationship between the incident and refracted rays:
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

For simple cases where refraction occurs only once, this can also be written as:

n1 sin(i ) = n2 sin(r )

where (i) is the angle of incidence and (r) is the angle of refraction.

284 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 In many investigations, light enters the second medium from air. Taking nair = 1.0, the refractive index

knilbeW
of the second medium, n2 can be found by measuring θ1 and θ2 and rearranging Snell’s law so that:
Snell’s law
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 interactive
This interactive site
sin θ1 n2
= allows the user to
sin θ2 n1 explore Snell’s law
by refracting a ray
sin θ1 of light.
n2 =
sin θ2

INVESTIGATION 10.3

Investigating Snell’s law

Critical and
Refraction can occur when a light ray travels from one medium into another. The effect depends on the angle creative thinking
of incidence and the relative difference in the optical properties of the media.
Numeracy
AIM
To measure the angles of incidence and refraction, and hence find a relationship that links the two for a range Information and
communication
of angles technology capability
Write a suitable hypothesis for this investigation.

MATERIALS

•• Semi-circular glass or perspex block

•• Ruler
•• Protractor
•• Graph paper
•• Pencil
•• Ray box
•• Computer with suitable spreadsheet program

!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
The globe in a ray box can get very hot. Take care when handling the ray box and do not touch
the globe.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Trace the straight edge of the semi-circular glass block along the line on the graph paper.
2 Trace the outline of the block.
3 Construct the normal line perpendicular to the centre of the flat edge of the block, shown as a dashed line
in Figure 10.23 (page 286).
4 Direct a single ray of light from the ray box to the centre of the flat edge of the block.
5 Trace this ray and the refracted ray (see the example shown in Figure 10.23).
6 Remove the block and carefully measure the angle of incidence, θ1 and the angle of refraction, θ2. Record
these in a table.
7 Replace the block and repeat this for five different angles of incidence, from about 20° to 60°.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 285

 FIGURE 10.23
Arrangement for
Normal
measuring angles θ1
(incidence) and θ2
(refraction) using a
semi-circular glass or
perspex block Semi-circular glass block

u2

u1
Air

RESULTS
Record the following data in a properly constructed data table.
1 Raw data:
• Angle of incidence, θ1
• Angle of refraction, θ2
2 Derived data:
• sin θ1
• sin θ2

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 On a graph, plot data points sinθ1 versus sinθ2. This should be done on a spreadsheet (such as Excel).
2 Insert the trend-line for the plotted points and show the equation for this trend-line.

DISCUSSION
sin θ1
1 Is the ratio constant for all values of θ1? You should consider the shape of the graph plotted in the
sin θ2
analysis of results. Is it a straight line? If so, why?
2 Explain how you can derive the refractive index of glass from the graph of sin θ1 versus sin θ2 by considering
the gradient of this graph.
3 Provide an estimate of the uncertainty in the value of the refractive index by first estimating the uncertainty
in the measurement of your angles.
4 Suggest ways in which these measurements could be made more precise.

CONCLUSION
By considering the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on your hypothesis for this
investigation.

286 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Refraction towards and away from the normal a
Figure 10.24a shows a ray refracting towards the normal as it travels from air to glass. Normal

In this case, n2 > n1 and the ray is refracted towards the normal. u1
If the ray is reversed and travels from glass to air (Figure 10.24b), then n1 > n2 and Air n1 5 1.00
refraction away from the normal occurs: n1 = 1.33 (glass); n2 = 1.00 (air). Glass n2 5 1.33

u2 Straight-through ray
Total internal reflection
At every boundary between media, reflection always occurs. Mostly, so does b
refraction. However, for refraction away from the normal (when n1 > n2), as the angle Normal
of incidence is increased, there comes an angle of incidence for which no refraction u1
occurs. At angles of incidence greater than this angle, the ray is totally reflected back Glass n1 5 1.33
into the medium in which it was travelling when it reached the boundary. This is Air n2 5 1.00
called total internal reflection. At this critical angle θc for the angle of incidence, the u2
refracted angle θ2 is 90°.
Thus:
FIGURE 10.24  a Refraction at the air–
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 glass boundary is towards the normal,
n2 > n1. b Refraction is away from the
normal when the ray is reversed
When θ1 = θc and θ2 = 90°, (glass–air), n1 > n2.

n1 sin θc = n2 sin90°

knilbeW
n
sin θc = 2
n1 Total internal
reflection
This can also be written as interactive
animation
1 This interactive
sin(ic ) = animation can
nx be used to show
where n2 = 1, as it is for air or a vacuum. how total internal
reflection occurs if
As long as n2 < n1, a value of the critical angle, θc, can be calculated. the incident angle
exceeds the critical
angle

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.5

Light travelling in water (n1 = 1.33) strikes the interface with flint glass (n2 = 1.65) at an incident angle
θ1 = 36.0° to the normal. Numeracy

1 What is the angle of refraction, θ2, in the glass?

2 What is the critical angle, θc, for light travelling from flint glass into water?

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 n1 = 1.33; n2 = 1.65; θ1 = 36.0° •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

  n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 •• Identify the appropriate formula.

n sin θ1 •• Rearrange the formula.
sin θ2 = 1
n2
1.33sin 36.0  •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the
sin θ2 =
1.65 formula.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 287

 ANSWERS LOGIC

 1.33sin 36.0   •• Calculate the answer.

θ2 = sin −1  
 1.65
θ2 = 28 •• Express the final answer with the correct significant
figures and units.
(Note that the light is deviated by 7.7° towards the normal.)
2 The critical angle, θc occurs when the refracted angle θ2 = 90°. •• Extract data from the question.
n1 = 1.65; n2 = 1.33; θ2 = 90°;
θc = θ1
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

n2 sin θ2 •• Identify the appropriate formula.

sin θ1 =
n1
1.33sin 90 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the
sin θc =
1.65 formula.

 1.33sin 90  •• Calculate the answer.

θc = sin −1 
 1.65 
•• Express the final answer with the correct significant
θc = 53.7 figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A ray of light travelling in air enters a surface of a diamond (refractive index of 2.42) at an angle of
23.0°. What is the angle of refraction in the diamond?
2 A ray of light enters a medium of refractive index of 1.36 and refracts as it enters a new medium with
n = 1.29. The angle of refraction (θ2) is 25.0°. What is the angle of incidence (θ1) for this ray?
3 What is the critical angle (θc) for light travelling out of diamond (n = 2.42) into water (n = 1.33)?

INVESTIGATION 10.4

Numeracy
Calculating the refractive index of a medium using total
internal reflection
At the critical angle θc, the refracted angle θr = 90° so that it is parallel to the boundary between the two
mediums.

AIM
To calculate the refractive index of a medium by measuring the critical angle, θc

MATERIALS

•• Ray box
•• Semi-circular glass or perspex block
•• Paper, pencil and ruler
•• Protractor

288 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 !
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
INVESTIGATION 1.1
The globe in the ray box gets very hot and may cause Take care not to touch the globe in the ray box.
ASSESSMENT

burns if touched.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Place the semi-circular block onto a flat piece of paper. Normal

2 Arrange the ray box so that a single ray enters the
curved surface perpendicular to the surface (i.e.
parallel to the normal) at that point, as shown in
Figure 10.25.
u2
3 By moving the ray box, adjust the angle of the single
ray so that it leaves the semi-circular block with an
angle of refraction of 90°. This will show as the exiting
ray travelling along the boundary between the flat u1
side of the block and the air.
4 Trace the complete path of the ray and the semi-
circular block on the paper.

RESULTS
Remove the block and measure the angle of incidence at
the middle of the flat face inside the semi-circular block, FIGURE 10.25  The ray of light enters the semi-
as labelled θ1 in Figure 10.25. circular block travelling towards the middle of the
flat face of the block
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Calculate the refractive index of the semi-circular block
using Snell’s law, n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 , with the values:
•• n1 = refractive index of the medium that constitutes the semi-circular block
•• θ1 = angle of incidence
•• θ2 = 90° as it is the angle of refraction
•• n2 = refractive index of air (= 1.00).

DISCUSSION

1 Could this investigation be conducted with the glass block being in a medium other than air? Explain your
answer.
2 Suggest changes that could be made to this investigation that would make the results more precise.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Optical fibres and other application of total internal reflection

An optical fibre is made of a glass core that has a refractive index slightly higher than the surrounding
glass cladding. Today’s society uses optical fibres to convey information around the world on the internet.
Light that is incident on the boundary between the core of the optical fibre and its cladding is mostly
constrained to travel down the core by total internal reflection, as shown in Figure 10.26. The energy loss
per reflection is about 500 times less than for a highly polished mirror surface. Optical fibres are highly
flexible so that the light can be readily carried around corners. Every bend causes an increase in energy
loss, but this is still much better than for ordinary mirror surfaces.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 289

 FIGURE 10.26 An
optical fibre is A single optical fibre contains a light
made from core and ray by multiple total internal reflections
cladding glass, and
carries light around
corners by total
internal reflection.

Solid glass fibre

Normals (not a tube) internal
angles of incidence
u1 > uc

The National Broadband Network (NBN), and telephone companies

a b
such as Telstra, Optus and Vodafone, use optical fibres. Optical fibres
connect telephone exchanges and mobile base stations, and stretch
around the world connecting us to the internet. Bundles of optical fibres
are laid on the ocean floor to link the continents to the internet.
Total internal reflection can also be used in optical instruments such
as periscopes or binoculars. Light is totally internally reflected from one
glass–air surface using triangular prisms, as shown in Figure 10.27. The
image formed has much better clarity than if a mirror were used for the
FIGURE 10.27  Rays of light undergoing total internal
reflection within: a a periscope; b a pair of binoculars
same purpose.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● A medium’s refractive index is a relative measure of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed
of light in the medium.
●● The refractive index of medium x equals the speed of light in a vacuum divided by the speed of
c
light in medium x: nx = .
vx
●● Refraction occurs when light enters a medium with a different refractive index at an angle
other than 0° due to a change in the speed of light in the new medium.
●● Snell’s law (the law of refraction) relates the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive
indices of the two mediums involved: n1 sin i = n2 sin r with i and r being the angles of incidence
and refraction respectively.
●● Total internal reflection will occur if θ1 > θc when n2 < n1.
n
●● sin θc = 2 where n2 < n1.
n1
●● Total internal reflection has applications in optical fibres and can be used in place of mirrors in
optical instruments.

290 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 CHECK YOUR
1 Draw a diagram to illustrate the: UNDERSTANDING
a angle of incidence.
b angle of refraction. 10.2
c normal.
2 State Snell’s law.
3 Define ‘refractive index’. Why is it necessary to use a specific wavelength of light in the definition?
4 Use a diagram to show how Snell’s law is obtained for waves in terms of their speed.
5 Refractive index is a ratio and therefore has no units. Explain.
6 Draw and label an optical fibre to show core, cladding, and total internal reflection at the core–cladding
boundary.
7 Light travelling in air (nair = 1.00) enters a glass block (nglass = 1.49) at an angle of incidence of 30.0°.
a What is the angle of refraction in the glass?
b The glass block is now immersed in oil (noil = 1.28). Does the angle of refraction inside the glass block
become larger or smaller when the angle of incidence is still 30.0°? Support your answer with calculations.

10.3 Dispersion of light

Different colours of light refract by different amounts. This effect is called chromatic dispersion. Red light
refracts least, and violet light refracts most: nred < nblue.
Chromatic dispersion can be observed when white light is passed through a prism in the manner
shown in Figure 10.28. The light is refracted twice – once upon entering the prism and again when leaving.
The direction of refraction is the same in both events, exaggerating the difference between the angle of
refraction for different colours. The component colours of white light can be observed as they diverge.
Rainbows are a result of colour dispersion. Colours disperse within every raindrop, as shown for a
single raindrop in Figure 10.29 (page 292). Altogether, the raindrops produce different colours at slightly
different angles.

FIGURE 10.28 When
white light is passed
through a prism, red
light is refracted the
least while violet light
is refracted the most,
Red splitting white light
Orange into its component
Yellow colours.
Green
Blue
White Indigo
light Violet
Glass prism

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 291

 a b
Raindrop
White light from the Sun Internal All drops with this angle This drop sends
R reflection between the rays form the only red light
V red band in the rainbow to the observer

Refraction R V Red e
g
Different drops
Oran
R Yello
w in different
n
Gree positions send
B lu e
Indig
o each colour to
Red
t
Viole
the observer
et
ol

R
Vi

This drop sends

V only violet light
to the observer

d
Re e
R
g
an w
V
Or ello en
Y re e
G Blu All drops with this angle
igo t
Ind iole
V
between the rays form the
violet band in the rainbow

FIGURE 10.29  A rainbow is formed by the addition of the dispersed light in all the raindrops.

The composition of glass can be changed in order to change its sparkling qualities. The refractive
index changes markedly between types of glass, and for different colours within a particular type of glass.
Table 10.2 shows examples of such variations.

TABLE 10.2  Refractive indices for different-coloured light in two types of glass

Weblink
COLOUR CROWN GLASS FLINT GLASS
Dispersion of
white light Red 1.514 1.638
This interactive allows
the user to adjust the Yellow 1.520 1.650
refractive indices of
the mediums and the
angle of incidence to
Blue 1.527 1.664
observe dispersion.
Violet 1.533 1.675

INVESTIGATION 10.5

Critical and
creative
Demonstrating dispersion of light
thinking

AIM
To demonstrate and explain the dispersion of light

MATERIALS

•• Ray box
•• Glass or perspex triangular prism
•• Paper, ruler, pencil and protractor
•• Optional: camera (or other recording device)

292 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 !
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
The globe in the ray box can get very hot and cause Take care handling the ray box to ensure you do not
burns. touch the globe.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Set up the apparatus on a flat surface on a piece of paper so that a single ray of light is incident on the
prism (as shown in Figure 10.28, page 291).
2 Trace the prism and the ray of incident white light onto the paper beneath the prism.
3 Trace the exiting rays of coloured light, taking care to be accurate. Label the colours.
4 Once complete, remove the paper. Using a protractor, measure the angle between the violet and the red
light ‘rays’ that are leaving the prism.

RESULTS
Photograph your investigation and the ray diagram, or ensure that it is retained with your notes.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Compare the overall change in direction of the red ray of light to the original white light ray. Repeat for the
violet ray of light.

DISCUSSION

1 Explain why dispersion of light is not normally observed when single refraction occurs.
2 Summarise the necessary conditions for dispersion to occur.
3 What parts of the electromagnetic spectrum might be detected beyond the red light when white light is
dispersed?

CONCLUSION
By considering the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Dispersion occurs when different component colours in white light are refracted differently.
●● Shorter wavelengths of light are refracted slightly more than longer wavelengths.
●● Dispersion can be observed using a prism with refraction occurring twice. Light questions
●● The production of a rainbow is by refraction and total internal reflection within raindrops.

CHECK YOUR
1 Describe why dispersion occurs when white light is refracted. UNDERSTANDING
2 If dispersed white light was re-merged into a single beam of light, what colour would it be? Explain.
3 By analysing the geometry of Figure 10.29, explain why different colours in a rainbow are observed at 10.3
slightly different angles to the sun.
4 Research ways in which the phenomenon of dispersion could be used in other applications.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 293

 Light intensity and the inverse
10.4
square law
Light from a point source spreads uniformly into the surrounding
space. The energy at the source becomes spread out over larger
3r
areas as the light travels away from the source.
2r The area of a sphere of radius r is:
r A = 4πr2
The source strength, S, is the energy per second being emitted.
S
This has the units of joules per second, J s−1, or watts, W. Area
has the units of metres squared, m2. The intensity, I, at distance, r,
from the source, is the energy per second per area:

S
I=
4 πr 2
FIGURE 10.30  Light from a point source spreads uniformly into
1 S
the surrounding space. I=
4π r 2

Thus, the intensity at any point is proportional to the source strength:

I∝S
but inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source:
1
I∝
r2
This relationship is known as the inverse square law. You will encounter this law in other areas of
physics such as gravitational fields, electrostatic forces and sound intensity.

1
The constant, , tells us that a sphere is involved in the calculations. As intensity is a measure of
4π
energy passing per second (power) per unit surface area, it can be measured using the units of watts per
square metre, W m−2.
If the distance away from the source of light is known, it is possible to compare the intensities I1 and
I2 of the light at two points, r1 and r2 distant from the source.
Weblink
Using the inverse square law:
Inverse square
law interactive 2
I 1  r2 
This interactive can =
be switched between I 2  r1 
light and paint to
demonstrate the
relationship between
distance from the
I 1 r12 = I 2 r2 2
source and intensity.

294 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 10.6

3.0 m from a light source, the intensity is 2.40 × 102 W m−2. What is the intensity at 1.5 m from the
source?

ANSWER LOGIC

 I1 = 240 W m−2; r1 = 3.0 m •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

 r2 = 1.5 m; I2 = ?

I 1 r12 = I 2 r2 2 •• Identify the appropriate formula.

I 1 r12 •• Rearrange the formula.

I2 =
r2 2
240 W m−2 × (3.0 m)2 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the
= formula.
(1.5 m)2
= 960 W m−2 •• Calculate the answer.
2 −2
I 2 = 9.6 × 10 W m •• Express the final answer with the correct significant
figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

10.0 m from a light source, the intensity is 4.00 × 102 W m−2. What is the intensity at:
1 40.0 m?
2 8.0 m?

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.7

Earth is 150 million km from the Sun. Mars is 228 million km from the Sun. What is the ratio of sunlight
on Earth compared to on Mars?

ANSWER LOGIC

r1 = 150 million km (Earth’s distance) •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

r2 = 228 million km (Mars’ distance)

I1
= ratio of Earth : Mars sunlight intensity
I2
I 1 r12 = I 2 r2 2 •• Identify the appropriate formula.

I 1 r2 2
= •• Rearrange the formula.
I 2 r12
(228 × 10 9 km)2 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the
= formula.
(150 × 10 9 km)2
= 2.31 •• Calculate the answer.

Sunlight on Earth is 2.31 times more intense than on Mars. •• Express the final answer with the correct significant
figures.
•• Note that the answer is a ratio so it has no units.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 295

 TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 How many times more intense is the light from a candle viewed from 50.0 cm away than when the
observer is 25.0 m away?
2 A lighthouse is observed from a ship from a distance of 14.0 km. How far from the lighthouse must
the ship be so that the light from the lighthouse becomes exactly 9 times more intense?

INVESTIGATION 10.6

Information and
communication The inverse square law
technology
capability
AIM
Numeracy To measure the variation in light intensity with the distance from the source
Write a suitable hypothesis for this investigation.

MATERIALS

•• Point source of light (such as a light globe)

•• Black curtain or fabric
•• Measuring tape
•• Light meter (or suitable app on a smartphone) to measure light intensity
•• Graph paper (or computer with suitable spreadsheet program)
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
The room will be darkened, so items on the floor may Remove any potential trip hazards.
present trip hazards.

Staring at the light source may temporarily hurt your Avoid staring directly at the light source.
eyes.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Darken the room as much as possible. Place the source of light in front of a black curtain to prevent
reflected light from reaching the light meter.
2 Over a range of distances from 0.20 m to 5.0 m, measure the intensity of light and record your results in a
table. Approximately 10 different distances are needed. The actual units for the intensity of light are not
important.

RESULTS
Your results should be recorded in a table with column headings as shown.

1 −1 1
(m ) (m−2)
d (m) I (UNITS) d d2

296 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170412483

 1 1
Complete the columns ‘ ’ and ‘ 2 ’ by performing the appropriate calculations for each distance used in the
investigation. d d

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
1
1 On graph paper or by using appropriate software, plot the values of I versus 2 .
1 d
2 Compare the shape of your graph to the one expected if I ∝ 2 .
d
DISCUSSION

1 Do the results of your investigation support the inverse square law for light? Justify your answer.
2 Comment on the positions of the data points obtained.
3 Suggest ways in which this investigation could be improved by reducing or eliminating sources of error in
the measurements taken.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the hypothesis of this
investigation.
KEY
CONCEPTS

●● The intensity of light varies with the inverse square of the distance from the source.
●● The ratio of the intensities varies with the inverse square of the ratio of the distances.
●● The inverse square law is I 1r12 = I 2r22.
Revision

CHECK YOUR
1 Light spreads out uniformly from a 100 W point source. What is the intensity of the light at a distance of: UNDERSTANDING
a 1.0 m?
b 2.0 m? 10.4
c 4.0 m?
d 5.2 m?
2 High-beam headlights can dazzle drivers at night when the oncoming car approaches. However, when
several hundred metres away, this is not a problem. Explain this with reference to the inverse square law.
3 How many time brighter (more intense) will the light from a star be if the observer’s distance is:
a doubled?
b halved?
c ten times the original distance?
d one-tenth of the original distance?
4 Other than for light, does the inverse square law for intensity versus distance hold for other forms of
radiation? Briefly research to answer this question.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 297

 11    CHAPTER
10 SUMMARY

◗◗ The interactions of light with matter can be modelled ◗◗ Total internal reflection will occur if the angle of incidence
using the ray model of light where it is assumed that light θi exceeds the critical angle θc, and n1 > n2.
interacts with matter along straight lines.
◗◗ Dispersion of white light occurs due to differences in
◗◗ For reflection (diffuse and regular): refraction for different wavelengths of white light where
•• the incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray are shorter wavelengths are refracted more than longer
coplanar. wavelengths.
•• the two angles are equal: θi = θr. ◗◗ For image formation in lenses and curved mirrors,
◗◗ For refraction: − hi v 1 1 1
M= = − and + = .
•• the incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray are + ho u u v f
coplanar. ◗◗ Intensity I of light at a distance r from a source with power
•• Snell’s law is n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2, where θi is the angle S 1 S
of S is I = , which can also be written as I =
of incidence; θ2 is the angle of refraction; n1 is the 4 πr 2 4π r2
refractive index of the first medium; and n2 is the
◗◗ The inverse square law is I1r12 = I 2 r22.
refractive index of the second medium.
c
◗◗ The refractive index of a medium is nx = , where nx is
vx
the refractive index of medium x; c is the speed of light in a
vacuum, and vx is the speed of light in medium x.

10   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 Draw ray model diagrams to show reflection of light from 7 Light rays from an object radiate in all directions from
a painted wall that has a rough surface. every point on an object.
2 Write the equation for the way intensity of light from a a Identify which three rays are selected for analysing
point source changes with the distance from the source. image information and for each of the rays show the
Define the terms used. rays’ paths.
b For each of the three rays, show in a diagram the rays’
3 a Write Snell’s law.
paths as they pass through a concave lens.
b Annotate a diagram to define each quantity in Snell’s
c For the same three rays, describe their paths as they
law.
pass through a convex lens. Again, a diagram should
4 Sketch and annotate a ray diagram showing real image be used.
formation in a concave lens.
8 A ray of blue light of wavelength 485 nm travels from air
5 a ‘Total internal reflection is a refraction phenomenon.’ into a crown glass block at an angle of 40.0°. The speed
Discuss this statement. of light in air = 3.00 × 108 m−1 and the refractive index for
b The critical angle for light passing from glycerine to air blue light in crown glass = 1.53.
is 42.9°. a Calculate the angle of refraction as the light passes into
i What is the index of refraction of glycerine? the crown glass.
ii What is the angle of refraction for light passing from b For light transmitted into crown glass, find the speed of
air into glycerine at an angle of incidence the light in the crown glass.
of 42.9°? 9 An object 4.0 cm tall is placed 12.0 cm in front of a concave
6 Why can light from a torch make a wall easier to see than mirror of focal length 8.0 cm. Use ray tracing to find:
a mirror? a the height of the image.
b the distance of the image from the mirror.

298 CHAPTER THREE

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063
 10 An object 4.0 cm tall is placed 12.0 cm in front of a convex 15 At what minimum angle of incidence would a diver
lens of focal length 8.0 cm. Determine these properties of need to shine a laser towards the surface of the water
the image. (nwater = 1.33) so that the light is not transmitted into the
a Position air above?
b Nature

Shutterstock.com/frantisekhojdysz
c Size
11 Jana is 160 cm tall and stands 2.0 m in front of a flat mirror
mounted vertically on a wall. She is just able to see her
entire image. Jana’s friend, Rana, is 190 cm tall. The eyes of
both girls are 10 cm below the top of their heads.
a What is the length of Jana’s mirror? Illustrate your
answer with a diagram.
b Rana cannot see herself fully in Jana’s mirror, even if
she stands back further from the mirror. Explain why.
c What length mirror is needed so that both Rana and
Jana can see themselves fully?
16 A ray of light is shone from air into an optical fibre. All the

Shutterstock.com/Photographee.eu
light transmits down the fibre by total internal reflection.
What is the maximum angle of incidence at the air–core
boundary for which this can occur, given that ncore = 1.500
and nclad = 1.490?
17 The image of an object in a bi-convex mirror is magnified
2.5 times. Use a ray tracing diagram to scale to show how
this is possible. Describe the image in terms of it being
real or virtual, upright or inverted, enlarged or diminished.
18 Use a ray tracing diagram to show how a bi-concave lens
produces an image of an object placed at a distance of
twice the focal length from the lens. Describe the image
formed.
12 At 1.5 m from a light source, the intensity is 0.13 W m−2.
What is the intensity at: 19 Explain why a virtual image cannot be shown on a
screen but a real image can. Use a ray tracing diagram to
a 4.5 m?
illustrate your answer.
b 0.5 m?
13 How is it possible to ‘see’ a virtual image?
14 Two mirrors that meet at right angles are called a corner
mirror. A ray of light from a point 2.5 cm from both mirrors
is incident on one mirror at an angle of incidence of 20°. It
reflects from both mirrors.
a What will be the subsequent path of the light ray?
b How many images will be formed in the two-mirror
system?
c Show that an incoming narrow beam of parallel rays
will be reflected from a corner mirror as a narrow beam
that is parallel to the incoming beam.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 10 » RAY MODEL OF LIGHT 299

 11 Thermodynamics
OUTCOMES Students:
INQUIRY QUESTION •• explain the relationship between the temperature of an object and the kinetic energy of the particles
within it (ACSPH018)
How are temperature,
thermal energy and •• explain the concept of thermal equilibrium (ACSPH022)
particle motion related? •• analyse the relationship between the change in temperature of an object and its specific heat capacity
through the equation Q = mc∆T (ACSPH020)
•• investigate energy transfer by the process of:
– conduction
– convection
– radiation (ACSPH016)
•• conduct an investigation to analyse qualitatively and quantitatively the latent heat involved in a change of
state
•• model and predict quantitatively energy transfer from hot objects by the process of thermal conductivity CCT
•• apply the following relationships to solve problems and make quantitative predictions in a variety of
situations: ICT N
• Q = mc∆T , where c is the specific heat capacity of a substance

Q kA∆T
• = , where k is the thermal conductivity of a material
t d
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
Shutterstock.com/zhangyang13576997233

300 9780170409063
 Thermodynamics is the area of physics

Getty Images/Science & Society Picture Library

that studies the effects of heat, work
and energy on a system. It began in
the 19th century, when scientists
and engineers were first trying to
understand and build steam engines.
It deals with system effects that are
large enough for us to observe and
measure. Thermodynamics has
three laws, confusingly numbered
the zeroth, first and second laws.
These laws help us to explain system
interactions involving heat, energy
and work. The zeroth law defines
and explains thermal equilibrium.
The first (law of conservation of
energy) and second laws help us to
understand how this equilibrium
comes about. FIGURE 11.1  Watt’s condensing steam engine, from Steam Engines
Familiarly Explained, 1836

11.1 Heat, work and energy

Energy is a central concept in many theories and models in physics. We use the law of conservation of
energy to explain observations and predict what will happen in many situations. There are many forms
of energy.
One of the key ideas we will be using in this chapter is the concept of heat or thermal energy. Heat
is energy that is in the process of being transferred from one place to another due to a temperature
difference.
We will also use the verb ‘to heat’ to mean the process of adding heat to something; for example, to
heat food. In physics, we do not use the word heat to describe a quantity of stored energy – rather, it is
energy that is being transferred.
This is similar to the way we define work. Work is energy that is being transferred due to the action
of a force, but it is also not stored in an object or system. It took a long time for the scientific community
to accept that heat was a form of energy. In the 17th century, Antoine Lavoisier (1743–94) developed the
caloric theory. He argued that caloric was a kind of weightless fluid capable of flowing from hotter to
colder bodies through tiny holes in materials.
Sir Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford, 1753–1814) undertook many experiments on heat
and mechanical work. He concluded they were manifestations of the same thing – energy. French
physicist Sadi Carnot (1796–1832) developed these ideas further, especially for engines. James
Prescott Joule (1818–89) conducted some extremely careful experiments on mechanical energy and
heat. He used a known amount of mechanical energy to raise the temperature of a known quantity
of water. His data demonstrated conclusively that heat and mechanical energy are quantitatively
equivalent.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 301

 Joule’s evidence led to the establishment of the law of conservation
Getty Images/Science & Society Picture Library

of energy (the first law of thermodynamics) – this is the foundation

of all studies of heat. The importance of his work has been honoured
by the SI unit for energy, joule, J. Joule worked with Lord Kelvin
(William Thomson) to develop the absolute scale of temperature. He
also discovered the relationship between the flow of current through
a resistance and the amount of heat generated. This is now called
Joule’s law. Caloric theory and energy theory co-existed for a long
time before energy became the preferred concept. In our discussions
of heat transfer, there are still echoes of caloric theory in the way we
discuss the flow of energy from hotter to colder objects. However,
heat is not a substance.
A thermometer gives you an objective measurement
(quantitative) of the temperature. Your hands give a subjective
indication (qualitative) of the temperature. Heat-detecting
nerves in your skin detect the rate at which energy (heat) is
transferred to or from your skin. The rate of heat transfer depends
upon temperature difference. We interpret the sensation as
temperature.
FIGURE 11.2  Joule’s apparatus

INVESTIGATION 11.1

Sensing hot and cold

AIM
To explore how we sense hot and cold

MATERIALS

•• 3 large bowls of water at different temperatures – cold (refrigerated but not frozen), warm (with
an equal mixture of hot and cold water), and hot (as hot as your hands can stand)
•• Thermometer
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Water that is too hot can burn. Limit the temperature to 50°C.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Record the temperature of each bowl of water.

2 Place your left hand in the cold water and your right hand in the hot water for 2 minutes.
3 Now place both your hands in the warm-water mixture.

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 a b

Mark Fergus Photography

Mark Fergus Photography

FIGURE 11.3  a First, place your hands in the hot and cold water as shown. b Second, place your hands in the warm
water as shown.

RESULTS
Record descriptions of the sensation of ‘hotness’ or ‘coldness’ in each hand:
• At the start, when you first place your hands in the hot and cold water.
• After you’ve placed your hands in the warm water mixture.

DISCUSSION
Identify two or more advantages and disadvantages of subjective and objective measurements of heat.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Kinetic particle model of matter

According to the kinetic particle model, all matter is made up of small particles that are in constant
motion. The interactions of particles are small in scale and are described by the kinetic particle model.
Thermodynamics and kinetic theory complement each other. Some principles are more easily understood
in one than the other. We use the kinetic particle model of matter to explain the states of matter, and
changes between states.
The kinetic particle model involves some assumptions.
◗◗ All matter is made up of small particles in constant motion; these particles have kinetic energy.
◗◗ Collisions between particles are perfectly elastic; the total kinetic energy before and after the collision
is the same.
◗◗ Potential energy is stored in the ‘springs’ that connect the particles; potential energy depends on the
distance between particles.

States of matter
Matter can exist in four different states: solid, liquid, gas and plasma. Solids have fixed shapes, fixed
volumes and are mostly incompressible. Liquids have fixed shapes, fixed volumes and are more or less
incompressible. Gases have no fixed shape or volume and are compressible. Plasmas are similar to gases,
but are so hot that electrons have too much energy to be held by atomic nuclei. Plasmas are not relevant
to this discussion.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 303

FIGURE 11.4 The
states of matter
showing approximate
volume changes (note
the change in scale)

Gas (31600) Liquid (31.1) Solid (31)

In a solid, the particles (atoms or molecules) are attached to each other by intermolecular
forces (bonds) that behave a little like springs. There is an ideal length for any bond, but it is
possible for the bond to be stretched and compressed like a spring. The solid material has potential
energy because of these bonds. When people talk about chemical energy in food or fuels, it is this
potential energy associated with the bonds between atoms to which they are referring. The atoms
also have kinetic energy. Even in a solid, the atoms are constantly vibrating, even though there is no
translational motion with respect to the atoms to which they are bonded. The material itself may
not be going anywhere, but every atom is moving. Think of a large assembly of students all sitting
in their own chairs, but each one fidgets and leans side to side to talk to their neighbours.
In a liquid, the particles are only loosely bound. There is still potential energy associated with
interactions between the particles, but less than in a solid. However, the particles typically have
much more kinetic energy.
In a gas, the bonds between molecules or atoms have broken and the particles are free to move.
FIGURE 11.5 Particles
of a perfume (red) diffuse There is no longer potential energy associated with bonds between particles (although there is
through the air (blue) still energy associated with bonds within particles). We model the particles of a gas as being in
away from the source in
the top left-hand corner constant motion. When they interact, they do so by colliding and undergoing elastic collisions. In
(very small scale) an elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved. Kinetic energy is transferred from one particle to
another, but not converted into potential energy. This model of a gas is the kinetic particle model
or ideal gas model. The pressure of a gas is due to the constant collisions between the gas particles.

Diffusion
WS Smells waft to us from many places. This diffusion of gases is explained by the kinetic particle model.
Worksheets
Some things to
Homework Particles move unseen from their source through a ‘sea’ of randomly moving air particles that are
think about relatively far away from each other. Diffusion is very rapid in gases, slower in liquids, and can even occur
between solids under pressure.

Energy model
Energy exists in many forms, including heat, light, mechanical, gravitational, electrical, magnetic, sound
and chemical. Even mass is a form of energy. Regardless of the form, energy is still energy. The ‘form’ is
often named by its origin (such as nuclear or solar). All forms of energy can be transformed from one form
to another, and transferred from one place to another. For example, when you turn on an electrical bar
heater, the electrical energy is transformed to radiant heat and light energy.
The SI unit of measurement of energy is the joule (J). It is approximately equivalent to the effort
required to lift a 100 g apple from the ground to a height of 1 m.

304 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 The two major forms of energy are kinetic energy (energy associated with movement) and potential
energy (energy ready to be used). All energy sources can ultimately be reduced to these two forms.

Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses due to its motion. There is a number of forms of kinetic
energy. For example, consider a moving train – it has bulk translational kinetic energy due to the straight-
line motion of the whole train, bulk rotational kinetic energy in the rotating wheels and engine parts, and
it has disorganised vibration kinetic energy due to the vibrations of the atoms and molecules in the solid
materials from which it is made.

FIGURE 11.6  A

iStock.com/ollo
Bulk translational kinetic moving train
energy of the whole train possesses different
forms of kinetic
energy.

Random kinetic energy of

Bulk rotational kinetic particles making up the train
energy of the wheels

Potential energy
When you stretch an elastic band (sometimes called a rubber band), you do work on it and store energy
in it. The elastic band now has the potential to do work. It has stored the energy. When the elastic band
is released, it transforms this stored energy into kinetic energy and work is done. As stretching occurs,
the atoms change position and the potential energy is increased. This extra potential energy can be
recovered as work.
iStock.com/Onfokus

FIGURE 11.7
Potential energy
is stored in the
stretched elastic
bungee cord due to
the change in position
of the atoms from
which it is made.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 305

 Internal energy
Even when un-stretched, there is potential energy stored in the way the particles are connected to each
other in an elastic band. This keeps it solid, but it is not available to do extra work.
If a solid body is heated, its temperature increases. The particles will gain kinetic energy and (on
average) vibrate faster. The particles move apart and the ‘springs’ also store more energy. The sum of
kinetic energy and potential energy is the internal energy.
At melting point of a solid (the temperature at which it becomes a liquid), there is a phase change. The
kinetic energy of the particles does not change any more until the phase change is completed. However,
the intermolecular bonds are broken and the particles become further separated. At a phase change, the
energy input is used to increase the distance between the particles, not to add to their kinetic energy.

Mode Temperature explained

T1
Number of particles

A cup of water takes a much shorter time to come to a boil

Mode (100°C) than a saucepan of water. The final temperature is the
T2 same for both, but the larger mass of water requires more heat
to bring it to the same temperature. However, all the particles
in the cup have (on average) the same kinetic energy as the
particles in the saucepan. So, to a good first approximation,
temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic
Kinetic energy of particles energy of the particles making up a body.
Average (mean) at 21508C
Average (mean) at 258C Temperature variation and kinetic energy
FIGURE 11.8  The graph shows the energy distribution of the distribution
particles in a sample of iron at two different temperatures, T1 (−150°C)
and T2 (25°C)
When you heat a material, the average kinetic energy of the
particles increases. Figure 11.8 shows the wide range of kinetic
energies of particles in the same mass of iron at two different temperatures. This distribution of energies
is called a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. The peak of the curve is the most common kinetic energy
among the particles. The average is to the right of the peak because the distribution is not symmetrical.
This same distribution of particle energies also applies to liquids and gases. In a liquid, even if it is very
cold, a few particles will still have enough energy to totally escape. This accounts for evaporation.
According to the particle model, it should be possible for all the particles in a substance to be entirely
still. This condition is called absolute zero, and would be measured as 0 on the Kelvin scale, or –273.15°C.
Kelvin and Celsius temperature measurements use the same scale except that the zero point of the
Celsius scale is the freezing/melting point of water at standard atmospheric pressure.
When a material is heated and heat energy is added, the proportion of atoms vibrating faster
increases. The average kinetic energy of particles, and therefore the temperature, increases.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Heat is energy that is in the process of being transferred from one place to another due to a
temperature difference.
●● Work is energy that is being transferred due to the action of a force.
●● James Joule’s careful experiments led to the law of conservation of energy.
●● Normally when a substance is heated, its particles gain kinetic energy.
●● During a phase change, the heat energy increases the distance between particles. The particles
themselves do not gain kinetic energy.
●● Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of the particles in a substance.
●● An object can have bulk (organised) kinetic energy (such as a train in motion), which is
independent of its internal energy.
●● Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.
●● At any given temperature, some particles move slower than average and some move faster.

306 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 CHECK YOUR
1 List the assumptions of the kinetic particle model. UNDERSTANDING
2 What is the difference between energy transformation and energy transfer?
3 Explain why diffusion occurs faster in a gas than in a liquid. 11.1
4 Why are measurements using a thermometer considered to be objective and the sensations in your hands
to be subjective?
5 Explain how kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy are related.
6 Identify the types of kinetic energies the bodies in the following situations have.
a A free-falling, spinning ball.
b A stationary block of ice
7 Use the kinetic particle model to explain the increase in volume of steam compared with the same volume
of liquid water.
8 Why is the mode (peak) of the graph in Figure 11.8 higher for T1 = −150°C than for T2 = 25°C?
9 Explain why the atmosphere contains between 1% and 4% water vapour in the lower atmosphere over
much of Earth’s surface.

11.2  Thermal equilibrium

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that ‘if two thermodynamic
systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal

Insulator
Object A Object B
equilibrium with each other’ (see Figure 11.9).
When two substances at different temperatures are mixed, the heat lost by
Conductor Conductor
one substance is equal to the heat gained by the other. If you place a hot stone
in a container of cold water, heat energy is transferred from the hot stone to the
cold water and container. The heat lost by the stone is equal to the heat gained Object C
by the water and the container. The stone gets cooler, and the water and its
container get warmer. This transfer will continue until both reach the same
temperature – when this occurs, they are said to be in thermal equilibrium FIGURE 11.9  Objects A and B are not touching
each other, but each is in thermal equilibrium
(Figure 11.10). Collisions still occur between the water particles and the stone with object C. According to the zeroth law of
particles, but the amount of heat going from the water into the stone exactly thermodynamics, they are therefore both in
thermal equilibrium with each other – they are
balances the amount of heat leaving the stone and going into the water. There at the same temperature. Should they touch each
is no longer a net transfer of energy from one to the other. other, no heat would flow between them.

Heating and cooling curves

When a pure substance is heated, its temperature is directly
proportional to the energy transferred from a source
provided that:
◗◗ it does not change phase
◗◗ the mass is constant
◗◗ the energy input rate is constant.
Heating and cooling curves always take the basic
shape shown in Figure 11.11. The bottom left of the curve
shows ice heating up to its melting point at 0°C. The curve
becomes level because, as the ice melts, there is no change FIGURE 11.10  Hot and cold objects reach thermal equilibrium due to
the transfer of energy by particle collisions. Eventually, the average kinetic
in temperature. The energy goes into the bonds between energy of particles in both objects becomes the same.
particles, not the kinetic energy of the particles.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 307

 How temperature is measured
140
120 Steam The zeroth law has practical applications. Many materials have properties
that depend on their temperature; for example, the amount of expansion
Temperature (8C)

100
Water and steam of a solid or liquid, or the electrical conductivity of a metal at a given
80
temperature.
60
Water Consider a column of mercury. When no heat flows in or out of the
40 Ice and
water column, its height remains steady. We can calibrate this column by placing
20 it in contact with a physical system at a known temperature. Using water at
0 freezing/melting point (0°C), the height of the column can be marked. The
Ice
220 column can now be brought into thermal equilibrium with water at boiling
Time (Heat added at constant rate)
point (100°C), and the height marked. By marking 100 even divisions along the
FIGURE 11.11  Heating curve for water. When all column, we now have a Celsius thermometer.
the ice has melted, the water continues to heat until There are other types of thermometers. Table 11.1 shows some
it reaches 100°C. At 100°C, it starts to boil. The curve
remains at that temperature until all the water turns thermometers that rely on changes to length, electrical resistance or colour.
to steam. The steam temperature then rises. For example, a thermostat relies on the change of electrical resistance to
measure temperature in an oven.

TABLE 11.1  Physical properties used by thermometers to indicate temperature change

TYPE OF THERMOMETER PROPERTY UTILISED

Mercury in glass Uses different coefficients of expansion between mercury and glass
Thermocouple Uses different temperature-dependent electrical properties of different metals that
are brought into contact
Thermostat Uses variation in electrical resistivity of a material with temperature
Thermal paint Uses colour change with temperature
Bimetallic strip Uses variation in coefficients of expansion between two different metals to detect
temperature changes
Infrared Uses the electromagnetic radiation radiated from a surface to measure temperature
on the absolute temperature scale
Digital Uses the variation in resistivity of a material with temperature – the greater the
resistance, the lower the current

INVESTIGATION 11.2

Bimetallic strips and thermometers

A bimetallic strip consists of two different metals that have been welded together, as shown in
Figure 11.12. You are to investigate how a bimetallic strip behaves when heated, and then use this
information to design and build a working thermometer. To do this, you will need to investigate the
thermal expansion of various metals to understand how this works. Your design must be able to give
quantitative temperature readings when
placed in the oven. Your teacher will provide Metal A
you with the equipment and materials you Metal B
will need. You will then write a report to be
submitted to your teacher.
FIGURE 11.12  Bimetallic strip

308 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 AIM
To build a working bimetallic strip thermometer

MATERIALS (SUGGESTED)

•• Metals to be investigated
•• Water baths (0°C, 50°C and 90°C)
•• Metal clamps and tongs
•• Thermometer
•• Protective mats
•• Protective gloves
•• Calibrated background
•• Access to oven and/or freezer

WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? !
RISK
Hot and cold metals, ovens and freezers all pose a burns Be extremely careful when manipulating the bimetallic bar, oven ASSESSMENT
risk. and freezer when in operation. Hot metal looks exactly the same
as cold metal. Wear protective gloves.

Hot water can cause burns and scalds. Be extremely careful. Wear safety glasses, lab coat and protective
gloves. If spilt on skin, wash with plenty of cold water for
5 minutes. Apply ice pack.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how

Newspix/Calum Robertson
can you manage them?

METHOD
Write a procedure using point form for how you intend to carry
out your investigation. Ask your teacher to check your method
before proceeding.

RESULTS
Think about the types of results you will be collecting.
Remember that your measurements will be quantitative and
objective. Think about how you are going to display your results.
Will you use a table or a graph?

DISCUSSION
What are your results telling you? The discussion section of your
report should also include answers to the following questions:
1 How could you improve the temperature range of your
thermometer?
2 How could you improve the accuracy of your scale?
3 Is your scale linear? Explain your answer.
4 Would your thermometer be as good as a glass–mercury
bulb thermometer to measure daily temperature differences?
Explain your reasons.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a
conclusion based on the aim of this investigation. FIGURE 11.13  Railway tracks buckle due to expansion during
a heat wave. How is this related to this investigation?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 309

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of heat, work and energy on systems large enough
to observe and measure.
●● If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
●● No net heat flows between substances in thermal equilibrium.
●● When a pure substance is heated, its temperature is directly proportional to the energy
transferred from a source if it does not change phase, the mass is constant and the energy input
rate is constant.
●● During a change of phase, energy is still transferred but temperature does not change.
●● Some materials change their properties in a regular way as their temperature changes.
●● Such materials can be used to make thermometers.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Define ‘temperature’.
2 List two different physical characteristics of materials that can be used to make thermometers.
11.2 3 What can we say about the scale of systems that thermodynamics examines?
4 Substance A is hotter than substance B, and the two come into contact.
a What can we say about the energy lost from substance A compared to the energy gained by substance B?
b Explain your reason for your answer to part a.
5 Why do most railway lines have gaps between each section of line?
6 How can we say two substances are in thermal equilibrium if they are not in contact with each other?
7 a What interrupts the trends shown in heating curves such as that in Figure 11.11 (page 308)?
b Explain why this happens.

11.3 Specific heat capacity

To boil water, a 1000 W electric kettle transfers 1000 J of energy every second for quite a long time. It takes
a large amount of energy to raise the temperature of water. The same mass of cooking oil at the same
starting temperature would take about half the time to reach 100°C in the same kettle.
The heat capacity of a substance is the ratio of the amount of heat required for a given change
in temperature. This is a physical property of the material and is related to its structure. It changes
depending on how much of the substance is involved. A more useful quantity is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1°C, without a change of phase. This is called
the specific heat capacity (or just specific heat) of that substance. Water has
a high specific heat capacity. Cooking oil has a much lower specific heat
Temperature (8C)

45
capacity. Oil heats up and cools down almost twice as quickly as water.

Investigating specific heat

14 A student completed an investigation by heating 1 kg of an unknown liquid X
by adding heat energy to it at a steady rate of 150 J s−1 for 210 s. The temperature
0 210 was measured at regular intervals during the heating process and the data
Time (s)
recorded was plotted as shown in Figure 11.14.
FIGURE 11.14  The graph shows that a
The graph shows that temperature T of a body (independent variable)
change in temperature of the liquid is directly increases in direct proportion to the amount of heat energy Q (dependent
proportional to the amount of energy put in variable) put into the liquid:
∆T ∝ Q

310 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 The experiment was then repeated using only 0.5 kg of the unknown liquid.

Temperature (8C)
All other conditions were kept the same as the first experiment. The data were 76
recorded and plotted as shown in Figure 11.15.
The second graph shows that for the same energy input, half the mass
increases its temperature (independent variable) by twice as much. Therefore, 14
the change in the temperature of the body is inversely proportional to the mass
of the body m (a dependent variable): 0 210
1 Time (s)
∆T ∝
m
FIGURE 11.15  The graph shows that for the
Putting these two findings together gives us the relationship: same energy input into half the mass, the
temperature increase is doubled
Q
∆T ∝
m
There is always a constant, c, that makes a proportionality an equality, so by
rearranging we get:
Q
c∆T =
m
Q
c=
m∆T
The constant c is the specific heat capacity of the substance that is being heated; ΔQ is the quantity of
energy supplied; m is the mass of the body being heated and ΔT is the change in temperature. The units
of the specific heat capacity can be found by substitution of the units into the formula:
J
Units of c = = J kg −1 K −1
kg K
That is, joules per kilogram per kelvin. Since 1 K = 1°C, in practise we can use degrees Celsius instead
of kelvin.
The relationships are then expressed in their simplest algebraic form as shown below:
WS
Q = mc∆T
Worksheets
This is a good example of how careful experimentation provides useful data to find meaningful Steam-powered
Homework
power stations
relationships ( formulae). These relationships can then be used to predict what will happen under a
different set of given conditions.

Specific heat capacity of water

Water plays an integral part in evolution and the sustaining of life. It has the highest specific heat capacity
of the most commonly-occurring substances: 4200 J kg−1 K−1. Compared with the same mass of most
other substances, water:
◗◗ heats up more slowly
◗◗ cools down more slowly
◗◗ stores more internal energy.
Many cooling and heating systems ( from hot water bottles and hydronic heaters to water-cooled
engines) utilise water’s high specific heat capacity. Large bodies of water (such as oceans, seas and lakes)
absorb large amounts of energy with only small temperature changes. For the same amount of energy
input, landmasses have much greater temperature changes than water. Thus, the temperatures inland are
much hotter than on islands and in coastal regions. During the warmer months, when the sea temperature
is less than the average air temperature, the sea acts as a heat sink – it stores energy. During the colder
months, when sea temperature is warmer than the average air temperature, the sea releases the stored
energy. This release of energy moderates the temperature of regions close to large bodies of water.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 311

 Specific heat capacities of metals
Just as land masses have specific heat capacities different to water, so do most other substances
(Table 11.2), including metals. Experiments have demonstrated that a small metal block will take about
3–5 minutes to come to thermal equilibrium with boiling water. Once it has reached this temperature, it
can be placed in a known mass of water (specific heat capacity = 4200 J kg−1°C−1) at a different temperature.
Left for long enough in a calorimeter, the two will reach thermal equilibrium. From this and the mass of
the metal block, the specific heat capacity of the metal can be calculated.

TABLE 11.2  Specific heat capacity of some common substances

SUBSTANCE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (J Kg−1 K−1)

Water 4200
Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) 2400
Cooking oil 2800
Ice 2100
Steam 2000
Air 1000
Aluminium 900
Soil 800
Crown glass 670
Iron 450
Copper 380
Lead 130

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.1

250 mL of pure water at 25°C is heated to 95°C.

1 Sketch a heating curve for the water from 0°C to 100°C. Show on the graph the section relevant to
Numeracy this question.
2 How much energy is needed to achieve this temperature change?

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 •• Identify the relevant data in the question and draw the curve.
Highlight the relevant section of the graph.
Temperature (8C)

95

DT

25
DQ
0
Time (heat added at constant rate)

FIGURE 11.16

312 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

2 m = 0.250 kg; ΔT = 95°C − 25°C = 70°C •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
−1 −1
 c = 4200 J kg  °C •• Find c in list of specific heat constants.

Q = mc∆T •• Identify the appropriate formula.

Q = 0.250 kg × 4200 J kg−1 °C−1 × 70°C •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

 = 7.35 × 104 J •• Calculate the answer.

4
Q = 7.4 × 10  J •• Express the final answer with the correct significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A sample of an unknown substance of mass of 505 g is heated from 21.0°C to 56.0°C. The energy
required was 4.90 × 104 J. Calculate the specific heat of the substance. Use Table 11.2 (on page 312) to
identify the substance.
2 A pure iron nail of unknown mass requires 860 J of energy to change from 23.0°C to 305.0°C What is
the mass of the nail?

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.2

A nurse prepares a bath that needs to be at 41°C for a patient. First, the nurse adds 53 L of water at 23°C
from the cold tap. Next, the nurse will need to add water at 68°C from the hot tap so the bath is at the
correct temperature.
1 What four assumptions must be made before starting to solve this problem?
2 How much water did the nurse need to add from the hot tap to achieve the required temperature
of 41°C?

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 Assumptions: •• Identify and state logical assumptions.

• No energy is lost to the surroundings such as the taps,
the air and the bath.
• The mixing process does not add energy to the water.
• The water is pure.
• 1 L of water has a mass of 1 kg.
2 Tcold = 23°C; Thot = 68°C; Tfinal = 41°C; mcold = 53 kg •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

Qhot water lost = Qcold water gained •• Identify the appropriate formulae. Note that when heat is
−mhotc ΔThot = mcoldc ΔTcold lost, Q is negative.

mcold c∆Tcold •• Rearrange the formula.

−mhot =
c∆Thot

mcold ∆T 53 kg × ( 41°C − 23°C) •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
−mhot = =
∆Thot 41°C − 68°C

mhot = 35.3 kg •• Calculate the answer.

35 L of hot water was added. •• Express the final answer with the correct significant figures
and units

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 313

 TRY THESE YOURSELF
A hot iron barbecue plate of mass 1.20 kg is placed in a tub that contains 22.2 L of cold water at 19.3°C.
The water and the plate reach a final equilibrium temperature of 21.3°C.
1 What assumptions must be made before you start solving the problem?
2 What was the original temperature of the hot barbecue plate?

INVESTIGATION 11.3

Specific heat capacity of metals

AIM
To find the specific heat capacity of one or more metals

MATERIALS

•• Calorimeter •• Different metal cubes with dimensions about

•• Thermometer or calibrated temperature 2 cm3
probe •• Strong cotton thread
•• Heating equipment •• Paper towel
•• 250 mL beaker •• Protective gloves
•• Glass stirring rod •• Safety glasses
•• Electronic scales

! WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
RISK INVESTIGATION?
ASSESSMENT
Hot metal blocks can cause burns. Double check that the cotton thread is properly tied. Avoid
touching the metal when transferring the block.

Heating equipment can cause burns. Avoid touching the equipment. Wait for the equipment to
cool before you put it away.

Hot water can cause burns and scalds. Wear safety glasses and protective gloves. Lower the block
gently into the water. Avoid splashing the water. If spilt on
skin, wash it with plenty of cold water for 5 minutes. Apply ice
pack.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 11.17.

2 Place 150 mL of water into the 250 mL beaker. Heat the water until it is boiling.
3 Determine the mass of the cube and securely tie the cotton thread around it.
4 Gently lower the metal cube into the boiling water and leave until it is at 100°C (3–5 minutes).
5 Meanwhile, measure and record the mass of the calorimeter.

314 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

  6 Add approximately 150 mL of cold tap water to the
calorimeter, and measure and record the mass of the
calorimeter and water. Boiling water

 7 Suspend the thermometer (or temperature probe) in

the cold water. Metal
 8 Gently stir the water with the stirring rod and wait
for the temperature of water and thermometer (or Thermometer
temperature probe) to come to equilibrium. Record
this temperature.
 9 Carefully lift the hot metal cube out of the boiling Cold water
water, quickly dry it, then lower it gently into
the calorimeter water. Stir the water gently and Insulation
frequently.
Heating Calorimeter
10 Record the temperature of the mixture of the metal equipment
block and the water when it reaches its maximum.
11 Repeat the experiment with a second trial. FIGURE 11.17  Experimental set-up for the transfer
of the hot metal to the cold water
12 If directed by your teacher, repeat the experiment
with a different metal.

RESULTS
Record your results in a table. Include an estimate of the uncertainty in each measurement.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Use the data to find the specific heat capacity of the metal for both trials.
2 Use the data to determine the measurement value and the estimate of the uncertainty.
3 Look up the accepted value of the specific heat capacity of the metal, including the uncertainty associated
with this value. Decide whether the range of your measurement value overlaps the range of the accepted
value.

DISCUSSION

1 Why were you instructed to dry the metal cube before placing it in the cold water?
2 Why is it desirable to start with the water temperature below room temperature and have a final
temperature above room temperature?
3 Why were you asked to do two trials? Does this improve accuracy or precision?
4 Did your best estimate of the specific heat capacity of the metal differ from the accepted value? Explain.
5 Is it meaningful to calculate the percentage error in this experiment? Explain.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● The specific heat capacity of a substance, c, is the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1°C, without a change of phase.
●● The temperature, T, of a body increase in direct proportion to the amount of heat energy, Q.
●● Q = mc ∆T where m is the mass of the substance and c is the specific heat capacity.
●● Water has the highest specific heat capacity of the most commonly-occurring substances:
4200 J kg−1 °C−1.
●● The sea acts as a heat sink during the warmer months. During the colder months, it releases
stored energy.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 315

 CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 What does it mean when we say the specific heat capacity of iron is 450 J kg−1 K−1?
2 Why do the oceans have a modifying effect on the temperature of the land near them?
11.3 3 Use the formula Q = mc∆T to derive the units of specific heat capacity.
4 A 5.0 L tub contains 3.0 L of water at 23°C. The tub is then filled to the top with hot water. The final
temperature of the water in the tub is 26°C. What was the temperature of the water added?
5 A 60 kg bushwalker is suffering from hypothermia, having an average body temperature of 33.5°C. When
rescued, the bushwalker was wrapped in a blanket and given two 310 mL cups of warm tea (each at a
temperature of 60°C). Calculate the maximum rise in the bushwalker’s body temperature due to the heat of
the tea. (chuman body = 3.5 × 103 J kg−1 K−1)
6 A cook pours 0.80 kg of soup at 98.0°C into a 1.00 kg vacuum flask (specific heat capacity of 32.0 J kg−1 K−1).
When the soup and flask reach thermal equilibrium, the temperature of the flask has gone from 10.0°C to
97.0°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the soup.
7 Equal masses of lead and water are in contact and at thermal equilibrium. Equal amounts of heat are now
transferred to the water and the lead. Will they be at thermal equilibrium immediately after the transfer of
energy? Explain in detail.

11.4 Conservation of energy

In physics, a closed system is one that matter cannot enter or leave, but which energy can be transferred
into or out of by work or heat. An isolated system is one that neither energy nor matter can enter
or leave.
Within an isolated system, the total amount of energy remains constant. Energy can be converted
from one form to another. Energy can be transferred from place to place. But the total energy within the
isolated system remains constant.
Except for the universe, there is no such thing as a perfect isolated system. Very small losses of energy
occur even in the most insulated systems (think about your calorimeter experiments). As long as the
losses are negligible, we can model the system as isolated.
Energy transfer occurs when energy flows from one object or substance to another. Energy
transformation occurs when energy changes from one form to another. If you turn on a torch, chemical
energy is transformed into electrical energy, and the electrical energy is transformed into light and heat
energy. In this case, the battery converts the stored chemical energy into electrical energy, and a globe or
LED converts the electrical energy into light and heat energy.
As you will recall, the first law of thermodynamics (the law of conservation of energy) states that in an
isolated system, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy can be transferred or transformed
but the total energy of an isolated system remains constant.

State changes
A pure solid starts to change state to a liquid at its melting point. A pure liquid starts to change state to a
gas at its boiling point. Both processes, melting and vaporisation respectively, require energy input. Energy
removal causes gases to undergo condensation and liquids, solidification.
Evaporation and vaporisation are often confused. Below the boiling point, evaporation from a liquid
occurs at the surface. Some particles with high kinetic energy escape (see Figure 11.19).
Vaporisation occurs when the liquid changes to gas. At the boiling point, bubbles form below the
surface. No temperature change occurs during vaporisation.

316 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 In the absence of sufficient external pressure, a solid can turn directly into a gas when heated, which
is called sublimation. The reverse process, deposition, can also occur.

Particle loses
Gas energy and returns
on

Surface particle

Co
ati

nd
escapes
n
lim

tio

Ev

ens
ap
osi
Sub

Vapour

orat
ation
Dep

phase

ion
Solid Liquid Liquid
phase

M e ltin g
Solidification FIGURE 11.19  Evaporation occurs at the surface when
water molecules that are less tightly bound and have
relatively higher kinetic energy than those in the body of the
FIGURE 11.18  State change cycles water escape.

Latent heat
During a change of state, energy is added or removed. The energy added during a state change is called WS

latent heat. The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the energy required to change the state Worksheets
Measuring
Homework the
of 1 kg of the substance from its solid state to its liquid state without any change in temperature. The latent heat of
specific latent heat of melting for water is 334 kJ kg−1. In its solid state, the water particles are held water

tightly together. To pull them apart requires a large amount of energy. This energy to separate the
particles is supplied externally. It does not increase the kinetic energy of the particles – instead, it is
used to increase their average separation. As a result, only the internal energy increases. The change
in internal energy cannot be measured by a thermometer because there is no increase in the average
kinetic energy.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a substance is the heat required to change the state of 1 kg
of the substance from its liquid to gaseous state. The specific latent heat of vaporisation of water is
2260 kJ kg−1. You can see from the very large value that it requires a huge amount of energy to separate
the particles from each other.
Both these processes are reversible. For example, a quantity of steam loses energy to its surroundings,
cooling until it reaches its boiling point. It then remains at a constant temperature while the water
molecules draw closer together. Energy is being released to the surroundings during the condensation
process. This energy comes from a reduction of the internal energy of the molecules as they draw closer
together to form liquid water. This is why steam at 100°C will cause more severe burns than the same
mass of water at 100°C.
Condensation and heat exchange occurs in cloud formation. A pocket of moist air surrounded by dry
air rises because it is less dense. It ascends into a cooler region, causing the water vapour to condense
as clouds. The latent heat of vaporisation is released into the surrounding air, which becomes warmer.
Warm air, being less dense than cooler air, continues to rise. Eventually, the moist air hits the ‘roof ’ of
the weather zone – the troposphere. Cloud formation then continues horizontally rather than vertically.
Distinctive anvil-shaped clouds form at the tops of thunder clouds, especially in the tropics (Figure 11.20,
page 318).

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 317

 Alamy Stock Photo/PhotoStock-Israel
FIGURE 11.20 
Distinctive anvil-
shaped clouds are
Weblink
Latent heat often seen at the tops
Use the information of thunder clouds.
presented in the
weblink to understand
cyclical applications
of latent heat such
as refrigerators and
heaters.

Investigating latent heat

WS
A student completed an investigation by heating different masses of ice at 0°C that had been dried to
remove any water in liquid form. The heat energy was supplied at a steady rate of 1000 J s−1 until the ice
Worksheets
Estimating
Homework the
had just melted. The time was recorded and precautions were taken to minimise any external heat gains
latent heat
capacity of water or losses. The data was recorded in Table 11.3, and Figure 11.21 shows a graph of this data.

TABLE 11.3  Data from student investigation

MASS OF WATER PRODUCED (KG) TIME (SEC) ENERGY (KJ)

0.10 33 33

0.22 71 71

0.39 88 88

0.51 175 175

0.64 217 217

0.90 300 300

The graph indicates there is a direct proportionality. In general:

Q∝m
350
There is always a constant that makes a proportionality an
300
equality; in this case L is used as the constant:
Energy input, Q (J)

250
Q = Lm
200
150 Rearranging:
Q
100 L=
m
50
where L, the latent heat, is the gradient of the graph. Units are
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 clearly J kg−1
Mass (kg) This gives us the algebraic expression of the relationship
between state changes and energy required to change the state:
FIGURE 11.21 Finding the relationship between energy input
and mass when ice melts. The equation of the line is Q = m × 334. Q = mL

318 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 11.3
Numeracy
Given that the latent heat of fusion of water is 334 kJ kg−1, how much energy is required to melt 250 g of ice
at 0°C to 250 mL of water at 0°C?

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
L = 334 kJ kg ; m = 250 g •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

Q = mL •• Identify the appropriate formula.

Q = 0.250 kg × 334 kJ kg−1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

= 83.5 kJ •• Calculate the answer.

Q = 83.5 kJ or 8.35 × 104 J •• Express the final answer with the correct significant figures and
units

TRY THIS YOURSELF

A sample of lead (mass 505 g) is heated to its melting point of 327.5°C How much energy is needed to
completely change its phase to liquid lead at its melting point temperature, given that its latent heat of
fusion is 23 kJ kg−1?

INVESTIGATION 11.4

Latent heat of fusion of solids

Modify Investigation 11.3 ‘Specific heat capacity of metals’ (page 314) to find the latent heat of fusion
of solids such as ice and other substances that melt at similar temperatures.
When crushed ice at 0°C is added to water, it will melt. The temperature change in the water can
be used to find the latent heat of fusion of ice.

AIM
Consider the range of possible substances, then write your aim. The aim should be concise, indicate
what quantity is to be measured, and provide information about the way the measurement is to be
undertaken.

MATERIALS
Use the resources suggested in Investigation 11.3 ‘Specific heat capacity of metals’. What other
resources will you need?

RISK ASSESSMENT
Construct a table similar to the one below. Identify specific risks involved in the investigation and
ways that you will manage the risks to avoid injuries or damage to equipment.
!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 319

 METHOD

1 Consider the similarities and differences between Investigation 11.3 ‘Specific heat capacity of metals’ and
your investigation.
2 Construct a flowchart of the procedure you intend to follow.
3 Submit your flowchart and risk assessment to your teacher for approval before beginning the work.

RESULTS
Show on your flowchart the data that you intend to collect.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Consider the value of graphs and equations in your analysis. Justify your analytic processes.

DISCUSSION
Provide a qualitative analysis of the latent heat involved in a change of state. Give quantitative values for
all latent heat of fusions measured. Ensure the uncertainties claimed are justifiable. Consider whether the
investigation met your aim, and include ideas for further improvements in reliability.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● A closed system is one that matter cannot enter or leave, but which energy can be transferred
into or out of by work or heat.
●● An isolated system is one that neither energy nor matter can enter or leave.
●● The first law of thermodynamics (the law of conservation of energy) states that in an isolated
system, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy can be transferred or transformed,
but the total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
●● A pure solid starts to change state to a liquid at its melting point. A pure liquid starts to change
state to a gas at its boiling point. Both processes, melting and vaporisation respectively, require
energy input.
●● Energy removal causes gases to undergo condensation, and causes liquids to undergo
solidification.
●● Below the boiling point, evaporation from a liquid occurs at the surface.
●● At boiling point, bubbles form below the surface. No temperature change occurs during
vaporisation.
●● A solid can turn directly into a gas when heated (sublimation). The reverse process is
deposition.
●● The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the energy required to change the state of
1 kg of the substance from its solid state to its liquid state without any change in temperature.
●● The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a substance is the heat required to change the state
of 1 kg of the substance from its liquid state to its gaseous state.
●● The energy required to change the state is: ∆Q = mL .

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 What is the difference between a closed system and an isolated system?
2 Give an example of:
11.4 a a closed system.
b an isolated system.
3 Why is there no temperature rise when a substance is melting, even though energy is being input?

320 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4 Why do clouds form?

Source: http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/Matter/
HeatingCurve.htm
4000
5 a Why will a damp towel eventually dry out?
3500 Gas
b What factors would increase or decrease the rate of evaporation of a

Temperature (8C)
liquid? 3000
2500
6 What are two observable physical differences between boiling and
2000 Liquid
evaporation?
7 Different substances have different melting points and boiling points, but 1500
the shapes of their heating curves are very similar. Solid iron is heated 1000
constantly from its solid state to its gaseous state in a furnace. The heating Soild
500
curve for the duration of this process is shown in Figure 11.22.
0
Use Figure 11.22 to answer the following questions. Time
a What is the melting point of iron?
b What is the boiling point of iron? FIGURE 11.22  Heating curve for iron

c Explain why two sections of the graph are parallel to the time axis.
d What does the length of the longest horizontal section of the graph tell
you about the latent heat of vaporisation of iron?

11.5 Energy transfer models

Heat energy always moves from a region of high temperature
to a region of low temperature, using conduction, convection
or radiation. The kinetic particle model is useful in describing
heat transfer in materials, particularly concerning conduction
and convection.
Convection
Conduction
on
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy through a substance u cti
nd
by particle collision. There is no net movement of particles. Co
The particles in the hottest part of a material, such as a metal
rod, vibrate further from their usual positions. Collisions with
lower-energy particles transfer energy. Ultimately, the average
kinetic energy of all the particles becomes the same – the
substance reaches thermal equilibrium.
Radiation
Thermal conductivity
Different materials have different conducting properties. FIGURE 11.23  Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection
Thermal conductivity measures how much energy per second or radiation.
flows through a unit area (1 square metre) that has a thickness of
unity (1 metre in SI units) of a material per degree temperature
difference between the two ends of the material. The unit of thermal conductivity is W m−1 K−1. Solids are
better heat conductors than liquids or gases. Heat insulators are poor heat conductors.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 321

 Calculations in thermal conductivity can be done taking all the factors in the definition above into
account, as follows.
Energy change: ΔQ
Note that, since the temperature difference is always negative, ΔQ will be negative.
Energy per second: Q
t
In practice, we usually don’t have exactly 1 square metre of material, so we need to include a variable,
A, in our calculations to specify the actual area when working out heat flow through a material:
Area: A
Temperature difference is the final temperature (outgoing) less the initial temperature (incoming).
Since the flow is from hot to cold, the final value (colder) less the initial value (hotter) will always yield a
negative number:
Temperature difference: Tfinal − Tinitial = ΔT
Direction of heat flow
The distance travelled through the material is also generally not
1 m, so we need a variable to specify this:
Distance: d
Finally, since each substance has a different thermal conductivity
1 metre because of its physical structure, we need to specify this.
1 square Thermal conductivity of material: k
metre
Putting it all together we arrive at:
FIGURE 11.24  Heat flow in a solid
Q kA∆T
=
Positively charged ions t d
(nuclei and inner-level electrons) Metals are particularly good heat conductors –
they have large thermal conductivities. The large
e2 e2 e2 numbers of relatively unattached electrons in
1 1 1 e2 1 metals, which are relatively free to move, transfer
Delocalised
electrons are free to
kinetic energy quickly. The delocalised valence
e2 1 e2 1 e2 1 e2 move, increasing electrons transfer energy to other electrons and
the thermal atoms at a faster rate than electrons that are
conductivity
tightly bonded.
1 e2 1 1 1 Good heat conductors, such as liquid sodium,
e 2 e2 e2 are used in some nuclear reactors to transfer
heat to water. Other good conductors are used in
Delocalised outer-energy-level electrons
refrigerators, disc brakes, computer heat sinks and
FIGURE 11.25  Delocalised electrons are free to move in metals and can conduct car engine radiators. The thermal conductivity of
thermal energy quickly.
some metals is given in Table 11.4 below.

TABLE 11.4  Thermal conductivities of some metals

SUBSTANCE (AT 20°C) THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (W m−1 K−1)

Admiralty brass 111
Aluminium, pure 204
Copper, pure 386
Gold 315
Lead 35
Tungsten 170
Zirconium 23

322 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Almost all non-metal materials, including gases, are insulators. Unlike metals, non-metals do not have free,
delocalised electrons. Energy transfer occurs between particles that are relatively fixed (in solids) or widely
spaced (in gases). When they are cold, birds and cats fluff their feathers and fur to trap air. Consequently, less
heat is transferred from their bodies.

Shutterstock.com/Tony Campbell

Shutterstock.com/sisqopote
a b

FIGURE 11.26  a Birds fluff up their feathers to retain body heat when it is cold. b Fine down feathers found under the
tougher exterior feathers trap air in their structures.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.4

Numeracy
Given that the thermal conductivity of aluminium is 204 W m−1 K−1, how much energy is transferred
through a distance of 40 cm in a block of aluminium of square cross-section 0.25 m2 with one side at 60°C
and the other at 10°C, in 300 seconds?

ANSWER LOGIC
−1 −1 2
k = 204 W m  K ; A = 0.25 m ; •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
ΔT = 10 − 60 = −50°C; d = 40 cm; t = 300 s
Q kA∆T •• Identify the appropriate formula.
=
t d
tkA∆T •• Rearrange the formula.
Q=
d
•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
300 s × 204 W m−1 K −1 × 0.25 m2 × −50 K
Q=
0.4 m
 = −1 912 500 J •• Calculate the answer. The negative sign indicates energy
transferred out, from one end to the other.
Q = 1910 kJ or 1.91 × 106 J •• Express the final answer with the correct significant figures
and units. The question asks for ‘how much energy is
transferred’, so do not include the negative sign.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A block of lead, with an area of 0.2 m2 and length 10 cm, is heated at one end to 35°C while its other end
is kept at 0°C. How much heat energy is transferred from one end to the other in 90 seconds?
2 A 30 cm copper wire has a diameter of 1 mm. If one end of the wire is at 65°C while the other is at 10°C, how
long will it take to transfer 1.00 kJ of heat to the other end? (You will need to refer to Table 11.4.)

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 323

 INVESTIGATION 11.5

Thermal conductivity
Metals have a wide range of thermal conductivities. Given the length and cross-sectional area, it is possible to
determine the thermal conductivity of an unknown metal rod by examining heat transfer over a set amount of
time, and so identify the metal.

AIM
To identify an unknown metal by determining its thermal conductivity

MATERIALS

•• Hot plate (to maintain constant temperature for •• Styrofoam cup

hot water bath) •• Dissecting probe
•• 250 mL beaker •• Timer/stopwatch
•• 150 mL beaker •• Putty or other sealant
•• Ice cubes •• Metal rod (approximately 15 cm long, made of an
•• Water unidentified metal)
•• Measuring cylinder •• Retort stand, boss head and clamp (× 2)
•• 2 thermometers •• Safety glasses
•• Styrofoam sleeve or similar for insulation •• Protective gloves

! WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
RISK
ASSESSMENT Hot water can cause burns and scalds. Do not exceed the experimental temperature. Wear safety
glasses and protective gloves. If spilt on skin, wash with
plenty of cold water for 5 minutes. Apply ice pack.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

FIGURE 11.27 
Experimental
set-up for thermal Thermometer
conductivity

Thermometer Styrofoam cup

Putty seal inside
Metal rod in
insulating sleeve
250 mL
beaker

Retort stand Retort stand

150 mL beaker with boss head with boss head
(for ice water) and clamp and clamp
Heating equipment

324 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 METHOD

1 Set up the equipment (as shown in Figure 11.27).

• Place 100 mL of water in the 150 mL beaker. Fill with ice cubes and monitor the temperature of the
water. When the temperature is 0°C, this will be your ice water.
• Place 200 mL of water in the 250 mL beaker. Set on the hot plate and monitor the temperature of the
water. This will be your hot water bath and it is ready when the temperature is 60°C.
• Place the insulating sleeve around the middle of the metal rod, leaving about 2 cm exposed at
each end.
• Make a small hole in the middle of the base of the styrofoam cup with the dissecting probe. Insert the
metal rod from below so that the 2 cm of exposed metal penetrates into the cup. The tighter the fit, the
better. Seal with putty on the inside.
• Clamp the styrofoam cup, with rod inserted, high on the retort stand.
• Separately clamp the thermometer used to monitor the ice water temperature so it will now be able to
measure the temperature of the styrofoam cup’s contents.
2 Measure 100 mL of ice water (no ice cubes) into the styrofoam cup. Check that there are no leaks.
3 Lower the rod/cup assembly so that the bottom 2 cm of the rod is in the hot water bath.
4 Start the timer.
5 Record the elapsed time and the temperature of the water in the styrofoam cup at the beginning, and then
every minute for 5 minutes.
6 Repeat for reliability.

RESULTS
Record your results in a table, and display the data as a graph.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Determine the amount of energy transferred to the water in the styrofoam cup using the equation
Q = mc∆T . Remember that the ΔT applies to the water in the styrofoam cup only.
2 If you haven’t already done so, measure the length and diameter of the rod. Use the diameter to work out
its cross-sectional area.
3 Now that we have Q, we can determine the thermal conductivity, k, of the metal using the formula
Q kA∆T (first, transpose the formula to make k the subject).
=
t d
4 Refer to Table 11.4 (page 322) or consult an online table for thermal conductivities of metals to determine
which metal the rod is made from.

DISCUSSION

1 Did your graph yield a straight line?

2 What does this mean?
3 Were the results of your second trial consistent with your first trial?
4 How would you assess the overall reliability of your investigation?
5 What improvements could you make to the investigation that would enhance its reliability?
6 How valid was the investigation? Did it meet the stated aim?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 325

 Convection
Convection
Birds soar gracefully on convection currents (also called thermals), which are caused
current
by temperature differences between air masses.
Convection is the transfer of heat energy by bulk movement of particles. The flow
of particles away from a warmer to a cooler region produces a convection current.
Heated fluids expand, becoming less dense and more buoyant. Convection currents
only occur in fluids (liquids and gases), which have relatively weakly connected
particles, but more so in gases than liquids because the particles in a gas are less
tightly connected.
Convection currents and convection cells occur where warm and cold fluid
masses intersect; for example, in the atmosphere and oceans, and in hydronic
home-heating systems.
Figure 11.28 shows convection currents – warm, less dense water at the bottom
flows upwards, while more dense water at the top sinks. A convection cell is
FIGURE 11.28  Convection currents
transfer heat energy in water. produced.

INVESTIGATION 11.6

Bottled convection currents

AIM
To explore convection in liquids

MATERIALS

•• 4 empty identical transparent bottles with a mouth at least 8 cm across

•• Warm and cold water
•• Food colouring (yellow and blue)
•• An old playing card (or card of similar dimensions and strength)
•• Digital camera (optional)
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Water on the floor can cause slipping. Perform the experiment in a sink or large tray to avoid
spills. Clean up any spills immediately.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Fill the four bottles with water – two with warm tap water and two with cold water.
2 Add yellow food colouring to the bottles of warm water, and blue food colouring to the bottles of
cold water.
3 Place the playing card over the mouth of one of the warm water bottles.
4 Over a sink or large tray, turn the bottle upside down and rest it on top of a cold water bottle. Make
sure that they are exactly aligned mouth to mouth with the card separating the two liquids (as
shown in Figure 11.29).

326 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 5 Bring the two liquids into direct contact by sliding the card out
carefully.
6 Observe what happens to the coloured liquids.
7 Repeat steps 3–6, but this time place the cold water on top of the
warm water.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 For each situation, describe any changes to the:

• cold water.
• warm water.
2 Support your descriptions with annotated diagrams, photos or
video clips.
3 Use the kinetic particle model to explain what you observed.

DISCUSSION
Which of the two experiments could be used as a model to explain:
•• ocean currents?
•• the formation of thunder clouds? FIGURE 11.29  Experimental set-up

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion
based on the aim of this investigation.

Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of energy that does
not need a medium. Unlike conduction and WS
convection, radiation does not involve particles
Worksheets
of matter. Except at 0 K, all objects emit Hot water systems
Homework
and heat energy
electromagnetic radiation. loss
Intensity

Moving charged particles (electrons or ions)

are the source of electromagnetic radiation. The
faster they move, the hotter the substance is. This
also means the radiation’s frequency is higher and
its wavelength is shorter. A graph of the intensity
at each frequency is called a Planck curve, and is
related to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
A B C
curve we saw in Figure 11.8 (on page 306). Hottest Coolest
In space, gas clouds (close to 0 K) emit radio Wavelength emitted
waves, while stars (3000–30 000 K) emit ultraviolet
and visible light. Warm bodies mostly emit infrared FIGURE 11.30  Planck curves showing peak intensities
for three objects at different temperatures. Note that the
radiation. Planck curves are used to measure temperature scale reads from right to left.
the temperature in furnaces and stars. At 800°C,
objects glow dull red. Stars such as Spica, which
mostly emit ultraviolet light, have temperatures of
about 22 000 K.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 327

 Decreasing energy Increasing energy

Frequency (Hz)

104 106 1012 1015 1016 1018 1021

Wavelength
Radio wave Microwave Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma ray
(metres)
103 1022 1025 1028 1029 10210 10222

Comparison
sizes

Buildings Humans Flies Needle points Cells Molecules Atoms Atomic nuclei

Temperature of
objects at which
this radiation is
the most intense
wavelength emitted 22728C 21738C 97278C 100000008C

FIGURE 11.31  The electromagnetic spectrum

INVESTIGATION 11.7

Radiative heating

AIM
To investigate the heating properties of microwaves

MATERIALS

•• Microwave oven (2.45 GHz) •• 2 solid blocks of chocolate (length > 13 cm)
•• Oven mitts •• Ruler
•• Baking paper •• Digital camera
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Hot molten chocolate can burn. Only handle the molten chocolate with oven mitts. Do
not eat it.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

328 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 METHOD

1 Remove the rotating tray from inside the microwave unit

2 Cover the ‘floor’ of the microwave with baking paper, avoiding the rotating spindle.
3 Place one block of chocolate on baking paper, parallel to microwave door.
4 Cook for 30 seconds (assuming 1 kW microwave unit).
5 Remove paper with chocolate on it.
6 Repeat steps 2–5, this time with the chocolate block perpendicular to door.

RESULTS

1 Measure the distances between the hot spots and record in a table.
2 Take a digital image of your chocolate blocks.

DISCUSSION
Explain the existence of, and distance between, the hot spots.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this
investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection or radiation.

●● Conduction is the transfer of heat energy through a substance by particle collision.
●● Thermal conductivity measures how much energy per second flows through a material per
degree temperature difference between the two ends of the material.
Q kA∆T
●● =
t d
●● Metals are particularly good heat conductors.
●● Almost all non-metal materials, including gases, are insulators.
●● Convection is the transfer of heat energy by bulk movement of particles.
●● With convection, particles flow from warmer to cooler regions.
●● Convection currents only occur in fluids.
●● Convection cells occur where warm and cold fluid masses intersect.
●● Radiation involves the transfer of energy without the need for a medium.
●● Moving charged particles generate electromagnetic radiation.
●● In a substance at a certain temperature, particles have a range of energies with a particular
peak. The radiation they generate has a corresponding range of frequencies.

CHECK YOUR
1 What properties of the shape of an object affect the rate of heat conduction in it? UNDERSTANDING
2 Why are metals generally good conductors of heat?
3 a Describe a convection cell. 11.5
b Why does heat rise in a convection cell?
4 Why does water feel colder the deeper you dive?
5 What are two major differences between conduction and convection on the one hand, and radiation on
the other?
6 Propose a method of measuring the temperature of an object remotely. Justify your choice.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 329

 11   CHAPTER SUMMARY
◗◗ Heat is energy that is in the process of being transferred ◗◗ The specific heat capacity of a substance, c, is the amount
from one place to another due to a temperature difference. of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the
substance by 1°C, without a change of phase.
◗◗ Work is energy that is being transferred due to the action of
a force. ◗◗ The temperature, T, of a body goes up in direct proportion
to the amount of heat energy, Q.
◗◗ James Joule’s careful experiments led to the law of
conservation of energy. ◗◗ Q = mc∆T where m is the mass of the substance and c is
the specific heat capacity.
◗◗ Collisions between particles are perfectly elastic; the total
kinetic energy before and after the collision is the same. ◗◗ Water has the highest specific heat capacity of most
commonly occurring substances: 4200 J kg−1 °C−1.
◗◗ Potential energy is stored in the ‘springs’ that connect
the particles; potential energy depends on the distance ◗◗ A closed system is one that matter cannot enter or leave,
between particles. but which energy can be transferred into or out of by work
or heat.
◗◗ Normally when a substance is heated, its particles gain
kinetic energy. ◗◗ An isolated system is one that neither energy nor matter
can enter or leave.
◗◗ During a phase change, the heat energy increases the
distance between particles. The particles themselves do not ◗◗ The first law of thermodynamics (the law of conservation
gain kinetic energy. of energy) states that in an isolated system, energy can
neither be created nor destroyed. Energy can be transferred
◗◗ Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and the or transformed but the total energy of an isolated system
potential energy of the particles in a substance. remains constant.
◗◗ An object can have bulk (organised) kinetic energy (such ◗◗ A pure solid starts to change state to a liquid at its melting
as a train in motion), which is independent of its internal point. A pure liquid starts to change state to a gas at its
energy. boiling point. Both processes, melting and vaporisation
respectively, require energy input.
◗◗ Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
particles in a substance. ◗◗ Energy removal causes gases to undergo condensation,
and causes liquids to undergo solidification.
◗◗ At any given temperature, some particles move slower than
average and some move faster. ◗◗ Below the boiling point, evaporation from a liquid occurs at
the surface.
◗◗ Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of heat, work
and energy on systems large enough to observe and ◗◗ At boiling point, bubbles form below the surface. No
measure. temperature change occurs during vaporisation.
◗◗ If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal ◗◗ A solid can turn directly into a gas when heated
equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal (sublimation). The reverse process is deposition.
equilibrium with each other.
◗◗ The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the
◗◗ No net heat flows between substances in thermal energy required to change the state of 1 kg of the
equilibrium. substance from its solid state to its liquid state without any
change in temperature.
◗◗ When a pure substance is heated, its temperature is directly
proportional to the energy transferred from a source if ◗◗ The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a substance is the
it does not change phase, the mass is constant and the heat required to change the state of 1 kg of the substance
energy input rate is constant. from its liquid to gaseous state.
◗◗ During a change of phase, energy is still transferred but ◗◗ The energy required to change the state is: Q = mL .
temperature does not change.
◗◗ Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection or
◗◗ Some materials change their properties in a regular way as radiation.
their temperature changes.

330 CHAPTER THREE

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063
 ◗◗ Conduction is the transfer of heat energy through a ◗◗ With convection, particles flow from warmer to cooler
substance by particle collision. regions.

◗◗ Thermal conductivity measures how much energy per ◗◗ Convection currents only occur in fluids.
second flows through a material per degree temperature
difference between the two ends of the material. ◗◗ Convection cells occur where warm and cold fluid masses
intersect.
Q kA∆T
◗◗ =
t d ◗◗ Radiation involves the transfer of energy without the need
for a medium.
◗◗ Metals are particularly good heat conductors.
◗◗ Moving charged particles generate electromagnetic
◗◗ Almost all non-metal materials, including gases, are
radiation.
insulators.
◗◗ In a substance at a certain temperature, particles have a
◗◗ Convection is the transfer of heat energy by bulk
range of energies with a particular peak. The radiation they
movement of particles.
generate has a corresponding range of frequencies.

11   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 Distinguish between temperature, kinetic energy and 12 A hot cup of coffee is left to stand for a couple of hours.
internal energy. Explain on a particle level how it reaches thermal
equilibrium with the surroundings.
2 What happens to temperature during a phase change?
3 What are the ‘fixed points’ on a thermometer?
Shutterstock.com/Africa Studio

4 Define ‘thermodynamics’.
5 Define ‘conduction’, ‘convection’ and ‘radiation’.
6 What state of matter is the most efficient in the
conduction of heat energy?
7 How do isolated and closed systems differ?
8 All the energy lost from Earth to space is radiant energy.
Why is there no loss due to conduction and convection?
9 Why is it better to take an insulated hot water bottle to
bed rather than an insulated hot brick?
10 Sydney recorded its highest temperature of 45.8°C on
18 January 2013. What is this temperature in kelvin?
11 A scalpel blade that needs to be sterilised is heated in a 13 Why is it that the water going over a waterfall is warmer at
flame until it is glowing red-hot. It is then held above a the bottom of the fall than at the top?
glass of water in which it will be cooled.
14 In an espresso coffee machine, steam at 100°C is passed
a Which has the highest average kinetic energy, the into milk to heat it.
blade or the water?
a Calculate the energy required to heat 150 g of milk
b The scalpel blade is dropped into the water. What from 20°C to 80°C (cmilk = 4010 J kg−1 K−1).
happens to the average kinetic energy of the blade
and of the water? b Calculate the mass of steam condensed.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 331

 15 Why are bar heaters more effective than convection 19 If you blow moist, warm air from your mouth onto a mirror
heaters in a room that has large doors that are frequently on a cool day, the mirror fogs. Has this process cooled or
opened? warmed the mirror? Explain.
20 A lake can absorb huge amounts of radiation on a sunny
Shutterstock.com/ffolas

summer’s day, and yet the temperature of the water can

remain virtually constant. Explain how this is possible.
21 Suppose two substances, lead and water, are in thermal
equilibrium. Equal amounts of heat energy are now put
into each. Assuming the mass of each substance is the
same, will they still be at thermal equilibrium? Explain in
detail.
22 Why is it important to keep the lid on a simmering pot of
water?
23 A vacuum flask is designed to keep liquids hot or cold. A
student seals 200 g of ice-cold water in a glass vacuum
flask and finds that it warms up by 3.5 K per hour.
Calculate the average rate of heat flow into the flask.
24 An electric hotplate is required to heat a 1.6 kg block of ice
at 0°C to steam at 100°C. If it takes 10 minutes to boil the
water away and 15% of the heat generated by the electric
hot plate is lost to the surroundings, calculate the rate at
which the electric hot plate supplies energy to convert
the ice into steam.
25 To test the temperature of an oven, a 500 g aluminium
16 Explain what role the air trapped between the two panes tray was placed in the oven and allowed to reach thermal
of glass in double-glazed windows plays in controlling equilibrium. It was then dropped into a plastic bucket
heat flow. that contained 2 L of water at 0°C. The temperature of the
water rose by 7°C.
17 To deaden pain in minor operations, a liquid that
vaporises easily (vapocoolant) is sometimes a What was the temperature of the oven?
sprayed onto the skin. Explain how vapocoolant cools b Why was a plastic bucket used?
the skin.
18 Explain why food cooks more quickly when it is steamed
rather than boiled.

332 CHAPTER THREE

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063
 » END-OF-MODULE REVIEW MODULE 3  : WAVES AND
THERMODYNAMICS

1 A student performs an investigation during which 8 The intensity of the light from a lighthouse is measured
transverse waves are sent down a spring. over a range of distances.
a Using a sketch, describe the motion of the particles in

Shutterstock.com/saraporn
the spring as the wave passes.
b Outline a method the student could follow that
would allow the student to calculate the velocity of
the waves in the spring without using
distance .
velocity =
time
c Construct and label a displacement versus time graph
for such a wave with the following characteristics:
•  velocity = 3.0 m s−1
•  frequency = 6.0 Hz
•  amplitude = 4.0 cm

2 When earthquake waves pass through the ground on a On a set of axes, sketch the expected relationship
which a building stands, the building moves in different between intensity and distance for the light from the
ways. If the first earthquake waves that reach the building lighthouse.
are longitudinal waves, followed by a series of transverse
b When 2.50 km from the lighthouse, the intensity of
waves through the ground, describe how an observer
the light is measured as being 35.0 units. Calculate the
might see the building move relative to the source of the
intensity of the light at a distance of 500 m.
earthquake waves and the ground.
9 Hydroelectric electricity production produces no
3 Using sketches to assist you, describe and outline one
greenhouse gases, with falling water turning the turbine
application of each of the following wave phenomena:
blades of the generators. During periods of low electricity
a reflection. demand, water can be pumped back uphill so it is again
b refraction. available to generate electricity when the demand
c diffraction. is higher. With reference to the Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution, explain a source of inefficiency in this energy
4 An investigation was performed to explore resonance in a storage scenario.
mechanical system.
a Outline what is meant by the term ‘resonance’. 10 Explain thermal conduction in:
b Describe how the natural frequency of a mechanical a solids.
system could be determined by varying the driving b liquids.
frequency until it matches the natural frequency. c gases.

5 With the aid of diagrams, compare the formation of 11 A pure aluminium rod of radius 2.5 mm and length 30 cm
overtones in air columns closed at one end and air transfers 240 J in 60 seconds. What is the temperature
columns open at both ends. difference between the two ends of the rod?

6 With the aid of diagrams and with reference to the

relevant physics of waves, explain the formation of beats
when two sources with different frequencies of sound are
played simultaneously.

7 The total internal reflection of light has many applications.

a Explain the necessary conditions for total internal
reflection.
b Find the critical angle for light when a ray is travelling
in a medium with a refractive index n1 = 1.45 when
that medium is wrapped in a second medium with a
refractive index n2 = 1.20.
c Describe two applications of total internal reflection.

9780170409063
9780170409063 CHAPTER 11 » THERMODYNAMICS 333
 ▻▻ Investigate, research and make models of the Anzac Bridge structure in Sydney and the problems
with resonance that this bridge had when first built.

▻▻ Investigate, research and make models of antenna that use parabolic reflecting surfaces in light
telescopes and in radio telescopes, e.g. Parkes radio telescope, Hubble Space Telescope or Square
Kilometre Array (SKA).

▻▻ Investigate, research and build a wave tank to show how ‘rogue’ waves in the ocean form and how
they are responsible for the loss of large ships.

▻▻ Investigate, research and model the role of resonance in speaker design and in building design.

▻▻ Investigate the operation and application of the Doppler effect in modern ultrasound techniques
used to detect blood flow through the heart and arteries.

▻▻ Investigate and compare aircraft design for subsonic and supersonic aircraft.

▻▻ Investigate methods that have been used to overcome the inverse square law when transmitting
information by radio waves or microwaves through the enormous distances of space.

▻▻ Investigate the applications of total internal reflection, the advantages and problems encountered,
and how these problems have been overcome.

▻▻ Investigate the applications of dispersion, particularly in spectrometers used in astronomy.

▻▻ Investigate the relation between pressure, volume and gas in a contained gas. Research applications
of these relationships in refrigerators and reverse-cycle air conditioners.

▻▻ Investigate and compare the advantages and disadvantages of diesel engines and internal
combustion engines that use spark plugs.

▻▻ The steam engine revolutionised Western civilisation. Investigate the thermodynamic principles of
the steam engine and the factors that make them more, or less, efficient.

334 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 » MODULE FOUR

ELECTRICITY
AND MAGNETISM
12 Electrostatics

13 Electric circuits

14 Magnetism

iStock.com/BrendanHunter

9780170409063 335
 3 12 Electrostatics
INQUIRY
INQUIRY
QUESTION OUTCOMES Students:
QUESTION •
•• • conduct
investigate
investigations
the gas exchange
to describe
structures
and analyse
in animals
qualitatively
and plantsand quantitatively:
(ACSBL056) throughCCTprimary
ICT and secondary-
Howdo
How docharged
environmental
objects sourced
– processes
investigation,
by which including
objects become
but notelectrically
limited to: charged (ACSPH002)
pressures promote
interact with othera – the
microscopic
forces produced
structures:
by alveoli
other objects as a result of their interactions with charged objects (ACSPH103)
change objects
charged in species
and – variables
macroscopic
thatstructures:
affect electrostatic
respiratory
forces
system
between those objects (ACSPH103)
microscopic structures:
field linesstomata
withdiversity and
neutral objects? •• –
using the electric representation, model qualitatively the direction and strength of electric fields
abundance? •• produced
trace the changes
by: in gas exchange and concentration as it moves around the mammalian and plant bodies
– simple point
(ACSBL056) . What
charges
information can be gathered by observations?
– pairs of charges
– dipoles
– parallel charged plates ICT
•• apply the electric field model to account for and quantitatively analyse interactions between charged objects
using: ICT N
 F
– E = (ACSPH103, ACSPH104)
q
V
– E =
d
1 q1q2
– F = (ACSPH102)
4 πε0 r 2
•• analyse the effects of a moving charge in an electric field, in order to relate potential energy, work and
equipotential lines, by applying: (ACSPH105)
∆U
– V = where U is potential energy and q is the charge
q
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
Shutterstock.com/DummyPhotoAcksText
Shutterstock.com/Eric Boucher

336 9780170409063
 In this chapter, we begin a new topic in physics:

Shutterstock.com/Igor Zh
electromagnetism. Although new ideas, including charge
and electric field, are introduced, you will find that many
familiar ideas (particularly the ideas of force and energy) are
also used. These ideas are central to this topic, just as they
are central to the topics presented earlier. If you look back to
Figure 1.6 on page 7, you will see that the same core ideas of
forces, energy, motion and conservation principles are used in
electromagnetism.
Matter interacts via forces, as described in chapter 4. There are
only four fundamental forces. These are the electromagnetic force,
gravity, and the strong and weak forces. This chapter will look FIGURE 12.1  A lightning storm is a
at the electrostatic force, which is a part of the electromagnetic powerful and spectacular display of
electrostatics in nature.
force. It is exerted on, and by, charged particles. In chapter 14, the
magnetic part of the electromagnetic force will be described. The
other three forces will be discussed in Physics in Focus Year 12.
We will begin by exploring how charged objects interact with other charged objects and with neutral
objects.

12.1 Electric charge

Matter is made of atoms. Figure 12.2 shows a diagram of an atom, based on a {
model by Rutherford and Bohr. Atoms are too small to be seen directly, so clever
experiments had to be done to work out that atoms consist of a tiny nucleus that
contains protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by orbiting electrons. In Physics {
in Focus Year 12, atomic structure is described in detail and a more modern model is 1 1
introduced. For now, the Rutherford–Bohr model has all the essential features that {
1 11
{
we need. 1
1
You can see that in the nucleus of the atom shown in Figure 12.2 there are two {
{ {
types of particles. Those labelled with a + are protons (orange), and they have a
positive charge. Those without a label (grey) are neutrons, and they are uncharged,
or neutral. Outside the nucleus, the small particles labelled – are electrons (green).
Electrons are negatively charged. Charge is a fundamental property of particles, like FIGURE 12.2  A model of an atom,
mass. We deduce the existence of this property from the forces that particles exert on with a small positively charged nucleus
surrounded by orbiting electrons
one another. These forces can be attractive or repulsive, so there must be two types
of charge.
Recall from chapter 4 that when an object accelerates, there must be a force acting on it. Gravity was
identified as a force and described by Newton hundreds of years ago. The gravitational force is always
attractive, and is due to the mass of objects. But there are also forces between objects that include Weblink
Atomic structure
repulsion, and are far too strong to be caused by gravity. Many of these interactions, particularly on a of matter
scale of atoms and larger, are explained by the existence of charge and the forces it exerts. Find out more about
the atomic structure
Charge is difficult to define, but you can think of it as an answer to the question ‘how can we explain of matter and the
basis of the periodic
observed interactions that are not due to gravity?’. In Physics in Focus Year 12, you will see how other table.
properties of particles are the answer to the question ‘how can we explain observed interactions that
are not due to gravity or electromagnetism?’. The electrostatic model, including the idea of charge, was
developed to explain certain types of interactions.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 337

 How do objects become charged, and exert forces?
Atoms are generally neutral overall – this means they have as many positive protons in their nucleus
as they have negative electrons orbiting it. The attractive force between protons and neutrons is what
holds atoms together. Atoms can be ionised by adding or removing electrons. For example, it does not
take a lot of energy to remove an electron from a sodium atom (Na) to make a sodium ion, Na+. Chlorine,
Cl, will readily accept an extra electron to form a chloride ion, Cl−. This losing and gaining of electrons
is the basis of ionic bonding, which you may have heard about in chemistry. Na and Cl bond to form
NaCl (salt) by first transferring an electron from the Na to the Cl. This creates a positively charged ion
and a negatively charged ion, which are attracted to each other – this attraction is the chemical bond.
Figure 12.3 shows the process of ionic bonding for salt.

a Na atom Cl atom b Na ion Cl ion

11 electrons, 11 protons, 17 electrons, 17 protons, 10 electrons, 11 protons, 18 electrons, 17 protons,
12 neutrons 18 neutrons 12 neutrons 18 neutrons

C NaCl molecule

F F
1 2
FIGURE 12.3  a A neutral sodium atom and a neutral chlorine atom; b An
electron moves from the sodium to the chlorine, leaving them both charged;
c The sodium and chloride ions are attracted and bind together, forming salt

We call the force that charged objects, including charged particles, exert on each other the electrostatic
force. The ‘static’ in electrostatic means that this force acts when the charged objects are not moving. It
also acts when the objects are moving, but as we will see in chapter 14, when charges move they also
exert a magnetic force. Electrostatics deals with the simple case when we do not need to include the
magnetic force.
The process of moving electrons can happen on a large scale as well as an atomic scale, leaving
macroscopic objects charged. A Van de Graaff generator works by taking negative electrons from the
metal dome on top, leaving it positively charged. The positively charged dome then exerts a force on
other objects that are charged. Figure 12.4 shows a charged Van de Graaff generator dome.
It is not only charged objects that experience a force due to other charges. A neutral object will
experience a force when close to a charged object. When you remember that neutral objects are made
of atoms, and that these atoms are all made of charged particles, this makes sense. If you hold a piece
of packing foam close to a charged Van de Graaff generator dome, it will fly off your hand to the dome.
If you could look very closely at the atoms in the foam you would see that the atoms are changing
shape very slightly. The electrons move towards one side more, making that side more negative, and
leaving the other side more positive. The negative side is closer to the dome, so the attractive force it
experiences is stronger than the repulsive force experienced by the positive side. The result is a net
force, and an acceleration – the foam flies to the generator.

338 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 Science Photo Library/ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY
FIGURE 12.4  A van
de Graaff generator.
The paper attached
to the dome becomes
charged as it loses
electrons to the
positively charged
dome.

Electrons are easy to add or remove from conductors such as metals (as described in chapter 13), so
conductors are normally charged by adding or removing electrons. However, electrons are not so easy to WS

add or remove from other types of materials. Worksheets

Electrostatics
Homework

One way of transferring electrons is by rubbing one material against another. Objects can also
become charged by taking away pieces of molecules, leaving other pieces behind. If these pieces have
a net charge, then the object will become charged. Again, this usually happens by rubbing. This is the
process that occurs when you slide down a plastic slide and your hair stands up, or when you walk across
a carpet and get a small shock when you touch a door handle.
We refer to any objects with a net charge, either positive or negative, as charged. Objects with zero net
charge (as much positive as negative) are called neutral.

INVESTIGATION 12.1

Charge and charged objects

Critical and creative
thinking
In this investigation, you will explore how charged objects interact with other charged objects and with
neutral objects.
Numeracy
AIM
To investigate the interactions between charged and neutral objects.
Write one or more research questions for this investigation. Consider what factors might be important
in the force that a charged object exerts on another object.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 339

 MATERIALS

•• Paper torn into many tiny pieces (a few millimetres across)

•• 2 plastic combs or perspex rods
•• Different types of fabric (e.g. wool, silk, polyester)
•• 2 or more balloons
•• Sticky tape (some types work better than others, so experiment first)
•• Scissors
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Paper scraps can easily end up all over the floor and Keep the paper scraps in a bag until you need to use them.
can be a choking hazard if inhaled.

Sticky tape stuck all over the desk is unsightly. Clean up after yourself, and do not allow the entire length
of tape to become stuck.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD
A   Charging using different materials
1 Place a few tiny pieces of paper on the desk.
2 Rub the plastic comb/rod up and down with a piece of fabric. Hold the plastic comb/rod approximately
2 cm from the paper. Observe what happens.
3 Remove any paper that is stuck to the comb/rod and throw it away.
4 Repeat step 2 with as many different types of fabric as you have. Note down what happens each time.
Identify the material that most effectively charged the comb/rod.
B   Charge and force
1 Rub the second (uncharged) comb or rod once up and down using the material you identified in part A.
2 Hold the plastic comb or rod approximately 2 cm from the paper. Observe what happens, and count the
number of pieces of paper that stick to the comb/rod.
3 Remove any paper that is stuck to the comb/rod and throw it away.
4 Rub the comb/rod three times up and down with the fabric, and repeat steps 2 and 3. Repeat steps 2 and 3
again after rubbing the comb/rod 5, 10 and 20 times. Record your results.
C   Charge, force and distance
1 Rub the comb/rod vigorously up and down with the fabric many times.
2 Hold the comb/rod 20 cm above the pieces of paper.
3 Very slowly move the comb/rod down towards the paper. Note at what distance the paper starts to be
lifted, and whether the number of pieces being lifted increases, decreases or stays the same with distance.
D   Forces between like and unlike charges
1 Stick a piece of sticky tape approximately 15 cm long to the desk, with 5 cm hanging off the edge
unattached. Put a second similar piece close by but not overlapping.
2 One person is to peel off the first piece of tape, holding it carefully by the free end. A second person is to
peel off the second piece of tape. Alternatively, peel off one piece with each hand. Do not allow them to
get close together or touch.
3 Holding the pieces of tape so they hang vertically, slowly bring them close together. Record your
observations. Discard the tape.
4 Repeat step 1, but this time place the second piece of tape carefully on top of the first piece, so it overlays
it. Peel this piece off first, holding the piece underneath down so it does not come off. Then peel the
underneath piece off.
5 Repeat steps 2 and 3.
If you find that the tape is curling up into a loop when you peel it off the desk, try peeling it off more slowly
and gently, or using shorter pieces of tape.

340 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 E   Forces between charged objects and neutral objects.
1 Rub an inflated balloon vigorously on your hair (or someone else’s, with their permission). The balloon
should become charged. When it ‘crackles’ and lifts your hair when moved away, it is charged.
2 Gently place the charged balloon against the wall. Observe the behaviour of the balloon. Try placing
charged balloons against different wall surfaces, such as windows, plaster, wood and metal. Record your
observations.

RESULTS

•• For part A, you should have noted which fabrics were most effective at charging the comb/rod.
•• You should have quantitative data recorded for parts B and C. Record this in tables.
•• For part B, show the number of pieces of paper attracted to the comb/rod as a function of how charged it
was (how many times rubbed up and down).
•• For part C, show the number of pieces of paper attracted to the comb/rod as a function of how far away it
was (distance in cm).
•• Part D and E have qualitative data. You should have noted whether objects were attracted or repelled in
each case.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

A What sort of fabric most effectively charged the comb/rod?

B How did the force between the charged comb/rod and the paper vary with the amount of charge on the
comb/rod? You could plot a graph of pieces of paper attracted versus amount of rubbing.
C How did the force between the charged comb/rod and the paper vary with the distance between them?
You could plot a graph of pieces of paper versus distance.
D When the pieces of tape had the same sign charge (both transferred charge to the desk), did they attract
or repel each other? When they had opposite sign charge (one transferred charge to the other), did they
attract or repel?
E When the charged balloon was placed gently against the wall, was it attracted, repelled or neither? Did the
wall surface make any difference?

DISCUSSION

•• What general principles can you derive from your observations?

•• Have you answered your research questions?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
Give the answers to your research questions.

Experiments such as those in Investigation 12.1 have led to the following general observations about
forces between charged and neutral objects.
1 Neutral objects are attracted to charged objects, whether they are positively or negatively charged.
Recall from Newton’s third law (see page 92) that forces are interactions experienced by the two
interacting objects. So, charged objects are attracted to neutral objects, regardless of their charge.
(Note that this breaks down at the level of fundamental particles, where charge cannot be separated.)
2 Like charges repel each other, and unlike charges attract each other.
3 The force that a charged object exerts on a neutral or charged object decreases with the distance
between them. We will explore exactly how the force decreases in a later section.
4 The larger the charge, the greater the force that is exerted and experienced.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 341

 WORKED EXAMPLE 12.1

Four polystyrene beads (A, B, C and D) sit on a desk after an electrostatics experiment. When bead A
and B are brought close together, they are repelled and move apart. When B and C are brought close
together, they attract and move closer together. When C and D are brought close together, they do not
move. If A has positive charge, what are the signs of the charge on B, C and D?

ANSWER LOGIC

A has positive charge •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

B is repelled by A

C is attracted to B

D experiences no force from C

B has positive charge •• Like charges repel each other.
C has either negative charge or is neutral •• Unlike charges attract; charged and neutral
objects attract.
C and D are neutral •• No electrostatic force is exerted by neutral
objects on other neutral objects.
A and B are positive, C and D are neutral •• State the final answer.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 A fifth bead, bead E, is attracted to all of beads A, B, C and D. Deduce the sign of the charge on E.
2 Three beads, X, Y and Z are all attracted to each other when put close together in pairs. What can
you deduce about the charges on X, Y and Z?
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Charge is a fundamental property of matter.

●● Charge comes in two types: positive and negative.
●● Charged objects exert an electrostatic force, and experience an electrostatic force.
●● Atoms are made of positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons and uncharged
(neutral) neutrons.
●● Objects become charged when they gain or lose electrons.
●● Objects with like charge (same sign) are repelled by each other.
●● Objects with unlike charge (opposite sign) are attracted to each other.
●● Neutral objects are attracted to both positively and negatively charged objects.
●● The electrostatic force increases with increasing charge, and decreases with distance.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Name the two types of charge and the subatomic particles associated with each.
2 Which is easier to remove from an atom, the protons or the electrons? Why?
12.1 3 Kristy and Adam are discussing objects with neutral charge. Adam says that a neutral object doesn’t have
any charge. Kristy says that a neutral object has lots of positive and negative charges, there are just equal
numbers of each. Who is correct and why?
4 Minh charges a balloon by rubbing it on her hair. She moves it away from her hair, then brings it close
again, and her hair moves towards the balloon. Explain why her hair is attracted to the balloon.
5 Minh rubs a balloon (balloon A) on her head so that it has some amount of charge on it. Sam rubs a
balloon (B) on his head so that it has twice as much charge as that on balloon A. Minh and Sam then hold
the two balloons close together and observe that they repel each other.
a What can you deduce about the signs of the charge on the two balloons?

342 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 Fon balloon A
b What is the ratio of the electrostatic forces ? Justify your answer.
Fon balloon B
6 Minh rubs a balloon (balloon A) on her head and holds it near another balloon (B). Balloon B is attracted to
balloon A.
a What can you deduce about the net charge of balloon B?
b Minh holds balloon A near a third balloon (C) and they repel each other. What can you deduce about
the net charge of balloon C?

12.2 Electric fields

Recall that, in chapter 4, we classified forces as either contact forces or field forces. Contact forces can
only act when two surfaces are in contact. Field forces can act when the objects exerting and experiencing
the force are not touching. Charged objects are able to exert forces on each other when they are not
touching. We describe this force at a distance using the electric field model. This model was developed
from Michael Faraday’s idea of ‘lines of force’. These lines of force enable an object to exert a force on a
second object some distance away.
For the electric field model, we assume that the charges are not moving, and we ignore any quantum
or relativistic effects. This model is extremely good at predicting the behaviour of most interacting
charged objects. Later, when you study gravitation in Year 12, you will see that this model is very similar
to Newton’s model of universal gravitation.
You may have conducted experiments to show that a charged object exerts a force on another charged
object some distance away. For example, if you rub a balloon on your hair and then hold it close to your
head, you will see or feel your hair being pulled towards it. All objects with electric charge create an
electric field around themselves. All objects with charge experience a force in an electric field. We define
the electric field at a position in space as the force per unit charge that acts on a small positive charge
at that position. In other words, the field is a measure of the force acting on a positively charged object.
We always talk about ‘at a particular point’ because the electric field varies from place to place. The field
depends only on the object that creates it.
You already know that like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract. Hence, a positive
charge pushes another positive charge away. So, the field around a positive point charge (a very small
charged object) points away from the charge. Remember that force is a vector – it has magnitude and
direction. Field is a measure of force, so it is also a vector with magnitude and direction.

Electric field lines

Fields can be represented by field line diagrams. An electric field line diagram uses lines with arrows to
show the direction of the force on a small positively charged particle.
To draw a field line diagram, start by considering the force on a test charge at various points. Let’s
start with a single positive charge and think about what happens when we put a small positive test
charge close to it. We know that like charges repel, so the test charge will be pushed away from the
positive charge, as shown in Figure 12.6a (page 344). The direction of the electric field is radially away
from the charge. If we join up the arrows in Figure 12.6b we get field lines, as shown in Figure 12.6c.
Figure 12.6c shows a field line diagram for a single positive point charge. If the point charge were
negative instead of positive, the field lines would all point inwards. A small positive test charge would be
attracted to a negative charge (see Figure 12.7, page 344).

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 343

 a F b c

Q 1 1

FIGURE 12.5  Constructing a field line diagram. Start by drawing arrows to show the force at various points, and then join
them up to form field lines.

So, field lines come out of positive charges and go into negative charges. This is because
positive charges are attracted to negative charges and repelled by positive charges.
Note that in Figure 12.5b, the force experienced by the small test charge gets smaller as it
2q gets further away from the positive charge. The field lines also get further apart. In general, the
2
further apart the field lines are, the weaker the field is, and the weaker the force is.
At a single point in space, the force can only have one direction. If you place a positive
charge at a point in an electric field, it will experience a force and hence accelerate. It can only
have one acceleration due to the field, so the force can only be in a single direction. The result is
that field lines can never cross. If they did, this would imply that the force was simultaneously
FIGURE 12.6  Field line diagram acting in two different directions.
for a negative point charge
We can summarise the characteristics of electric field lines:
◗◗ they point in the direction of the force acting on a positively charged particle due to the field
◗◗ they never cross
◗◗ they begin on positive charges and end on negative charges
◗◗ the field strength is proportional to the density of field lines.

Drawing field line diagrams

When you draw a field line diagram, there is an infinite number of possible field lines that you can
draw. However, you only have finite time, so choose a sensible number! In general, make sure you draw
enough lines so that you can see what the field looks like around the charge or charges. Typically, at
least eight field lines are needed and they should be evenly spaced around a point charge. Make the
ratio of field lines coming out from or entering any charge proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
This will ensure your field lines have the properties previously listed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.2

1 1
Draw a field line diagram for the pair of equal positive
charges shown in Figure 12.7. FIGURE 12.7 
A pair of positively charged particles

344 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

•• Think about putting a small positive test charge at points close to

the charges, as shown in Figure 12.8.
1 1 •• Draw arrows showing the forces due to the two charges.

FIGURE 12.8 The
force acting on a small
positive test charge
at points around the
charges

•• Do this at lots of points and then join up your arrows to form field
lines, as in Figure 12.9.

1 1

FIGURE 12.9  Field lines for a

pair of positive charges

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Draw a field line diagram for a pair of equal negative charges.

A common configuration of charges is a dipole. This is a combination

of a positively charged object and a negatively charged object close
together. Figure 12.10 shows the electric field in the region around a
dipole. The sodium and chlorine atoms in a single bound NaCl molecule 1 2
are a dipole.
You may have met the idea of polar molecules in chemistry. Polar
molecules or objects have charge separation, just like when a neutral
object is attracted to a charged object. Water (H2O) is a polar molecule
because the hydrogens share their electrons with the oxygen, making FIGURE 12.10  Electric field
the hydrogens positive and the oxygen negative. Figure 12.11 shows an line diagram for a dipole
electric field line diagram for water.
All of the field line diagrams shown so far (Figures 12.5 to 12.11) have
been for one or more point charges. For all these cases, the electric field
varies with position, as we can see from the way the density of field lines 2
varies.
1 1
Uniform electric fields
A uniform electric field is one that has the same magnitude and direction
at all points. It is possible to create a uniform electric field using either FIGURE 12.11  Electric field
a single, very large, uniformly charged plate or a pair of parallel charged line diagram for a polar water
molecule
plates.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 345

 Figure 12.12 shows a large, uniformly charged sheet. To draw a field line diagram, we start by
considering the force that will act on a small positive test charge at different positions near the sheet.
As shown in Figure 12.12b, the force at any position will be up, away from the sheet. Remember that
field lines cannot cross, so when we draw our field lines they remain parallel (Figure 12.12c.). This
tells us that as we get further above the sheet, the field remains constant, or uniform. You can see in
Figure 12.12c that the field lines are parallel above most of the sheet, but spread apart at the edges.
The field is weaker and not uniform near the edges of the sheet.

a b

FIGURE 12.12  a A large, flat, positively charged sheet; b The force

experienced by a small positive test charge at different positions
above the sheet; c Electric field line diagram for a large positively
charged sheet

The field for a single large sheet is only uniform close to the sheet. If we want to make a strong,
uniform electric field, we can do so by using two parallel plates with opposite charges. The field
is uniform between the plates, and only becomes non-uniform very close to the edges. Figure 12.13
shows the electric field created by a pair of parallel plates. Such an arrangement is called a capacitor,
and is used in electric circuits for storing energy. The relationship between field and energy is discussed
later in this chapter.

FIGURE 12.13 An 1 2
electric field line 1 2
diagram for a pair of
oppositely charged,
1 2
parallel plates 1 2
1 2
Q 2Q
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2

346 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 12.3

In which direction will the following objects accelerate if placed between the charged parallel plates shown
in Figure 12.13?
a A proton
b A dipole
Explain your answer.

ANSWERS LOGIC

a The field points from left to right; the charge is positive (proton) •• Identify relevant data in the question.

Electric field lines point in the direction of force on a positive charge. •• Relate field lines to force on charges.

Acceleration is in the direction of force. •• Relate force to acceleration.

The acceleration is to the right. •• State the answer.

b The object is a dipole, so has equal positive and negative charge •• Identify relevant data in the question.

The negative charges experience a force to the left; the positive charge •• Relate field lines to force on charges.
experiences an equal force to the right.

1 2 •• Draw a force diagram for the dipole.

1 2
1 2
1 F 2
F 1
1 2 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2

FIGURE 12.14  A dipole in a

uniform electric field experiences
zero net force.

The net force on the dipole is zero, so it does not accelerate. •• State the final answer.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

What would be the direction of acceleration of an electron in this field?

In Worked example 12.3, the dipole experiences zero net force in a uniform electric field. This does
not mean that the dipole experiences no effect from the field. Note that in Figure 12.14, the forces
are not along the same line. This will cause the dipole to rotate in the field and try to line up with the
field lines.
When a charged object attracts a neutral object, it is because temporary dipoles are formed in
the neutral object. The atoms and molecules distort slightly, becoming polar. For the dipoles to
experience a net force and be attracted to the charged object, the field must not be uniform – one
side of the dipole must experience a greater force. Most charged objects will produce a non-uniform
field, which is why a charged comb can lift uncharged polystyrene beads (or tiny pieces of paper).
However, a uniform electric field does not exert a net force on an uncharged object.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 347

 INVESTIGATION 12.2

Drawing electric field lines

Critical and creative AIM
thinking
To draw electric field line diagrams for various arrangements of charged particles
Information and Write one or more research questions for this investigation.
communication
technology MATERIALS
capability
•• Computer with internet access

METHOD

1 Open the simulation in the weblink ‘Charges and fields’.

2 Use the simulation to draw an electric field line diagram for one positive charge. Make a copy
(sketch or take a screen shot) of the result.
Weblink 3 Use the simulation to draw an electric field line diagram for one negative charge. Make a copy.
Charges and
fields 4 Use the simulation to draw an electric field line diagram for a dipole. Make a copy.
Use this simulation for
Investigation 12.2. 5 Use the simulation to draw an electric field line diagram for two positive charges. Make a copy.
6 Place three positive charges, closely spaced together, in a line. Make a copy of the resultant electric
field line diagram.
7 Add another positive charge to one end of the line.
8 Repeat step 7 until you have as large a line of closely spaced positive charges as possible. Make a copy of
the final result and at least one intermediate result.
9 Create a line of closely spaced alternating positive and negative charges. Make a copy of the resultant
electric field line diagram.

RESULTS
You should have a collection of field line diagrams.

ANALYSIS

1 Identify regions of large and small electric field in your diagrams.

2 Are there regions of uniform electric field in any of them?
3 Describe what happens to the field as you add charges in a line. Note that the simulation only shows you a
two-dimensional slice through the field.
4 The final arrangement represents a neutral material that has been polarised. Describe the resulting field.

DISCUSSION

1 What general principles can you derive from your observations?

2 How does the electric field vary around a point charge, a dipole and a sheet of charge? What about a
polarised neutral object?
3 Have you answered your inquiry questions?

CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion summarising your findings.

348 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Electric field line diagrams are a way of representing electric fields.
●● Electric field lines point in the direction of the force acting on a positively charged particle.
●● Electric field lines never cross.
●● Electric field lines begin on positive charges and end on negative charges.
●● The field strength is proportional to the density of field lines.
●● When drawing field line diagrams, choose a sensible number of lines to show how the field varies.
●● The ratio of field lines coming out from or entering any charge should be proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
●● Point charges create fields that decrease with distance from the charge.
●● Large flat sheets of charge or parallel charged plates can be used to create a uniform field.

CHECK YOUR
1 What does an electric field line represent? UNDERSTANDING
2 Summarise the main characteristics of field lines.
3 When is an electric field directed towards a charge, and when is it directed away from a charge? 12.2
4 Draw a field line diagram for the electric field around:
a two nearby positive charges.
b two nearby negative charges.
c a dipole.
5 An electron is between two charged parallel plates, one to the left and one to the right. The electron
accelerates towards the left.
a Draw the arrangement described.
b Identify which plate is positive and which is negative.
c Draw the electric field lines for the pair of plates.
6 An uncharged (neutral) polystyrene bead is attracted to a charged balloon. The same bead is not attracted
to either plate when placed between charged parallel plates. Explain this behaviour.

The electrostatic force

12.3
and the electric field
So far we have used the electric field line model to represent electric fields. This is a useful visual and
conceptual model. Now we will use a mathematical model that allows us to quantify the electric field.

Electric field, force and charge

The electric field is defined as the force per unit charge that acts on a small positive test charge, at a given

point in space. Mathematically, the electric field, E , is given by

 F
E=
q

where both force, F, and field are vectors. The charge, q, is the amount of positive charge on the small
test charge.
Force was described and quantified in chapter 4, but we have not as yet quantified charge.
Charge is measured in units of coulombs, C. The unit coulomb was named to honour Charles-Augustin
de Coulomb. Charge is a fundamental property of matter. Unlike most of the other units you have met so
far, the coulomb cannot be reduced to a combination of length, mass and time.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 349

 Particles such as electrons and protons have very small charges when measured in units of coulombs.
An electron has charge −1.6 × 10−19 C, and a proton has charge +1.6 × 10−19 C. All stable particles have
Weblink
Charles-Augustin
a charge equal to some whole-number multiple of 1.6 × 10−19 C. This charge is given the special name e,
de Coulomb the electron charge, where e = 1.6 × 10−19 C. When you see an ion described with a charge, this refers to
Find out more about
the life of Charles-
its net charge in multiples of e. For example, a Ca2+ ion has a charge +2e = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 3.2 × 10−19 C.
Augustin de Coulomb Looking back at our definition of electric field, we can now determine the units of the electric field.
and his contributions
to physics. Force has units of newtons, N, and charge has units of coulombs, C, so electric field has units of newtons
per coulomb, N C−1. Some electric field strengths are shown in Table 12.1.
When a charged particle is placed in an electric field, it experiences a force. This force is proportional
to the size of the field, and the charge on the particle. The definition of the field gives us the force:
 
F = Eq

TABLE 12.1  Some electric field strengths

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO … APPROXIMATE FIELD STRENGTH, N C−1

Hairdryer, 20 cm away 4

Earth’s fair weather field 100 downwards

Earth’s wet weather field 200–300 upwards

Thunderstorms 1000–10 000 or more (momentary spikes)

High voltage overhead power lines, 30 m away 10–1000

Old electric blanket, 10 cm away 2000

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.4

A battery is connected across a piece of copper wire giving an electric field of 3.0 N C−1 in the wire.
Calculate the force on an electron in this wire.

ANSWER LOGIC

E = 3.0 N C−1 •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

This is the magnitude; we do not know the direction.
q = −e = −1.6 × 10−19 C
  •• Identify the appropriate formula for the
F = Eq
relationship between force, field and charge.
F = (3.0 N C−1)(−1.6 × 10−19 C) •• Substitute known values, with units, into the
formula.
F = −4.8 × 10−19 N
•• Calculate the final answer and state with correct
The negative sign tells us that the force is in the direction opposite that significant figures and units.
of the field.
TRY THIS YOURSELF
What magnitude electric field would be required to give the same force on a helium nucleus, which has
a charge +2e?

To understand how a charged object behaves in a field, we need to use another model: Newton’s laws.
Newton’s second law says that:

 F
a=
m

350 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 Using the definition of electric field,

 F
E=
q Weblink
Electric field
In this simulation,
we can say:  position two or more
 Eq charges in the electric
a= field. Click ‘go’ to see
m how they accelerate.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.5

What is the acceleration of the electron in the 3.0 N C−1 field in the example given in Worked example 12.4?
The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10−31 kg.

ANSWER LOGIC

E = 3.0 N C−1; q = −e = −1.6 × 10−19 C •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

−31
me = 9.1 × 10  kg •• Look up any additional data needed.

 Eq •• Identify the appropriate formula for the relationship between
a=
m acceleration, field, charge and mass


a=
( )(
3.0 N C −1 −1.6 × 10 −19 C ) •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.
9.1 × 10 −31 kg
= −5.27 × 1011 N kg−1 •• Calculate the answer.
11 −2
a = −5.3 × 10  m s
•• State the final answer with correct significant figures and units.
The negative sign tells us that the acceleration is
in the direction opposite to that of the field.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 What magnitude electric field is required to give an electron the same acceleration as that due to Earth’s
gravitational field, 9.8 m s−2? Compare this to Earth’s fair weather field, listed in Table 12.1.
2 A balloon has a mass of 250 g. After being rubbed on a student’s head, the balloon has a charge of
1.2 × 10−6 C. Calculate the acceleration of this balloon due to Earth’s fair weather field. Compare this to
the acceleration due to gravity on Earth.

The field due to a charged particle

Any point-like (very, very small) object with charge creates an electric field that is symmetrical about the
object. This means it looks the same from any direction. For this to be the case, the field lines must spread out
evenly in all directions. A charged particle such as a proton or electron is an example of a point-like charge.
We know from experimentation that the bigger the charge, the bigger the force, and therefore the
bigger the field. So, we expect field to be proportional to charge. We also expect the field to have spherical
symmetry, as there is no preferred direction around a point. We can see this from our field line diagrams
(Figures 12.5c and 12.6, page 344).
We also know that the field becomes weaker at greater distances from the charge. A charged balloon
does not pull as hard at your hair if you move it further away. We can use electric field line diagrams to
work out exactly how the field varies with distance.
The field lines become less dense the further away they are from a point charge (Figures 12.5 and
12.6). If you draw concentric circles around a point charge, the number of field lines crossing each circle is

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 351

 constant. However, the density decreases with the radius of the circle. In three
dimensions, the field lines radiate out in all directions. If you imagine concentric
spheres around a point charge, as shown in Figure 12.15, the number, n, of field
A lines crossing each sphere is the same.
However, the density of lines decreases with the square of the radius
A because the surface area of each sphere is proportional to r2:
r1
q number
Density =
area
r2
Area = 4 πr 2
so
n
Density =
4 πr 2
Hence, the field strength, which is proportional to the field line density,
1
FIGURE 12.15  Field lines due to a point charge. decreases with distance squared from the source. This 2 form is common to
The number of field lines passing through the r
sphere with radius r1 is the same as that passing all point sources, whether they are sources of electric field, gravitational field,
through the sphere with radius r2. However, the
number passing through any small area, A, which or light or sound waves. So we can say that
is a measure of the density of field lines and hence  q
field strength, is greater for the smaller sphere. E∝ 2
r
We need only the constant of proportionality now to get the units and
1
magnitude of the electric field. The constant of proportionality is 4 πε where ε0 is called the permittivity
0
of free space. It tells us how the field varies in a vacuum, as well as giving us the correct units for field. This
is an important physical constant. The speed of light depends on this constant, as we shall see in Year 12.
ε 0 = 8.9 × 10 −12 C 2 N −1 m−2
so
1
= 9.0 × 10 9 N m 2 C −2
4 πε 0
We now have an equation for the electric field due to a charged particle:
1 q
E=
4 πε 0 r 2
This expression applies to any charged spherical object, as long as the radius we are calculating the
field at is greater than the radius of the object. Hence, we can also apply it for objects such as the dome
of a Van de Graaff generator.
Figure 12.16 shows plots of field strength as a function of distance for a positively and a negatively
charged particle.

FIGURE 12.16 Plots
a E b E
of electric field as a
function of distance,
E(r) for: a a positive
point charge; b a
negative point charge

r r

352 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 12.6

Calculate the electric field due to a proton at a distance of 8.0 × 10−11 m. This is the average orbital radius of
the electron in a hydrogen atom. This distance is four orders of magnitude larger than the size of the proton,
which is about 10−15 m, so we can treat the proton as a point charge.

ANSWER LOGIC
−19 −11
q = +1e = 1.6 × 10 C; r = 8.0 × 10  m •• Identify the relevant data from the question.

1 q •• Identify the appropriate formula for the electric field due to a point
E= charge.
4 πε 0 r 2
1.6 × 10 −19 C •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.
E = 9.0 × 10 9 N m2 C −2 ×
( 8.0 × 10 −11 m ) 2

= 2.25 × 1011 N C−1 •• Calculate the answer.

E = 2.3 × 1011 N C−1 •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Calculate the electric field due to a proton at distances of 1 × 10−10 m (a typical distance between atoms),
1 cm and 1 m.

Coulomb’s law
Now that we can calculate the electric field due to a point charge, we can calculate the force that one
point charge exerts on another.
Recall that the definition of electric field is

 F
E=
q
so the force exerted by the field is
 
F = Eq
For a point charge the field is
 1 q1
E=
4 πε 0 r 2
where q1 is the charge on the particle creating the field.
So, when we place a second charged particle, with charge q2, within the field due to q1, it experiences
a force:
 
F = Eq2
1 q1 q2
F=
4 πε 0 r 2
This is known as Coulomb’s law. It describes the force that a point charge q1 exerts on a second point
charge q2 when they are separated by a distance r.
Remember that forces are vectors. The form of Coulomb’s law given here only gives the magnitude
of the force, as there is no vector on the right hand side. The force will be directed towards or away from

charge q1, in the direction on the radius vector, r . You should always draw a diagram to show the direction
of the force. Remember: like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
If we write an equation for the force that charge q2 exerts on charge q1, we get exactly the same
expression. This should not come as a surprise. From Newton’s third law, whatever force q2 exerts on

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 353

 F (by q1 on q2) F (by q2 on q1) q1, q1 must exert an equal and opposite force on q2. They are a Newton’s
third law force pair; equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, have the
q2
q1 same fundamental nature, and act on different objects. This is shown in
Figure 12.17.
FIGURE 12.17  Two charges
exert equal and opposite forces
on each other.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.7

Calculate the force exerted by a proton on an electron at a distance of 8.0 × 10−11 m.

ANSWER LOGIC
−19 −19
q1 = +e = 1.6 × 10  C; q2 = −e = −1.6 × 10  C; •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
r = 8.0 × 10−11 m
1 q1 q2 •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate the force to the
F=
4 πε 0 r 2 charges and distance (Coulomb’s law)

9
F = 9.0 × 10 N m C 2 −2
×
(1.6 × 10 −19 C )( −1.6 × 10 −19 C ) •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.

(8.0 × 10−11 m)2

F = −3.6 × 10−8 N •• Calculate the answer and express with correct significant
figures and units.
In this case, the negative sign indicates that the force
is towards the proton. We could also have done this by
simply taking the answer to the previous example and
multiplying it by the charge of an electron.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate the force on an electron due to a helium nucleus (He2+) at the same
distance.
2 Calculate the force on a helium nucleus due to an electron. Compare it with the
force on the electron due to the helium nucleus.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Charge is measured in units of coulombs, C.

●● An electron has charge −1.6 × 10−19 C; a proton has charge +1.6 × 10−19 C. 
 F
●● The electric field is the force per unit charge acting on a small positive test charge: E = .
q
Electric field has units newtons per coulomb, N C−1.
●● Force and field are vectors. They point in the same direction for a positive charge, q, and in
opposite directions for a negative charge.
●● Using Newton’s second law, the acceleration of a charged particle in an electric field is given

 Eq
by a = .
m
1 q
●● For a point charge or spherical charge distribution, the electric field is given by E = .
4 πε0 r 2
●● Coulomb’s law is used to find the force that a point charge q1 (such as a charged particle) exerts
1 q1q 2
on a second point charge q2: F =
4 πε0 r 2
●● Both charged particles or objects experience the same magnitude force, but in opposite
directions.

354 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 CHECK YOUR
1 Write down the mathematical relationship between the electrostatic force and electric field. UNDERSTANDING
2 Two charges, q1 and q2, are such that q1 = 3q2. What is the ratio of the force F(q1 on q2) to F(q2 on q1)?
3 Calculate the electric field at a distance of 10 cm away from a point charge of +5.0 mC. 12.3
−1
4 Calculate the acceleration of an electron in a constant electric field of 95 N C , directed upwards. In which
direction does the electron accelerate?
5 Calculate the force on a charge of +2.0 mC a distance 10 cm away from a point charge of +5.0 mC.
6 a At what distance from a proton does an electron experience a force of 2.3 × 10−19 N?
b At what distance does the force have half this value?
c What is the force if the distance is doubled?

Potential energy and work

12.4
in an electric field
You already know that there are two types of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy (chapter 5).
Objects that are moving have kinetic energy, and objects that are subject to a force have potential energy.
For example, an object in the gravitational field of Earth has potential energy. If Earth was not there, so
that there was no gravitational field, then the object would not have any potential energy. So, strictly, the
energy belongs to the combination of the object and Earth.
You also know that energy is conserved. When you drop a pencil, gravitational potential energy is
transformed into kinetic energy (Figure 12.19a). This transformation happens because of the gravitational
force exerted by the gravitational field on the pencil.
Remember from chapter 4 that the gravitational force is given by F = mg. From chapter 5 you know
that the work, W, done by a force, F, on an object as it is displaced a distance, s, in the direction of the
force is
W = F||s = Fscos θ
Hence, when the pencil falls through a height Δh, the gravitational field does work on the pencil,
W = mg∆h
The same happens to a charged object in an electric field (Figure 12.18b, page 356). If the object
starts at rest and is allowed to move, it will accelerate. It accelerates because the force (due to the field)
does work on it – it exerts a force through some distance. The work done is equal to the change in the
potential energy of the system,
W = Fscos θ = −∆U
Recall that the negative sign indicates a decrease in potential energy of the system when work is done
by one part of the system on another.
Note that a small isolated charge cannot be said to have potential energy any more than an isolated
pencil. It only has potential energy because of its interaction with an electric field, which is due to some
other charged object. Again, the potential energy is due to the application of a force to the charge, which
occurs via the field.
The electric field exerts a force on a charged particle or object given by:
 
F = Eq
When a charged object is displaced by some distance d in the direction of the field, the work done on
the object is:
W = Eqd

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 355

 FIGURE 12.18 
a b a A dropped pencil
has gravitational
potential energy
that is transformed
q
into kinetic energy.
m b A charged object
in an electric field
v has electric potential
v
energy that is
Fg converted into kinetic
FE energy.

g E

The work done is equal to the change in potential energy of the object–field system.
W = Eqd = −∆ U
The electric force is a conservative force, just like the gravitational force (and all other field forces), so
the change in potential energy appears as a change in kinetic energy:
W = Eqd = −∆U = ∆ Ek
So, a particle moving in an electric field will gain kinetic energy if positive work is done on it, and
will lose kinetic energy if negative work is done. Hence, fields are not only a way of exerting a force at
a distance, fields also store energy. The gravitational field stores gravitational potential energy and the
electric field stores electric potential energy.
Note the similarity of the expressions for work done by the gravitational field and work done by
an electric field: W = mg∆h and W = Eqd . Each expression is a product of the field strength (g is the
gravitational field strength close to Earth’s surface), the property that is affected by the field, and the
distance moved through the field.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.8

A charged polystyrene bead is placed between two charged parallel plates. The bead has
a mass of 0.50 g and a charge of 25 nC. The field between the plates has a magnitude of
1.0 kN C−1. Ignore any frictional forces acting on the bead and assume it starts from rest.
Calculate the speed of the bead after it has moved a distance of 1.0 cm.

ANSWER LOGIC

q = 25 nC = 2.5 × 10−8 C; m = 0.50; g = 5.0 × 10−4 kg; •• Identify the relevant data in the question and convert to SI units.
d = 1.0 cm = 0.010 m; E = 1.0 kN C−1 = 1.0 × 103 N C−1

Eqd = ∆Ek •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate the kinetic energy to the
field, charge and distance.
1 •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate the kinetic energy to the
∆Ek = mv 2
2 speed (Chapter 5).
1 2 •• Combine the two formulae.
Eqd = mv
2

356 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

•• Rearrange for speed.

2 Eqd
v=
m
•• With a complicated expression like this, it is worth checking that
−1
 N C −1  [ C ][ m ] the units are correct before proceeding.
 m s  =
[ kg ]
[ N ][ m ]
=
[ kg ]
 kg m s −2 [ m ]
=
[ kg ]
=  m2 s −2 

=  m s −1 

v=
( )(
2 1.0 × 10 3 N C −1 2.5 × 10 −8 C ( 0.010 m ) ) •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.
−4
5.0 × 10 kg

= 0.0316 m s−1 •• Calculate the answer.

v = 0.032 m s−1 or 3.2 cm s−1 •• State the final answer with correct significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate the force exerted on the bead by the field.

Do this two ways: first using kinematics and Newton’s second law, and second using the field.
2 An electron is moving at 500 m s−1 when it enters an area of uniform electric field of magnitude
100 N C−1 pointing in the direction of its velocity. How far does the electron move before coming to a
stop? What happens after it stops?

Does energy increase or decrease?

We need to pay close attention to signs. A positive charge moving in the direction of an electric field, such
that q and E have the same sign, will have positive work done on it and gain kinetic energy. For a negative
charge to gain kinetic energy, it must be moving in the opposite direction to the field.
This makes sense because the electric field points away from positive charges. Positive charges are
repelled by positive charges, and accelerate away from them. Negative charges are attracted to positive
charges, so accelerate towards them, against the direction of the field.

The ‘zero’ of electric potential energy

Note that in the discussion and equations above, we refer to changes in potential energy, ΔU, rather than
an absolute potential energy, U. Potential energy is always measured relative to some zero point. For
example, close to Earth’s surface we usually choose ground level as the zero for gravitational potential
energy. However, when we are considering other objects such as the Sun and planets, this choice of zero
is not very useful.
There is no obvious choice for defining a zero of potential energy like this for electric potential energy.
The convention is that we choose the system configuration that gives zero force. When the field, and
hence force, is zero, it can do no work. This occurs when the object creating the field and the object
experiencing the force due to it are so far apart they can no longer interact. So, we take the zero of electric

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 357

 potential energy for a system of charged objects as being when they are so far apart (effectively infinitely
far apart) that they no longer interact.

Electric potential, energy and field

Electric potential is a very useful quantity when working with electric fields, and especially with electric
circuits (as you will see in the next chapter).
Electric potential (or simply ‘potential’) has the same relationship to potential energy that field has to
force. The field is defined as the force per unit charge:

 F
E=
q
The electric potential, V, is defined as the potential energy per unit charge at a point:
U
V =
q
The units for V are joules per coulomb, J C−1, also known as volts, V. Recall that force (an interaction)
depends on both the object exerting it and the object experiencing it (as in Coulomb’s law), but field
depends only on the object creating the field. The same is true of potential. While potential energy
depends on all objects in a system, potential depends only on the charged object creating the field.
We usually define the zero of potential as being infinitely far away from any charged objects. This is
consistent with our choice for the zero reference point for electric potential energy. However, this is an
arbitrary choice, and one that is not always practical to measure.
So instead of talking about absolute values of potential, we usually talk about potential differences
rather than potentials. A potential difference is the difference in electric potential between two points:
∆U
∆V = Vfinal − Vinitial =
q
The unit for potential difference is the volt, V, the same unit as for potential. Sometimes just the
symbol V is used for potential difference, but really the Δ should be included to indicate that it is a
difference, not an absolute value. Sometimes potential difference is called voltage, from the unit volt,
just as power is sometimes referred to as ‘wattage’. The term ‘potential difference’ is more precise, but
‘voltage’ is very common.
When a charged particle moves through a potential difference ∆V = Vfinal − Vinitial, its potential
energy changes by:
∆U = q (Vfinal − Vinitial ) = q∆V

The kinetic energy of the particle must change by the same amount (assuming no other forces are
acting) but with the opposite sign, as energy is conserved.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.9

An alpha particle of charge +3.2 × 10−19 C passes through a potential difference of +100 V.

What is the change in potential energy of this particle?

ANSWER LOGIC
−19
q = +3.2 × 10  C; ΔV = +100 V •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

∆U = q∆V •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate the change in

potential energy to the charge and potential difference.

358 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC
−19
ΔU = (+3.2 × 10  C)(+100 V) •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.

= +3.2 × 10−17 C V •• Calculate the answer.

ΔU = +3.2 × 10−17 J •• State the final answer with correct significant figures and
units.
The positive change in potential energy means that
either kinetic energy was lost from the system, or the
system was not isolated.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

What is the change in potential energy of an electron moving through this potential difference?

We can use the relationship between force and energy to derive a relationship between field and
potential. From chapter 5:
W = Fd = −∆U
For the electric field,
Eqd = −∆U
dividing both sides through by the charge, q, gives:
∆U
Ed = − = −∆V
q
which can be rearranged to give:
∆V
E=−
d
This equation tells us several things. First, it tells us that there is another way of expressing the units
of field, V m−1 as well as N C−1. Second, the negative sign tells us that the direction of the electric field is
opposite to the direction in which the potential is increasing.
A positively charged object released from rest in an electric field will be accelerated in the direction of
the field. The force exerted on the object by the field acts to increase its kinetic energy. From conservation
of energy, this kinetic energy must come from somewhere. It comes from a decrease in potential energy.
Hence, ΔV must be negative, and there is a drop in potential in the direction of a field line.
If a negatively charged object moves from higher to lower potential so that ΔV is negative, then the
change in potential energy, ΔU, is positive. This can only happen if the charge has some initial kinetic
energy, or if some external force is doing work on the system. This is shown in Figure 12.19. In a circuit, a
battery provides this additional potential energy (chapter 13).

FIGURE 12.19 
a E b E Energy changes
when a charge
moves in an electric
field. a A positive
1q 1q 1q 1q charge moving in the
DU , 0 DU . 0 direction of the field;
b A positive charge
moving against
c E d E the direction of the
field; c A negative
charge moving in the
2q 2q 2q 2q direction of the field;
d A negative charge
DU . 0 DU , 0 moving against the
direction of the field

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 359

 Table 12.2 summarises the changes in potential and energy when a charge moves in a field. The field
will do work on the charge when a positive charge moves with the field or a negative charge moves
against the field. Work must be done on the system to make a positive charge move against the field or a
negative charge move with the field.

TABLE 12.2  Changes in potential and energy for a charge moving in a field

MOVEMENT WITH
WS OR AGAINST THE CHANGE IN POTENTIAL WORK DONE BY
CHARGE FIELD LINES CHANGE IN POTENTIAL ENERGY OR ON THE FIELD
Worksheets
Revision
Homework 1
+ With Negative (decrease) Negative (decrease) By

+ Against Positive (increase) Positive (increase) On

− With Negative (decrease) Positive (increase) On

− Against Positive (increase) Negative (decrease) By

Electrons and other subatomic particles moving through potential differences are so common that
a special unit is used to describe the change in energy when this happens; the electron volt. When an
Weblink
Charges, fields
electron moves through a potential difference of 1 V, it has a change in energy of
and potentials
Use this simulation to ∆U = q∆V
set up some charges,
and then move the = e∆V
( )
gauge around to
measure the potential = 1.6 × 10 −19 C (1 V )
at different points.
Try it with a single −19
charge, and then with = 1.6 × 10 J
a dipole.
= 1 electron volt
The electron volt or eV is a good size for describing the energy of subatomic particles. The SI unit,
the joule, is very large by comparison. You will see the unit eV often when you study nuclear or particle
physics in Year 12. It is also used in chemistry to describe the energy of reactions. Remember that it is a
unit of energy, not a unit of potential difference.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.10

An electron in an X-ray machine is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 kV

before colliding with a target and emitting X-rays. What is the energy of the electron just
before it hits the target? Give your answer in electron volts and joules.

ANSWER LOGIC
−19 5
q = −1e = −1.6 × 10  C; ΔV = 100 kV = 1.00 × 10  V •• Identify relevant data in the question and convert to SI units.

We want to find Ek in eV and J.

360 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

Ek = −ΔU •• By conservation of energy, the kinetic energy is the decrease in

potential energy.
= −ΔU = −qΔV •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate the energy to the charge and
−19 5 potential difference.
= −(−1.6 × 10  C)(1.00 × 10  V)
•• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.
−14
= 1.6 × 10  C V •• Calculate the answer.

Ek = 1.6 × 10−14 J •• Convert to different units. State the answer with correct units and
significant figures.

Ek = 100 keV •• An electron gains 1 eV for each V it passes through.

TRY THIS YOURSELF Relativity is

Find the speed at which the electron will be moving after passing through this potential difference. Note described in
that this speed is unrealistic, because at these energies we need to use relativity rather than classical Physics in
Focus Year 12,
mechanics. chapter 12.

Equipotentials
Sometimes the equation relating field and potential is written as:
V
E=
d
but this is leaving out two very important aspects of the relationship between field and potential.
First, this equation omits the negative sign. It only gives the magnitude of the field, not its direction.
Remember that potential decreases when you move in the direction of the field.
Second, the ΔV tells us that whenever there is a change in potential, there is an electric field. It is not
enough that the potential is non-zero, it has to be changing.
If there is no change in potential from one point to another, so that ΔV = 0, then the electric field is
zero in the direction in which ΔV is zero. But remember that field is a vector. The field may have non-zero
components in other directions so you need to remember that the V in this version of the equation is
really meant to be a potential difference, not a potential at a point.
If we draw lines along which the potential is constant, then ΔV = 0 from any point to any other point WS
along which V is constant. We call these lines equipotentials. In two dimensions, we have equipotential Worksheets
Equipotentials
Homework
lines; in three dimensions, we have equipotential surfaces.
Recall from chapter 3 that we can break any vector up into perpendicular components. If we break
the electric field up into components parallel and perpendicular to an equipotential, then the parallel
component must be zero. Only the perpendicular component (or components in three dimensions) are
non-zero. This means that electric field lines are always perpendicular to equipotential lines.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.11

Figure 12.5c (page 344) shows the electric field lines for a single positive charge. Draw the equipotential lines
for this field.

ANSWER LOGIC

The equipotential lines must be perpendicular to the •• Recognise that if field is perpendicular to equipotentials,
field lines. then the reverse is true.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 361

 ANSWER LOGIC

a •• Redraw Figure 12.5 and mark the equipotentials on it.

E Equipotentials

FIGURE 12.20  a Draw perpendicular lines to

the field lines; b Join them to form equipotentials

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Repeat the worked example for a uniform field, such as that shown in Figure 12.14 (page 347).

INVESTIGATION 12.3

Critical and creative Mapping equipotential lines

thinking

AIM
Numeracy To map equipotential lines for a dipole
Write a hypothesis for this investigation.
Information and
communication MATERIALS
technology
capability •• 12 V DC power supply with leads
•• Conductive paper
•• Voltmeter
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Power supplies can be dangerous if not used correctly. Only connect the power supply as instructed.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

362 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 METHOD

1 Attach the positive terminal of the power supply to a point near one end of your conductive paper and the
negative terminal near the other end, as shown in Figure 12.21. You now have a dipole with a positive and
negative electrode on your paper.

FIGURE 12.21 
Experimental set-up
for a dipole

2 1

2 Record the positions of the electrodes on your paper by tracing around them.
3 With one probe from your voltmeter touching the negative electrode, move the other probe around on
the paper until you get a reading of 2 V (Figure 12.22). Mark this point.

FIGURE 12.22 
Experimental set-
up for measuring
potential difference

1
2

1 2

4 Carefully move the probe around and mark other points of 2 V potential on the paper. Join the dots – this is
your first equipotential line. Label this line ΔV = 2 V.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 to map out equipotential lines of 4 V, 6 V, 8 V and 10 V potential. Label these lines on
the paper.

RESULTS
You should now have a piece of paper showing a set of equipotential lines.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Use the equipotential lines to draw electric field lines for your arrangement of electrodes.
2 Plot graphs of potential as a function of distance from one of your electrodes. Do this for the line joining
the two electrodes and at least one other line.

DISCUSSION

1 Are the equipotential lines equally spaced?

2 Do the field lines look the way you would expect from the field line drawing in Figure 12.10 (page 345)?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 363

 3 Describe the relationship between potential and distance from the electrodes. Write an equation to
describe this relationship.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
Was your hypothesis supported or disproved?
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Electric fields do work on charged objects by exerting a force on them. This changes
the potential energy of the field–object system, and the kinetic energy of the object:
W = Eqd = −∆U = ∆E k .
●● The zero of electric potential energy is usually defined as when the charged objects are
WS infinitely far apart so they exert no forces on each other.
U
Worksheets ●● Electric potential, V, is the potential energy per unit charge at a point: V = . Potential has
Revision
Homework 2 −1
units volts, V. 1 V = 1 J C . q

●● Usually we can only measure potential differences, ΔV, rather than absolute potentials.
●● When a charged particle or object moves through a potential difference ΔV, its potential energy
changes: ∆U = q (Vfinal − Vinitial ) = q ∆V . Energy is conserved, so the change in potential energy is
equal to the change in kinetic energy, if no friction forces act.
V ∆V
●● Electric field is related to electric potential difference by E = , or more correctly E = − .
d d
●● The direction of the electric field is opposite to the direction in which the potential is increasing.
●● Positive charges lose potential energy and gain kinetic energy when moving from higher to
lower potential (in the direction of the field). Negative charges gain potential energy and lose
kinetic energy when moving from higher to lower potential (in the direction of the field).
●● Equipotential lines and surfaces have constant V, so ΔV between any two points on an
equipotential line or surface is zero.
●● Electric field lines are perpendicular to equipotential lines.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 What is the relationship between electric potential and electric potential energy?
2 What are the units for electric potential, potential difference and potential energy?
12.4 3 A proton moves a distance 10 cm in a uniform electric field of 3.5 kN C−1, in the direction of the field.
Calculate the change in potential energy of the proton.
4 An alpha particle is ejected from a radioactive atom, leaving behind a negative ion. As the alpha particle
moves away from the ion, is work done by or on the alpha particle by the field due to the negative ion?
5 What is the speed of a particle that has been accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 1000 V
when the particle is:
a an electron?
b a proton?
c an alpha particle?
6 An object with charge +1.0 µ C moves a distance 15 cm in a uniform electric field of magnitude 150 V m−1
Calculate the change in electric potential energy of the object if it moves:
a in the direction of the field.
b in the direction opposite to the field.
c perpendicular to the field.

364 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 12   CHAPTER SUMMARY
•• Charge is a fundamental property of matter. It is measured •• Coulomb’s law is used to find the force that a point
in units of coulombs, C. charge q1 exerts on a second point charge q2:
  1 q1q2
•• Charged objects exert an electrostatic force, and experience F = Eq2 = .
an electrostatic force. They do this via the electric field. 4 πε0 r 2
•• Objects become charged when they gain or lose electrons. •• Electric fields do work on charged objects by exerting a
•• Objects with like charge are repelled by each other, objects force on them.
with opposite (unlike) charge are attracted to each other. •• Electric potential, V, is the potential energy per unit charge
Neutral objects are attracted to both positively and U
•• at a point: V = . Potential has units of volts, V. 1 V = 1 J C−1.
negatively charged objects. q
•• Electric field line diagrams are a way of representing electric •• When a charged particle or object moves through a
fields. potential difference ΔV, its potential energy changes:
∆U = q (Vfinal − Vinitial ) = q∆V .
•• Electric field lines point in the direction of the force exerted
by the field on a positively charged particle. •• Electric field is related to electric potential difference by:
∆V V
•• Electric field lines begin on positive charges and end on E=− or E = for magnitudes only.
d d
negative charges. They never cross, and the density of field
•• The direction of the electric field is opposite to the direction
lines is an indication of field strength.
in which the potential is increasing.
•• Large flat sheets of charge or parallel charged plates can be
•• Positive charges lose potential energy and gain kinetic
used to create a uniform field.
energy when moving from higher to lower potential (in the
•• The electric field is the force per unit charge acting on a direction of the field).
 F
small positive test charge: E = . Electric field has units •• Equipotential lines and surfaces have constant V, so ΔV
q between any two points on an equipotential line or surface
newtons per coulomb, N C−1, or V m−1. is zero.
•• For a point charge or spherical charge distribution, the •• Electric field lines are perpendicular to equipotential lines.
1 q
electric field is given by E =
4 πε0 r 2

12   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 How is electric field related to force? a the charge on the second ball is reduced but that on
the first ball remains the same.
2 How is electric potential related to electric potential
energy? b the net charge on the second ball is removed, but that
on the first ball remains the same.
3 Show that 1 V is equal to 1 kg m2 s−3 A−1 in SI base units.
For each diagram, clearly show how the angles change.
Show that this is the same as 1 J C−1.
4 Explain how it is possible for a neutral object to be
attracted to a charged object. Is it possible for it to also be u1 u2
repelled?
5 Earth’s fair weather electric field points downwards and
has a magnitude of approximately 100 V m−1. What is the
potential difference (approximately) as measured from 1q 1q
your feet to your head?
6 Two small balls with equal positive charges are hung from
FIGURE 12.23  Two charged balls suspended close to each
retort stands, as shown in Figure 12.23. Draw a diagram other
showing how the balls will hang if:

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 365

 7 Draw a field line diagram for the pair of charged balls in
Figure 12.23.
8 A polystyrene bead with mass 1.0 g and charge +1.0 nC is
in an electric field of 50 N C−1. Calculate the force on, and
acceleration of, the bead due to the field. q2
9 Calculate the potential difference, ΔV, an electron must
pass through to gain 1.0 J of potential energy. Give the q1
magnitude and sign of ΔV.
10 Consider three charged particles, a helium nucleus and its
two orbiting electrons, arranged as shown in Figure 12.24.
Rank the magnitudes of the forces Fa on b , Fa on c , Fb on a ,
Fb on c , Fc on a and Fc on b from smallest to largest. FIGURE 12.26  Field line diagram for a closely spaced pair of charged
objects

b 13 Draw a diagram showing electric field lines and

a 1 c equipotential lines for:
2 2
e2 1 e2 a a negative charge.
b a pair of parallel plates.
c a dipole.
FIGURE 12.24  A helium atom
14 Two protons in a molecule are 3.80 × 10−10 m apart.
a Find the magnitude of the electric field due to one of
11 Two charged particles enter a uniform electric field, as the protons at this distance.
shown in Figure 12.25. Both particles have the same b Find the magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted
magnitude charge. by one proton on the other.
a Which of the two charged plates creating the field
15 The dome of a Van de Graaff generator is charged up such
shown is the positively charged plate?
that there is an electric field in the region surrounding it. A
b What can you say about the charges of the two small test charge with charge q is brought into this region
particles? and placed at a point P. If the test charge is replaced with
a small test charge of 2q, what happens to:
a the electric field at point P?
a b the force on the test charge?
c the electric potential at point P?
E d the potential energy of the dome and test charge
b
system?
16 The field at a distance of 1 m from the dome of a Van de
Graaff generator is 1000 N C−1. Model the dome as a point
FIGURE 12.25  Two charged particles in a uniform electric field charge at this distance.
a By how much would the charge on the dome need to
increase for the field at this point to double?
12 Figure 12.26 shows an electric field line diagram for a pair
of charged objects. q1 has a charge of magnitude e. What b At what distance from the dome is the field now
is the charge, magnitude and sign of q2? 1000 N C−1?

366 CHAPTER FOUR

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063
 17 A dust particle has a mass of 1 × 10−6 g. What charge must 20 A proton is released from rest in a uniform electric field.
this dust particle have for the electrostatic force on it due a Describe the motion of the proton.
to Earth’s fair weather field (100 V m−1 down) to balance
b Describe the changes in the proton’s kinetic energy
the gravitational force? Give the sign and magnitude of
and the potential energy of the field–proton system.
the charge.
c Does the field do work on the proton, or does the
18 An electron moving at 25 km s−1 enters a uniform electric proton do work on the field?
field of magnitude 550 V m−1 in the direction of its
velocity. 21 An electron moving at 20 km s−1 enters a uniform electric
field of magnitude 500 V m−1 in the direction of its
a Calculate the force on the electron.
velocity.
b After what distance does the electron come to a stop?
a What is the kinetic energy of the electron?
19 An electron moves in an electric field from a point at b Use an energy approach to calculate the distance it
which the potential is 1.5 V to a point at which the takes for the electron to come to a stop.
potential is 3.5 V.
c What is the potential difference between the initial
a By how much does the potential energy of the point at which the electron entered the field and the
electron–field system change? point at which it comes to a stop?
b Is this change positive or negative?
c Where does the energy come from or go to?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 12 » ELECTROSTATICS 367

 13 Electric circuits
INQUIRY
QUESTION OUTCOMES Students:
•• investigate the flow of electric current in metals and apply models to represent current, including
How do the processes
q
of the transfer and the – I = (ACSHP038) CCT ICT N
t
transformation of energy
•• investigate quantitatively the current–voltage relationships in ohmic and non-ohmic resistors to explore the
occur in electric
usefulness and limitations of Ohm’s law using:
circuits?
W
– V =
q
V
– R = (ACSPH003, ACSPH041, ACSPH043) ICT N
I
•• investigate quantitatively and analyse the rate of conversion of electrical energy in components of electric
circuits, including the production of heat and light, by applying P = VI and E = Pt and variations that
involve Ohm’s law (ACSPH042) ICT N
•• investigate qualitatively and quantitatively series and parallel circuits to relate the flow of current through
the individual components, the potential differences across those components and the rate of energy
conversion by the components to the laws of conservation of charge and energy, by deriving the following
relationships: (ACSPH038, ACSPH039, ACSPH044) ICT N
– ∑ I = 0 (Kirchhoff’s current law – conservation of charge)
– ∑V = 0 (Kirchhoff’s voltage law – conservation of energy)

– Rseries = R1 + R2 +  + Rn
1 1 1 1
– = + ++
Rparallel R1 R2 Rn

•• investigate quantitatively the application of the law of conservation of energy to the heating effects of electric
currents, including the application of P = VI and variations of this involving Ohm’s law (ACSPH043) CCT N
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
Shutterstock.com/jxfzsy

368 9780170409063
 Energy is a core concept in physics. In previous chapters, we have used the concept of energy to help us
understand how forces change the state of motion of objects. We have also used the idea of energy to
define temperature and explore what happens when matter changes state, for example when ice melts.
In this chapter, we will explore how the processes of transfer and transformation of energy occur in
electrical circuits. An electric circuit is one or more loops that current

Science Photo Library/CORDELIA MOLLOY

flows through. Every time you turn on a light, a computer, a TV, your
phone or any other electrical or electronic device, energy is being
transferred, and being transformed, within a circuit.

13.1 Electric current

Current is the flow of charged particles. In a circuit, this is usually the
flow of electrons. In other systems, such as in your body, it is the flow of FIGURE 13.1  An electronic circuit board.
larger particles including calcium ions (Ca2+) and potassium ions (K+).
We define current, I, as:
q

knilbeW
I=
t
where q is the quantity of charge passing through a point in time, t. Remember that charge has units of Ampère’s
coulombs, C, and time has units of seconds, s. So, the unit of current is coulombs per second, C s−1, which contributions
Learn more about
we call amperes, A. The unit ampere is named for André-Marie Ampère, a French mathematician and the life and work
of André-Marie
physicist. Ampère.
When we define current as charge per unit time, it is a scalar. But it still has a sign because charges
may be moving through the point in one direction or the other, and they may be positive or negative
charges. It is often very difficult to tell whether the moving charges are positive or negative. In Figure 13.2, WS
the right-hand side of the line between X and Y is becoming more positive by three units in three different Worksheets
Useful information
Homework
possible ways: a flow of positive charges to the right, a flow of negative charges to the left, or a combination
of these. Regardless of whether it is positively or negatively charged particles that are flowing, the result
is the same.

a b c
X X X
Conductor Conductor 2 Conductor
1 1
1 2 2
1 1 2

Y Y Y
FIGURE 13.2  a Three positive charges moving to the right; b Two positive charges moving to the right and one negative charge moving to
the left, which makes the same current; c Three negative charges moving to the left, which also makes the same current

Some convention is needed, so we define the direction of current as the direction that positive charges
would be moving if it was positive charges creating the current. Hence, in your body, the direction of
current matches the direction that calcium and sodium ions move. In an electric circuit, the direction of
current is opposite to the direction that the electrons move. In Figure 13.2, the direction of the current is
always to the right, regardless of the sign of the charge carriers.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 369

 WORKED EXAMPLE 13.1

A cell membrane has 500 Ca2+ ions move across it in 1.0 s. What is the current flow through this
membrane?

ANSWER LOGIC
2+
t = 1.0 s; q is the charge carried by 500 Ca ions •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
2+
Each Ca ion has charge q = +2e, where e is the electron charge.
q = 500 × 2e = 500 × 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 C •• Convert to SI units.
−16
q = 1.6 × 10  C
q •• Identify the appropriate formula.
I=
t
1.6 × 10 −16 C •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
I=
1.0 s
  = 1.6 × 10−16 C s−1 •• Calculate the answer.
−16
I = 1.6 × 10  A •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 If a current of 2.0 × 10−15 A flowed through a membrane in 1.0 s, calculate how many Na+ ions this
would require.
2 A current of 1.5 A flows through a wire out of a car battery terminal for 2.0 minutes. Calculate how
much charge flows out of this battery terminal in this time.

There are three conditions required for a current to flow:

1 a path for the current to flow along
2 charge carriers (charged particles) that are free to move
3 a force applied to make them start moving.
A material that allows current to flow through it easily is called a conductor. Metals are good
conductors because they have many free electrons.
Materials that do not allow current to flow through them are called
insulators. Insulators do not have free electrons. There are also materials, called
The electrons in the outer valence
semiconductors, which have a small number of free electrons. These materials
shell are called valence electrons allow current to flow, but not easily.
Whether a material is a conductor, an insulator or a semiconductor depends
on what sort of atoms it is made of and how those atoms are connected to
each other.
In a metal, the atoms bond together in such a way that the outermost electrons
Nucleus
are shared between a large number of atoms. Consider the single copper atom
shown in Figure 13.3. There are many electrons surrounding the nucleus. When
the copper atom is isolated, all the electrons are bound to the nucleus by the
electrostatic force (see chapter 12).
However, when we bring a large number of copper atoms together, a small
number of outer-shell (valence) electrons (one in copper, but one, two or three
in other metals) become unbound or free of their original nuclei. These are the
FIGURE 13.3  A single copper atom, with the free electrons that move when a current flows. Hence, they are also referred to
electrons arranged in shells
as conduction electrons. These free electrons also have an important role in

370 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 holding the metal together – they act as a negative
‘sea’ or ‘glue’ of electrons surrounding the positive 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ions, which consist of the nuclei and their bound
electrons. This is shown in Figure 13.4. This is what
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
chemists mean when they talk about metallic
bonding – it is a bond between many atoms due
to these free electrons. So, a metal has free charge 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
carriers and can provide a path for free electrons to
move through. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
In the next section, we will look at how a force
can be applied to get the electrons moving and Metal lattice
create a current. FIGURE 13.4  Many copper atoms bonded together by a sea of free electrons
Current is measured in a circuit using an
ammeter. A multimeter has an ammeter setting

knilbeW
for direct current (DC) and for alternating current (AC). The DC setting is used when the current goes in
the same direction all the time, such as when a battery is used in a circuit. The AC setting is used when
Conductors,
the current is expected to oscillate in direction, such as the mains power supply. Because an ammeter insulators and
measures current through a point, it must be placed at that point within the circuit. It is placed in series semiconductors
Find out why
within the circuit, as shown in Figure 13.5. conductors,
insulators and
semiconductors
behave the way
FIGURE 13.5 An they do.
ammeter connected
The wire connected to this in series within a
The ammeter is red terminal goes back to circuit. The ammeter
connected in the positive terminal measures how much
series with of the cell current is flowing
the circuit through itself.

2 1

INVESTIGATION 13.1
Critical and creative
Current flow in metals thinking

In this experiment, a resistor is used to ensure that the flow of current in the circuit is not too high. Resistors are Numeracy
described in detail in section 13.2.
Information and
AIM communication
technology capability
To investigate the flow of current through metal wire
Write a research question for this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 371

 MATERIALS

•• 1.5 V battery in holder

•• 10 Ω resistor
•• Current meter (ammeter or multimeter on current setting)
•• Fine copper wire in various lengths of minimum 20 m (for example, 20 m, 40 m, 60 m, 80 m, 100 m)
(alternatively, shorter lengths of nichrome wire can be used)
•• Micrometer
•• Crocodile clips for making connections
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Electricity can cause shocks. Do not touch both terminals of the battery at once.

A length of wire across the battery can cause a ‘short circuit’, Always keep the resistor in the circuit.
damaging the battery.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Read the instructions for your multimeter or current meter, or ask your teacher to show you how to use it.
2 Connect the resistor to the positive terminal of the battery.
3 Connect one probe of your current meter to the resistor.
4 Connect the other probe of the current meter
to one end of the wire.
Current meter
5 Connect the other end of the length of wire
to the negative terminal of the battery. Your
100 mA
circuit should look like Figure 13.6.
6 Record the current flowing through the wire,
as shown on the current meter. Remember to
include units.
7 Remove the wire from the circuit.
8 Repeat steps 4–7 for each different length of
wire.
Wire
9 U
 se the micrometer to measure the diameter of
the metal conductor within the wire.
If you find that the current is not changing as
you change lengths of wire, try using a smaller
1
resistor (e.g. 5 Ω or 1 Ω). 2
Resistor
RESULTS
Record your data in a spreadsheet. Use columns Battery
headed ‘length’ and ‘current’. Include units in the
heading cells, or in the cell below. FIGURE 13.6  Experimental set-up

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 U
 se the spreadsheet to draw a scatter plot of your data, with the current on the vertical axis and the length
on the horizontal axis. What shape is your graph? Does it look like a straight line?
1
2 Add another heading cell, , to your spreadsheet. Include units in this cell, or in the cell below. Create
length 1
a column of data below this by getting the spreadsheet to calculate for each length of wire used.
length

372 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 1

knilbeW
3 Plot a scatter graph of current as a function of length . What shape is this graph? If it is linear, add a line of
best fit and display the equation on your graph. Ohm’s law and
drift velocity in
4 Write an equation that describes the relationship between current and the length of the wire. semiconductors
VA
5 The current through a wire is expected to follow the relationship I = , where A is the cross-sectional Use this Physclips
ρL animation to learn
about resistance
area of the wire and ρ is the resistivity of the wire. The resistivity is an important property of a metal and conduction on
because it determines how easily current can flow through the metal. Use the gradient of your graph and a microscopic level.
other measured data to calculate the resistivity of the metal in the wire.

DISCUSSION

1 Were you able to answer your research question?

2 What are the limitations of this experiment?
3 Can you suggest better ways of making the measurements, or further work?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
Write an answer to your research question.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Current is the flow of charged particles, called charge carriers.

●● Charge carriers can be positive or negative. In electric circuits, they are usually electrons, which
have a negative charge.
q
●● Current is the charge per unit time passing through a point: I = , measured in units of A;
−1 t
1 A = 1 C s .
●● The direction of a current is the direction that positive charge carriers would be flowing if the
current was carried by positive charge carriers.
●● Metals are good conductors because they have many free electrons (charge carriers).
●● Ammeters are used to measure current. Ammeters must be connected in series in a circuit.

CHECK YOUR
1 A defibrillator takes 30 s to fully charge, and less than 1 s to discharge. In which phase is the current UNDERSTANDING
greater? Justify your answer.
2 Electrons are moving to the left through a wire. Explain why the direction of the current in the wire is to 13.1
the right.
3 A cell membrane has a channel (hole) that allows sodium (Na+) ions to pass into the cell.
a What is the direction of the current in this case: into or out of the cell?
b A different channel allows chloride (Cl−) ions to enter the cell. What is the direction of the current for
this channel: into or out of the cell? Explain your answer.
4 Copper has one valence electron and zinc has two. Predict which will be the better conductor. Justify
your prediction.
5 It takes 30 s for 1.0 C to pass through the terminal of a battery. Calculate the current flow through this
terminal.
6 A wire carries a current of 0.5 A.
a Calculate the total charge that passes through a point in the wire in each minute.
b Calculate how many electrons pass through this point per minute.
c If the wire were replaced by one with the same diameter but twice the length, would you expect the
current to increase or decrease?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 373

 13.2 Current–voltage relationships
In the previous section, we noted that three things are required to create a current. These are charged
particles that can move ( free charge carriers), a path for them to move along, and a force to start them
moving. One way to provide this force is by an electric field, because fields store potential energy.
A charged particle in an electric field experiences a force, and if it moves in the field then work is done
on the particle. In chapter 12, the idea of electric potential was introduced. We can relate the work done
to the potential difference:
W
V=
q
where V is the potential difference between two points (not the potential at a point), and q is the charge.
The units of potential difference are volts, and so potential difference is often called ‘voltage’. Potential
difference is more correct, but voltage is very commonly used. 1 V = 1 J C−1; it is the change in energy per
unit charge of the charge carrier as it moves though the potential difference.
A battery or power supply provides energy to a circuit by doing work on charged particles (usually
electrons). This potential energy is used to produce a current through the circuit.
When a charge q moves between two points in a circuit, it will lose or gain potential energy. If it moves
through an energy source, such as a battery, it gains energy. If it moves through other components, it will
generally lose energy. The energy change, loss or gain, is equal to:
W = Vq
A positive potential difference means going from less positive (or more negative) to more positive
(or less negative). When a positive charge goes through a positive potential difference, it gains potential
energy because it moves against the direction of the field lines (see chapter 12). So, current in a circuit
flows through a battery from negative to positive.
Potential difference is measured with a voltmeter. A voltmeter measures the difference in potential
between two points. The voltmeter needs to be connected in parallel to two different parts of the circuit,
as shown in Figure 13.7. It measures the potential difference between the two points to which it is
connected.

FIGURE 13.7 The
voltmeter is
measuring the
difference in potential
between two points –
in this case, the two
sides of the light
globe. It is placed
in parallel across an
element.
The wire connected to
this red terminal goes
The voltmeter is back to the positive terminal
connected across the of the cell.
terminals of the globe.

1
2

374 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 13.2

An electron moves through a potential difference of +12 V. How much work is done on the electron?

ANSWER LOGIC
−19
 V = +12 V; q = 1e = −1.6 × 10  C •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

W •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate voltage and work.

V=
q
W = Vq •• Rearrange for work.
−19
 W = (+12V) (−1.6 × 10  C) •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
−18
 = −1.92  × 10  V C •• Calculate the answer.
−18
 W = −1.9 × 10  J •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
−18 and units.
The electron has lost −1.9 × 10  J.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate how many electrons must move through a potential difference of −12 V for a total of 1.0 J of
work to be done.
2 A current of 1.5 A flows from a 12 V car battery for 2.0 minutes. Calculate the energy used by the
battery in this time.

Resistance and Ohm’s law

In Investigation 13.1, you would have observed that when a battery is connected to a wire, current flows
through the wire. The longer the wire, the less current flows. This is because even a very good conductor,
such as a metal wire, has some resistance. (The only exceptions to this are superconductors, which need
to be kept at very low temperatures.) Resistance is a measure of how much a circuit component opposes
the flow of current through it.
Resistance, R, is defined as the ratio of potential difference across (V ) to current through (I ) a
component:
V
R=
I
The units of resistance are V A−1, which are given the name ohm and symbol Ω (capital Greek letter
omega). The unit Ohm is named for Georg Ohm, a German scientist.
This equation tells us that, for a given applied potential difference, a low current means a high
resistance and vice versa. For an insulator, the resistance is very, very high; effectively infinite. So
the current will be zero. For a good conductor, the resistance is very low, so the current flow will be
very large.
All circuit components have a resistance. Components whose purpose is to provide a constant known
resistance in a circuit are called resistors.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 375

 WORKED EXAMPLE 13.3

A student has connected a 1.5 V battery to a 100 Ω resistor. Calculate the current flow through the
resistor.

ANSWER LOGIC

V = 1.5 V; R = 100 Ω •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

V •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate resistance and

R= voltage.
I
V •• Rearrange for current.
 I = R

1.5 V •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
 I =
100 Ω
= 0.015 V Ω−1 •• Calculate the answer.
−2
  I = 1.5 × 10  A •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Calculate the current that would flow through the 100 Ω resistor if it were connected to a 12 V
car battery.

I Ohmic and non-ohmic circuit components

All circuit components act as resistors, in that they add resistance to a circuit. Components for
which the resistance is constant for a wide range of applied voltage are called ohmic. For these
components:
V
R = = constant
I
This special case is called Ohm’s law. Current through an ohmic component or device depends
V directly on the applied voltage (potential difference). If we plot a graph of current as a function of
FIGURE 13.8  I–V graph potential difference, we get a straight line, as shown in Figure 13.8. We can calculate the resistance
for an ohmic device. In
an ohmic device, the of the component from the gradient of such a graph:
resistance is constant. V 1
R= =
I gradient
I
Current–voltage (I–V ) graphs such as that shown in Figure 13.8 are commonly used to show the
current–voltage characteristics of components. Different types of components have very different
I–V characteristics, depending on their function. For example, diodes act as valves in a circuit so
they have very low resistance above some minimum voltage, and very high resistance below this.
Components that have resistance that varies with applied voltage are called non-ohmic. Figure 13.9
shows an example of non-ohmic I–V characteristics.
Non-ohmic components and devices cannot be characterised by a single constant resistance.
V
They have a resistance that varies with applied voltage, so we need an I–V graph to determine how
FIGURE 13.9  I–V graph
for a non-ohmic device.
they will behave in a circuit. To find the resistance of a non-ohmic component, we look at the curve
In a non-ohmic device, and read off the current for the voltage we are interested in. The resistance is then given by:
the resistance changes as
V
the voltage and current R=
is varied. I

376 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 13.4

A group of students are conducting an investigation on non-ohmic components. Figure 13.10 shows the
I–V characteristics that they have measured for a diode. Calculate the resistance of this diode for applied
voltages of 0.5 V, 1 V and 1.5 V.

I–V characteristics of a diode

4.0
3.5
3.0
Current (A)

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Applied voltage (V)
FIGURE 13.10  I–V characteristics of a diode

ANSWER LOGIC

V •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate resistance,

R= voltage and current.
I
  At V = 0.5 V, I = 0 A •• Read the value of the current from the graph for each of
the voltages given.
  At V = 1 V, I = 0.2 A
  At V = 1.5 V, I = 4.0 A
  For V = 0.5 V, •• Calculate the resistance for each value of V.
V 0.5 V
R= = =∞
I 0A
  For V = 1 V,
V 1V
R= = =5Ω
I 0.2 A
  For V = 1.5 V,
V 1.5 V
R= = = 0.375 Ω
I 4A
V (V) I (A) R (Ω) •• State the final answer with appropriate significant
figures and units. This can be done in a table or
0.5 0 ∞ in words.
1 0.2 5
1.5 4 0.4
When no current can flow at all, the resistance is effectively infinite.
This condition is also called ‘open circuit’ because it is equivalent to
opening up a circuit by disconnecting it, so that there is no path for
the charge carriers (electrons) to flow along.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

The graph shown in Figure 13.10 is for a component whose resistance decreases with increasing voltage.
Sketch a graph of the I–V characteristics for a component that has an increasing resistance with
increased applied voltage.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 377

 INVESTIGATION 13.2

Ohmic and non-ohmic components

Weblink
Ohm’s law In this experiment, you will measure the I–V characteristics for a resistor and a light globe. By plotting I–V
Use these simulations graphs, you will be able to determine whether they are ohmic or non-ohmic.
to compare ohmic
and non-ohmic
components. AIM
To investigate the I–V characteristics of a resistor and a light globe
Write a hypothesis for this investigation. Predict whether each component will be ohmic or non-ohmic. If
Critical and creative
thinking you have predicted that a component will be non-ohmic, do you expect its resistance to decrease or increase
with increasing voltage?
Numeracy MATERIALS

Information and •• 12 V variable DC power supply •• Ammeter or multimeter on current setting
communication
technology •• 100 Ω resistor •• Voltmeter or multimeter on volts setting
capability
•• 12 V globe in holder •• Connectors (e.g. wires with crocodile clips)
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Electricity can cause shocks. Keep the power supply turned off until your teacher has
checked your circuit.
Do not touch the terminals of the power supply when it is
turned on.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Read the instructions for your meters, or ask your teacher to show you how to use them.
2 Connect a series circuit consisting of the power supply, ammeter and resistor. Do not turn the power
supply on yet.
3 Connect the probes of the voltmeter across the resistor. Your circuit should look like Figure 13.11.

FIGURE 13.11 
Experimental set-up

V
Voltmeter in
parallel with
resistor

Variable
power supply

Resistor
Ammeter in series
A
with resistor and
power supply

378 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

  4 Turn the power supply to its lowest voltage setting before turning it on.
 5 Turn the power supply on and adjust it so that the voltmeter reads as close to 1 V as possible.
 6 Record the current flowing through the resistor, as shown on the current meter. Remember to include units
and an estimate of the uncertainty in the current.
 7 Record the voltage across the resistor. Remember to include units and an estimate of the uncertainty in
the current.
 8 Increase the power supply output so that the voltage across the resistor is 1 V higher.
 9 Repeat steps 6–8 until you have reached 12 V. Record your data in a table.
10 Turn off the power supply and remove the resistor from the circuit. Replace it with the light globe.
11 Repeat steps 4–9, measuring the current through and voltage across the light globe. Note that it is
important to measure the current through the globe from low voltage to high, as the filament resistance
changes as it heats up.

RESULTS

1 Record your data in a spreadsheet. You should have two tables of data: voltage and current for the resistor
and for the globe.
2 Write down any other observations that you make; for example, how the brightness of the globe varies.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Draw a scatter plot of your data for each component, with the current on the vertical axis and the voltage
on the horizontal axis. What shape is each graph?
2 If either graph is linear, use the gradient to find the resistance of the component.
3 If either graph is not linear, calculate the resistance of the component for each voltage. Plot a graph of
resistance as a function of applied voltage.

DISCUSSION

1 Were the components ohmic or non-ohmic? If either was non-ohmic, did its resistance increase or
decrease with voltage?
2 Was your hypothesis supported or disproved?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● The potential difference, V, between two points is the work per unit charge that is done on a
W
charged particle when it moves between those two points: V = .
−1 q
●● Potential difference (voltage) has units volts; 1 V = 1 J C .
●● A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points. Voltmeters are connected in
parallel with circuit components.
●● Resistance, R, is defined as the ratio of potential difference across (V) to current through (I) a
V
component: R = (Ohm’s law).
I
●● Components whose purpose is to provide a constant known resistance in a circuit are called
resistors.
●● Components for which the resistance is constant for a wide range of applied voltage are called
ohmic. Components for which the resistance varies with applied voltage are called non-ohmic.
●● I–V graphs are used to represent the current–voltage characteristics of a component or device,
and allow the resistance to be calculated for any applied voltage.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 379

 CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Explain the difference between an ohmic and non-ohmic component.
2 Calculate the potential difference across a 1.8 kΩ resistor in which a current of 240 mA flows.
13.2 3 The I–V graph for a diode is shown in Figure 13.12. Calculate the resistance when
there is a potential difference of 0.6 V across the diode.
I 4 T uan measures the current through a light-emitting diode (LED) for five different
2.0 potential differences. His measurements are shown in Table 13.1.

1.5 TABLE 13.1  Measurements of current through an LED for varying potential differences

1.0 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V) 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2

CURRENT (mA) 0 1 4 12 25
0.5

0 V a Plot an I–V graph for Tuan’s data.

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 b Is this an ohmic or non-ohmic component? Justify your answer.
FIGURE 13.12  I–V characteristics of a diode c  alculate the resistance of this LED when it has a potential difference (applied
C
voltage) of 3 V across it.
5 When a potential difference of 16 V is applied across the ends of a wire, the current flowing in the wire is
2.4 A. Assume the wire is ohmic.
a What is the resistance of the wire?
b What potential difference is needed to make a current of 3.0 A flow through the wire?
6 Given that ammeters are always connected in series with a circuit, should ammeters have large or small
resistance? Explain your reasoning, using Ohm’s law to justify your answer.

13.3 Energy and power in electric circuits

A circuit typically consists of sources of potential energy, and components that convert that potential
energy into different forms. A battery is a source of potential energy. As charged particles move through
a battery, their potential energy increases. When charged particles flow through other components (such
as light globes, resistors and motors), their potential energy decreases.
Recall from chapter 5 that energy is conserved. A battery stores potential energy, but as it increases
the energy of the charged particles, its store of energy must decrease – it goes ‘flat’.
When the potential energy of the charged particles decreases as they move through other
components, that energy is converted into other forms. An incandescent light globe converts electrical
potential energy into light and heat. An LED (light-emitting diode) converts electrical potential energy
into light. A motor converts electrical potential energy into kinetic energy. In Investigation 13.2, you may
have noticed that the resistor got warm. A resistor converts electrical potential energy into heat, which is
conducted and radiated to the environment.

Power in electric circuits

The rate at which energy, E, is transformed is the power, P. From chapter 5, we know that:
∆E
P=
∆t
so, the energy transferred in a time t is:
ΔE = PΔt

380 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 Potential difference is the change in energy per unit charge between two points. So, as current flows

knilbeW
through a component: ∆E
V=
q Power in
electric circuits
The current is the charge per unit time (C s−1): Use this calculator
q to find the power
I= transformed in a
∆t circuit. Follow the
links to see how
If we multiply current by voltage, we get: this relates to
q ∆E ∆E Ohm’s law.
IV = × = =P
∆t q ∆t
Hence, the rate at which energy is transformed by a component is given by:
P = VI
where I is the current through the component and V is the potential difference across it.
Power is measured in units of watts, W. 1 W = 1 J s−1 = 1 V A.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13.5

A light globe is rated at 15 W and is powered by the mains supply, which provides 240 V. What current
flows through this globe when it is turned on?

ANSWER LOGIC

V = 240 V; P = 15 W •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

P = VI •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate power, current and
voltage.

P •• Rearrange for current.

I=
V
15 W •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
 I =
240 V
  = 0.0625 W V−1 •• Calculate the answer.
 I = 63 mA •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate the energy that would be used (transformed into light and heat) by this globe in 1 hour.
2 Calculate the energy that would be used (transformed into heat) by a 240 V heater with a current of
2 A passing through it for 1 hour.

Power, energy and Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law gives us a relationship between resistance, current and voltage:
V
R=
I
This can be rearranged to give:
V
V = IR and I =
R
If we substitute the first of these into the expression for power, P = VI , we get:
P = VI = I 2 R

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 381

 If we substitute the second of these into P = VI , we get:
V2
P = VI =
R
We now have three equivalent expressions for power:
V2
P = VI = I 2 R =
R

WORKED EXAMPLE 13.6

The cabin light of a car is powered by the 12 V car battery. When it is turned on, it has a resistance of
25 Ω. Calculate the rate at which it converts electrical potential energy to other forms.

ANSWER LOGIC

V = 12 V; R = 25 Ω •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

We want to find P.
•• Identify the appropriate formula to relate power, voltage
V2
P= and resistance.
R
•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
(12 V )2
P=
25 Ω
= 5.76 V2 Ω−1 •• Calculate the answer.
P = 5.8 W •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate the current flowing through this globe.

2 Calculate the energy used by this light in each minute.

INVESTIGATION 13.3

Critical and creative

thinking
Power and energy conversions in a DC circuit
In this investigation, you will observe different energy transformations. You will also compare the power usage
Numeracy of various types of circuit elements.

Information and
AIM
communication To observe different energy transformations in an electric circuit
technology
capability Write a research question or hypothesis for this investigation.

382 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 MATERIALS

•• 3 V DC power supply (variable supply set on 3 V or two 1.5 V batteries in a holder)
•• Wires and clips for making connections
•• 3 V globe in holder
•• 3 V DC buzzer
•• Small DC motor
•• Current meter (ammeter or multimeter on current setting)

!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
Electricity can cause shocks. Keep the power supply turned off until your teacher has
checked your circuit.
Do not touch the terminals of the power supply when it is
turned on.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Read the instructions for your ammeter, or ask your teacher to show you how to use it.
2 Connect a series circuit consisting of the power supply, ammeter and globe. Your circuit should look like
Figure 13.13.

FIGURE 13.13 
3 V globe Experimental set-up

3 V DC power Ammeter in
supply series with
globe and
power supply
3V

3 When your teacher has checked your circuit, turn on the power supply.
4 Record the reading on the ammeter. Note down any other observations.
5 Turn off the power supply and remove the globe from the circuit.
6 Repeat steps 2–5, replacing the globe with the buzzer. Repeat steps 2–5 again, replacing the buzzer with
the motor.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 383

 RESULTS
Create a table for your results as shown:

COMPONENT ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY CURRENT (mA) POWER (W) RESISTANCE (Ω)
TRANSFORMED TO:
Globe light and heat
Buzzer
Motor

Record your data for current and your observations of any energy transformations in the table.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Calculate the power used by each component (globe, buzzer, motor) and write it in the table.
2 Calculate the resistance of each component and write it in the table.
3 Plot a bar graph comparing the power usage of the three components.

DISCUSSION

1 Describe the energy transformations that took place in each of your three circuits.
2 Compare the energy usage of the three components.
3 Give the answer to your research question, or state whether your hypothesis was supported.
4 Can you think of any further experiments you could do to extend this investigation?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

INVESTIGATION 13.4

Critical and creative

thinking
Converting potential energy to heat
In this experiment, electric potential energy is converted to heat and used to increase the temperature of a
Numeracy known mass of water. You may wish to review chapter 11, particularly the sections on heat transfer and specific
heat capacity. The principle of conservation of energy is applied to calculate the efficiency of a kettle.

AIM
To analyse the energy transformations and transfers taking place as a kettle is used to heat water
Write a research question for this investigation.

MATERIALS

•• 240 V electric kettle

•• 500 mL water
•• Thermometer
•• Stopwatch
•• Wooden stirrer

!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Hot water and steam can burn. Avoid spills and do not heat the water to boiling.
Use a wooden stirrer rather than a metal one.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

384 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 METHOD

1 Read the compliance label on the kettle, usually found on the base. Note down the operating voltage
(230–240 V in Australia) and the power rating in W or kW.
2 Pour 500 mL (500 g) of water into the kettle. Wait a few minutes to allow the water and kettle to reach
thermal equilibrium.
3 While you are waiting, use the power rating of the kettle to calculate the temperature change of the water
if the kettle runs for 60 s. Assume that all energy transferred to the kettle is transformed to heat and used to
heat the water (100% efficiency).
4 Measure the temperature of the water. Note this down, including the uncertainty in your measurement.
5 Turn the kettle on for 60 s, and then immediately turn it off again. Note that there will be an uncertainty in
the time for which the kettle was run.
6 Quickly stir the water so it has uniform temperature, and measure the temperature of the water. Note this
down along with its uncertainty.

RESULTS

1 You calculated a theoretical temperature change, assuming 100% efficiency of energy conversion
and transfer.
2 You measured a temperature change for the same energy usage.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Does your measured temperature change agree with the theoretical change, within experimental
uncertainty?
2 Calculate the rate at which energy was actually transferred to the water by the kettle (the power).
3 Calculate the uncertainty in this value. To do so, remember that the uncertainty in the temperature
difference is the sum of the absolute uncertainties in the two temperature measurements. The uncertainty
in the power will be the sum of the fractional (relative) uncertainties in the temperature difference, time
and mass of water. Remember that if any of these are very small compared to the others, they can be
neglected.
4 Calculate the efficiency of the kettle. This is the fraction of energy used that was actually used to heat
the water.
5 Calculate the current through the kettle while it was turned on, and the resistance of the kettle.
Summarise your calculations in a table, giving all the characteristics and specifications of the kettle.

DISCUSSION

1 How does the experimental temperature change compare to your theoretical calculated change?
2 How can you explain any differences? Use the idea of energy conservation to explain your findings.
3 Provide an answer to your research question.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this
investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● A battery is a source of potential energy. As charged particles move through a battery, their
potential energy increases.
●● When charged particles flow through other components (such as light globes, resistors and
motors), their potential energy decreases. The potential energy is transformed into other forms
including light, heat and kinetic energy.
∆E V2
●● The rate at which energy is transformed is given by P = = VI = I 2R = . Power has units of
−1
W; 1 W = 1 J s = 1 V A. ∆ t R

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 385

 CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 A 240 V heater has two settings: high and low. The high setting produces more heating than the low
setting. Apply Ohm’s law to determine on which setting the heater has the higher resistance.
13.3 2 Define power. Give the units of power in at least three different ways, including fundamental units.
3 A 100 W light globe is left on for 1.0 hour. Calculate the energy used by the globe. Give your answer
in joules.
4 a How much energy is transformed in a hair dryer if it has a potential difference of 240 V and 100 C of
charge passes through it?
b Describe all the energy transformations that take place when you use a hair dryer, starting with the
potential energy from the grid and including the energy transferred to the air.
5 A current of 2.0 A flowing in a heater for an hour converts 1.7 MJ of electrical energy into heat.
a Calculate the charge transferred through the heater.
b Calculate the potential difference across the heater.

13.4 Circuits and circuit diagrams

Physicists use a lot of diagrams. In
Device Symbol Device Symbol
chapter 3 you learned how to draw
Wires crossed, not Earth or ground vector diagrams, and in chapter 4 you
joined
learned how to draw force diagrams.
Wires joined; junction Switch
of conductor
Another type of diagram that is very
useful is a circuit diagram.
Fixed resistor Diode
Circuit diagrams are used to show
Variable resistor Photodiode how the various components in a
circuit are connected. Each different
Light-dependent LED type of component is represented by
resistor
a different symbol. Figure 13.14 shows
Rheostat or resistor AC supply the most commonly used circuit
with moving contact symbols. Further information on these
Voltmeter V is given in appendix 3.
Thermistor
A circuit diagram is like a diagram
Filament lamp
Galvanometer for a transport system, such as that for
a train network. It shows you how the
Ammeter A components are related to each other –
Battery of cells
how they are connected, rather than
Signal lamp or their physical sizes and positions.
indicator
Alternative for
battery

Cell 2 1

FIGURE 13.14  Symbols for commonly used circuit elements

386 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 Figure 13.15a shows a picture of a circuit, and Figure 13.15b shows a circuit diagram for this same
circuit. The direction of current is also shown. Note that current flows from the positive terminal of the WS

battery around to the negative terminal. Worksheets

Using electricity
Homework

Just as a train system diagram may not show physical distances, a circuit diagram doesn’t indicate
lengths of wires. We assume that the wires in a circuit have negligible resistance compared to any other
component, regardless of their length.

a b

2
1

FIGURE 13.15  a A light globe, switch and a battery connected by wires; b A circuit diagram for the electric circuit
shown in part a

WORKED EXAMPLE 13.7

A battery is connected in series with a light globe, a resistor and an ammeter. Draw a circuit diagram for
this circuit.

ANSWER LOGIC

The circuit consists of battery, globe ( filament lamp), resistor •• Identify the relevant data in the question. Look at
and ammeter in series. In series means connected one after Figure 13.14 to identify the symbol for each component.
another.

•• Draw the diagram with the components connected in a

single loop.

FIGURE 13.16  Circuit diagram

for a series circuit consisting of
a battery, globe, resistor and
ammeter.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 387

 TRY THESE YOURSELF V
1 Draw a circuit diagram for the circuit shown in
Figure 13.7 (on page 374). Note that the voltmeter is not in
series with the other components in this circuit.
2 Identify each of the circuit components shown in
Figure 13.17.

A
FIGURE 13.17  Identify each of the
components shown in this circuit
diagram.

Kirchhoff’s laws and conservation principles

We can apply conservation principles to analyse the voltages and currents in a circuit.
A
The two conservation principles that we use are conservation of energy and conservation
I of charge. German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff first proposed applying these conservation
principles to circuits, so they are called Kirchhoff's laws in this context. But they are the
R1
same conservation principles that you met earlier in chapters 5 and 12.

B Kirchhoff’s voltage law – conservation of energy

Figure 13.18 shows a simple single loop circuit. This sort of circuit is called a series circuit
because the components are all connected in series, one after another.
R2
In this circuit, current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery (the longer
line), through the resistors and back to the battery through the negative (shorter) terminal.
The current passes through points A, B and C in sequence. (Remember the convention
C
that the direction of the current is the direction of flow of positive charges. Electrons will
move in the opposite direction.)
FIGURE 13.18  A simple series
circuit containing a battery and two Imagine a positively charged particle moving around the loop, starting at point A. As it
resistors passes through the first resistor between A and B, it gives up energy to the resistor, which
is converted to heat.
The charged particles move at constant speed through the circuit – they do not get
faster and slower. It is the potential energy of the particles that changes as they move around the loop.
As the particle moves through the resistor, its potential energy decreases.
Recall that potential is potential energy per unit charge. As the particle moves through the resistor, its
potential energy decreases – it has moved through a potential difference. From Ohm’s law, this potential
difference is V = IR. This potential difference is negative if we measure it from A to B.
As the charged particle continues from B to C, it passes through another resistor, again losing
potential energy as it passes through a second potential difference.
From point C, the charged particle flows through the battery, gaining potential energy. As the change
in potential energy is positive, so too is the potential difference across the battery from C to A.
When the charged particle is back at point A, it must have the same kinetic and potential energies
as it had when it started. Hence, whatever decreases in potential energy it had from passing through the
resistors must be equal to the potential energy gained by passing through the battery.
In circuits, we typically work in terms of potential differences (voltages) rather than potential energies.
If the total change in potential energy around the loop is zero, then so is the total potential difference.
∆Vtotal = ∑V = Vbattery − VR1 − VR2 = 0

388 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 knilbeW
Note that here we are using the symbol V to mean a potential difference. You may also see this written
as ∆V sometimes.
The loop law
This says that the sum over all the changes in potential difference around a loop must be equal to Use this animation
zero. This statement is generally true for any loop, and is known as Kirchhoff ’s loop law or Kirchhoff’s to explore the
loop law.
voltage law. It is really just a statement of conservation of energy for the special case of an electric circuit.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13.8

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 13.18. The battery supplies a potential difference of 12 V.
A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference across the first resistor (R1), which is found to be
3 V. What is the potential difference across R2?

ANSWER LOGIC

Vbattery = 12 V ; VR1 = 3 V •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

∑V = 0 •• Write Kirchhoff’s loop law to relate the voltages around the loop
(from A to B to C to A).
Vbattery − VR1 − VR2 = 0
VR2 = Vbattery − VR1 •• Rearrange for VR2 .
•• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
  = 12 V − ( 3 V )
VR2 = 9 V •• Calculate the final answer and state with appropriate significant
figures and units.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Three identical resistors are connected in series to a 12 V battery. The same current flows through each
resistor. Calculate the potential difference across each resistor.

Kirchhoff’s current law – conservation of charge

Charge is a conserved quantity, and the total charge in a closed system is constant. As charge does not
enter or leave a circuit, but only flows around within it, the total charge in a circuit is constant.
Figure 13.19a shows another circuit with two resistors, this time connected in parallel to a battery.
This is called a parallel circuit or multi-loop circuit. Figure 13.19b shows the top section of this circuit,
where the current flows from A to the junction between A, B and C.
A current IA flows through point A and to the
junction between A, B and C. At the junction, the current a
−1
splits. Recall that current is charge per unit time, C s . In
A B C
any given second, an amount of charge equal to 1 s × IA
enters the junction. Charge does not accumulate in
b
junctions, nor is it used up or lost. However much charge IA IC
enters, the same amount must flow out. Hence, the total
current into a junction must be equal to the total current
out. If we take current flowing in to have a positive sign,
A IB B C
and current flowing out to have a negative sign, then: D
∑I = 0
This is called Kirchhoff’s current law or junction law.
It is really just a statement of conservation of charge. FIGURE 13.19  a A parallel (multi-loop) circuit. b The top section of the
In the case of the circuit in Figure 13.19, circuit, showing that the current splits into two different paths at the junction
between A, B and C.
IA − IB − IC = 0, or IA = IB + IC.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 389

 WORKED EXAMPLE 13.9

The current at point A in Figure 13.19 is 2.0 A. Three times as much current passes through B as through C.
Calculate the currents at B, C and D.

ANSWER LOGIC

 IA = 2.0 A; IB = 3IC •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

 ΣI = 0 or ΣIin = ΣIout •• Write Kirchhoff’s current law to relate the currents in the
different sections.
IA = IB + IC
IA = 3IC + IC = 4IC •• Substitute the expression for IB in terms of IC.

IA •• Rearrange for IC.

IC =
4
2.0 A •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.
IC =
4
IC = 0.5 A •• Calculate the final answer and state with appropriate
significant figures and units.
IB = 3IC •• Relate IB to IC.
IB = 3(0.5 A) •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.
IB = 1.5 A •• Calculate the final answer and state with appropriate
significant figures and units.
(At this point, we should quickly check that the sum of the
currents out does equal the current in. If not, we have made a
mistake and need to check our working!)
ID = IB + IC = IA •• Recognise that there is another junction between B and C,
leading to D, and apply Kirchhoff’s current law.
ID = 2.0 A •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula and
calculate the answer.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

If the current at A was 1.0 A and the current through B was 0.7 A, what currents would be flowing
through C and D?

Kirchhoff ’s current law is very useful for analysing circuits. Charge does not accumulate in batteries,
resistors or wires, nor is it ‘used up’. So Kirchhoff ’s current law applies not only to junctions but also to
components and groups of components. For example, consider the series circuit shown in Figure 13.18
(page 388). The current at point A must be the same as the current at point B, because it only has one
possible path and does not accumulate in a resistor. Similarly, the current at C must be the same as at B.
Any point in a single loop circuit has the same current flowing through it. The current is constant around
the loop – it is not ‘used up’ as it goes through components.

Series and parallel circuits

There are two main types of circuits. Series circuits have only one path that the charge can flow through.
Parallel circuits have multiple paths that current can flow through.

Resistors in series
It is often useful to know the equivalent resistance to a group of components. This will allow us to
calculate, for example, the current that will be drawn from a power supply.

390 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 So, for the series circuit in Figure 13.18, I is the same through all resistors. The total voltage across the
two resistors is:
Vtotal = VR1 + VR2
If we divide this through by the current, we get:
Vtotal VR1 VR2
= +
VR I I I
Using Ohm’s law, R = , we can write this as:
I
Rtotal = R1 + R2
Rtotal is the total resistance of the combination of the two resistors in series, and is the sum of the two
resistors. We have derived this for the case of two resistors, but it applies to any number of resistors in
series.
In general:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +  + Rn
Once we know the total resistance, we can apply Ohm’s law to the entire combination of resistors:
V
Rtotal = total
I
The more resistors there are added to a series circuit, the higher the total resistance is, and the lower
the current.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13.10

Figure 13.20 shows a 6 V battery connected to two resistors in FIGURE 13.20 
series, R1 = 8 Ω; R2 = 4 Ω. A load consisting
R1 5 8 V of two resistors in
1 Calculate the total resistance of the load (the two resistors). series connected
to a battery
2 Calculate the current through the circuit. 6V 1
2
3 Calculate the potential difference across each resistor. R2 5 4 V

ANSWER LOGIC

 Vtotal = Vbattery = 6 V; R1 = 8 Ω; R2 = 4 Ω •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
1  
Rtotal = R1 + R2 •• Identify the appropriate formula to calculate the total
resistance.
Rtotal = 8 Ω + 4 Ω •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
Rtotal = 12 Ω •• Calculate the final answer and state with appropriate
significant figures and units.
Vtotal •• Write Ohm’s law for the total load.
2 Rtotal =
I

Vtotal •• Rearrange for current.

 I = R
total

6V •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

I=
12 Ω
= 0.5 V Ω−1 •• Calculate the answer.
 I = 0.5 A •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures and units.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 391

 V1 •• Write Ohm’s law for R1.
3 R1 =
I
V1 = IR1 •• Rearrange for potential difference across R1.

V1 = (0.5 A)(8 Ω) •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
V1 = 4 A Ω •• Calculate the answer.
V1 = 4 V •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.
We can either apply Ohm’s law to the second resistor to •• Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law for this loop
find V2 or we can apply Kirchhoff ’s voltage law. Applying
Kirchhoff ’s voltage law:
Vbattery = VR1 + VR2
VR2 = Vbattery − VR1 •• Rearrange for VR2 .

VR2 = 6 V − 4 V •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.

VR2 = 2 V •• Calculate the final answer and state with appropriate

significant figures and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate VR2 using Ohm’s law instead, and check that you get the same answer.
2 a What voltage power supply would be needed to create a current flow of 1.0 A in this circuit?
b What would be the potential difference across each resistor in this case?

Resistors in parallel
When resistors are connected in parallel, as in Figure 13.19 (page 389), the voltage across each must be
the same. Figure 13.19 can be thought of as two loops: one with the battery and the first resistor; the
second with the battery and the second resistor. Figure 13.19 is redrawn in Figure 13.21, highlighting
these two loops. If we apply Kirchhoff ’s voltage law to the first loop, we get:
Vbattery = −VR1
If we apply Kirchhoff ’s voltage law to the second loop, we get:
Vbattery = −VR2
so,
VR1 = VR2 = −Vbattery

FIGURE 13.21 The
circuit shown in a b
Figure 13.19 showing:
a the first loop, with
Vbattery = −VR1; b the
second loop, with
Vbattery = −VR2
Vbattery VR1 Vbattery V R2

Vbattery 1 VR1 5 0 Vbattery 1 VR2 5 0

392 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 In general, any parallel sections of a circuit (sections that IT
connect across the same two points) must have the same potential
difference across them. This is why we always connect voltmeters I1 I2 I T 5 I1 1 I2
in parallel with the component we wish to measure the voltage
across. The voltmeter then has the same potential across it as the Vin R1 R2 V2 Vin 5 V1 5 V2
V1
component.
Figure 13.22 shows the same circuit as Figure 13.19 and
Figure 13.21 again, but with voltmeters connected across each
resistor and the currents in and out of the junction between the
battery and the resistors. FIGURE 13.22  Parallel circuit with two resistors, as in
We know from Kirchhoff ’s laws that for this parallel circuit: Figure 13.19, showing voltages and currents

I total = I 1 + I 2
and
Vin = V1 = V2
Using Ohm’s law, the current through each resistor is given by:
V
I= R
R
Putting this into I total = I 1 + I 2 gives:

Vtotal VR1 VR2

= +
Rtotal R1 R2
where Rtotal is the total equivalent resistance of the parallel resistors, and Vtotal is the potential difference
across the parallel resistors. WS
As Vin = V1 = V2 = Vtotal, we get
Worksheets
Electricity multiple
Homework
1 1 1 choice
= +
Rtotal R1 R2

As with resistors in series, we have derived this for the case of two resistors. However, it is generally
true for any number of resistors in parallel:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ++
Rtotal R1 R2 R3 Rn

WORKED EXAMPLE 13.11

For the circuit shown in Figure 13.23, calculate:

1 the total equivalent resistance for the load (two parallel resistors).
2 the current through the battery.
3 the current through each resistor.

FIGURE 13.23
A circuit with two
9V 1 R1 5 9 V R2 5 18 V parallel resistors
2

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 393

 ANSWER LOGIC
Vbattery = 9 V; R1 = 9 Ω; R2 = 18 Ω •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

1 1 1 1 •• Write the expression for total resistance.

= +
Rtotal R1 R2
1 1 1 •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
=+
Rtotal 9 Ω 18 Ω
2 1 •• Rewrite the fractions with a common denominator.
  = +
18 Ω 18 Ω
3 •• Add the fractions.
  =
18 Ω
18 Ω •• Rearrange for Rtotal.
  Rtotal = =6Ω
3
Note that in this case we have substituted values before
rearranging. It is very rare that this is an appropriate thing to
do, but in this case it makes the solution much faster.
•• Write Ohm’s law for the total load.
2 Vtotal Vbattery
Rtotal = =
I I
Vbattery •• Rearrange for current.
  I=
Rtotal
9V •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
  I=
6Ω
I = 1.5 V Ω−1 •• Calculate the answer.
I = 1.5 A •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.
3 Vbattery •• Write Ohm’s law for R1.
R1 =
I1
Vbattery •• Rearrange for current through R1.
  I1 =
R1
9V •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
I1 =
9Ω
 I1 = 1 V Ω−1 •• Calculate the answer.
 I1 = 1 A •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.
We can either apply Ohm’s law to the second resistor to •• Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law for this loop.
find I2 or we can apply Kirchhoff ’s current law. Applying
Kirchhoff ’s current law:
I T = I1 + I 2
  I 2 = I T − I1 •• Rearrange for I2.

 I2 = 1.5 A − 1 A •• Substitute the known values, with units, into the formula.
 I2 = 0.5 A •• Calculate the final answer and state with appropriate
significant figures and units.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Repeat Worked example 13.11 with a third resistor in parallel with the first two. The third resistor has
resistance 6 Ω. Begin by drawing a circuit diagram.

394 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 knilbeW
Notice that in Worked example 13.11, the total resistance of the parallel combination of resistors was
less than either of the individual resistors. This is always the case, because the more paths there are for
Series and
current to flow along, the more current there will be. The current will also divide in inverse proportion to parallel circuits
the resistance of the paths. Current will flow in every path, but the path of least resistance will have the Find out more
about series and
greatest current. parallel circuits,
and follow the link
to the interactive
circuit builder
activities

INVESTIGATION 13.5

Critical and creative

Parallel and series circuits thinking

In this investigation, you will perform two experiments. In the first, you make qualitative observations of light
Numeracy
globes connected in series and parallel. In the second, you will make quantitative measurements for resistors in
series and parallel.
Information and
communication
AIM technology capability
To investigate light globes and resistors connected in series and parallel
Write a hypothesis for each part of the investigation. For the second part, your hypothesis should be
quantitative.

MATERIALS

•• 12 V DC power supply

•• 3 × 12 V globes in holders
•• 10 × 100 Ω resistors
•• Ammeter
•• Voltmeter
•• Wires and connectors

WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
!
RISK
ASSESSMENT

Identify the risks associated with your investigation, and state how you can manage them.

Part 1: globes in series and parallel

FIGURE 13.24 
METHOD Globes connected in
Remember to write your hypothesis before you begin series

to make observations.
1 Connect the circuit shown in Figure 13.24.
2 Once your teacher has checked your circuit, turn on
the power supply. Write down what you observe.
3 Connect the circuit shown in Figure 13.25.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 395

 4 Once your teacher has checked your circuit, turn on the power
supply. Write down what you observe now.

RESULTS
Record your observations, and include sketches of your circuits.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS FIGURE 13.25  Globes connected

in series
1 For which circuit were the globes brighter?
2 In either circuit, were some globes brighter than others?

DISCUSSION
Did your results support or disprove your hypothesis? Explain why.
A
Part 2: resistors in series and parallel
V
METHOD

1 Connect the circuit shown in Figure 13.26. Ask your teacher to

check your circuit before turning on the power supply.
FIGURE 13.26  Starting circuit for part 2
2 Turn on the power supply and measure the current flowing from
the power supply and the potential difference across the (first)
resistor.
3 Turn off the power supply.
4 Add another resistor in series with the first. Leave the ammeter and voltmeter where they are so you
continue to measure current from the power supply and voltage across the first resistor.
5 Repeat steps 2–4, each time recording the current through the circuit and the voltage across the
first resistor.
6 When you have used all your resistors, take all but one out of the circuit and return your circuit to that
shown in Figure 13.26.
7 Repeat the experiment above, but this time connect the additional resistors in parallel with the first.

RESULTS
Record your results in a table, either on paper or in a spreadsheet. Your tables should look like the following,
but with more rows.
Resistors in series
NUMBER OF RESISTORS CURRENT (mA) VR1 (V) RTOTAL (Ω)

1
2

Resistors in parallel
NUMBER OF RESISTORS CURRENT (mA) VR1 (V) RTOTAL (Ω)

1
2

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Calculate the total resistance of your circuit using Ohm’s law with the measured current and the power
supply voltage (12 V) to complete the table.

396 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 2 Compare your calculated values for total resistance from your measured voltages and currents with what
you expect from using the expressions for series and parallel resistors.
1 1 1 1
= + + +  and Rseries = R1 + R2 + R3 + 
Rparallel R1 R2 R3
3 Use spreadsheet software to graph your data. Draw a scatter plot of current as a function of number of
resistors for the resistors in series data. Is it a straight line? Is it the shape you expected it to be?
4 Plot a linear graph using your data. You will need to think about how you expect current to vary with
number of resistors.
5 Draw a scatter plot of current as a function of number of resistors for the resistors in parallel data. Is this a
straight line? If so, fit a line to your graph and display the equation on the graph. Does it match what you
predicted?

CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion to summarise your findings. State whether your hypotheses were supported.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Circuit diagrams are used to show how the various components in a circuit are connected. Each
WS
different type of component is represented by a different symbol.
●● Kirchhoff’s voltage law says that the sum of potential differences around a loop is zero: ∑V = 0 . Worksheets
Revision
Homework
This is a result of conservation of energy.
●● Kirchhoff’s current law says that the total current entering a junction is zero: ∑ I = 0 or the
total current in must equal the total current out. This is a result of conservation of charge.
●● The current in a single-loop circuit must be the same at all points in the loop. Current is not
‘used up’ in resistors or other components.
●● When resistors are connected in series (one after another, end to end), the total resistance is the
sum of the resistances: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +  + Rn.
●● Resistors in series all have the same current through them.
●● When resistors are connected in parallel (side by side), the total resistance is found from:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ++ .
Rtotal R1 R2 R3 Rn

●● Resistors in parallel all have the same potential difference across them.

CHECK YOUR
1 Which has less equivalent resistance: two 5.0 Ω resistors in series or two 5.0 Ω resistors in parallel? Compare UNDERSTANDING
the total current when connected to a battery of voltage V.
2 Figure 13.27 shows three ammeters A, B and C in three wires as part of a continuous circuit. If ammeter A 13.4
reads 1.40 A and ammeter B reads 0.50 A, what is the reading on ammeter C?
3 Figure 13.28 shows a series circuit with two resistors. If V1 = 4.2 V what is the reading on V2?

V1
6V

B V2
C
A

FIGURE 13.27  A junction in a circuit FIGURE 13.28  A series circuit with two resistors

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 397

 4 Four different combinations of resistors are shown in Figure 13.29. Calculate the total or equivalent
resistance of each combination.

c d
a
4.0 V 24.0 V 9.0 V

b 12.0 V
4.0 V 10.0 V 15.0 V
16.0 V 8.0 V 18.0 V
FIGURE 13.29  What is the total resistance of each of these combinations?

5 Two 12.0 V resistors and one 6.0 V resistor are connected in series across
a 6.0 V battery.
a Draw a circuit diagram to show this arrangement.
b What is the total resistance of the circuit? R1 V1
c What current flows through the 6.0 Ω resistor?
d What is the potential drop across each resistor? Vin
6 Voltmeters are always connected in parallel. Measuring devices
(ammeters, voltmeters etc.) should interfere with a circuit as little as
possible. Explain why voltmeters always have very high resistance. R2 Vout
7 Figure 13.30 shows a voltage divider. If Vin = 12 V, Vout = 9 V and
R1 = 10 Ω, calculate
a V1
FIGURE 13.30  A voltage
b R2 divider circuit
c the current in the circuit.

398 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 13   CHAPTER SUMMARY
◗◗ Current is the flow of charged particles, called charge ◗◗ A battery is a source of potential energy. As charged
carriers. particles move through a battery, their potential energy
increases.
◗◗ Charge carriers can be positive or negative. In electric
circuits, they are usually electrons, which have a negative ◗◗ When charged particles flow through other components
charge. (such as light globes, resistors and motors), their potential
energy decreases. The potential energy is transformed into
◗◗ Current is the charge per unit time passing through a point: other forms including light, heat and kinetic energy.
q
I = , measured in units of A; 1 A = 1 C s−1.
t ◗◗ The rate at which energy is transformed is the power, given
The direction of a current is the direction that positive ∆E V2
◗◗ by P = = VI = I 2 R = . Power has units of W;
charge carriers would be flowing if the current was carried ∆t R
by positive charge carriers.
1 W = 1 J s−1 = 1 V A.
◗◗ Metals are good conductors because they have many free
◗◗ Circuit diagrams are used to show how the various
electrons (charge carriers).
components in a circuit are connected.
◗◗ Ammeters are used to measure current. Ammeters must be
◗◗ Kirchhoff’s voltage law (conservation of energy) says that the
connected in series in a circuit.
sum of potential differences around a loop is zero: ∑V = 0 .
◗◗ The potential difference (also called voltage), V, between
◗◗ Kirchhoff’s current law (conservation of charge) says that the
two points is the work per unit charge that is done on a
total current entering a junction is zero: ∑ I = 0, or total
charged particle when it moves between those two points.
current in = total current out.
W
V= −1
q measured in units of volts; 1 V = 1 J C . ◗◗ The current in a single-loop circuit must be the same at
◗◗ A voltmeter measures the potential difference between all points in the loop. Current is not ‘used up’ in resistors or
two points. Voltmeters are connected in parallel with circuit other components.
components.
◗◗ When resistors are connected in series (one after another,
◗◗ Resistance, R, is defined as the ratio of voltage across to end to end): Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +  + Rn.
V
current through a component: R = (Ohm’s law). ◗◗ Resistors in series all have the same current through them.
I
◗◗ For ohmic components, the resistance is constant for a wide ◗◗ When resistors are connected in parallel (side by side):
range of potential difference. For non-ohmic components 1 1 1 1 1
= + + ++
the resistance varies with potential difference. Rtotal R1 R2 R3 Rn

◗◗ I–V graphs are used to represent the current–voltage ◗◗ Resistors in parallel all have the same potential difference
characteristics of a component, and allow the resistance to across them.
be calculated for any applied voltage.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 399

 13   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 List some of the forms of energy into which electric 14 Figure 13.32 shows a parallel circuit. The current through
potential energy can be converted. ammeter A1 is 100 mA and the current through A2 is
25 mA. What is the current through A3?
2 How much energy does a 12.0 V car battery supply to
every coulomb of charge that passes through it?
A1
3 How much energy does a 12.0 V car battery supply to A2
every electron that passes through it?
4 What is the potential difference across a 220 mΩ resistor if
it carries a current of 4.0 A?
5 A current of 0.50 A flows for 10 minutes in a conductor.
Calculate the number of coulombs of charge that pass a A3
given point in the conductor.
6 People often ‘charge’ their phones when their battery FIGURE 13.32 Measuring
is running low. Are they adding more charge to their current in a parallel circuit
phones, or is another process taking place? Describe what
is happening.
15 What is the size and direction of the current I in
7 What is the difference between an ohmic and a non-
Figure 13.33?
ohmic resistor?
8 Calculate the potential difference of a battery that
supplies 960 J of energy to every 80.0 C of charge that 2.7 A
passes through the battery.
4.0 A 0.8 A
9 Calculate the potential difference of a battery that
supplies 1.92 × 10−18 J of energy to every electron that
I
passes through the battery. 1.5 A
10 How much charge passes through a load if a current of
4.0 A flows for 5.0 s? FIGURE 13.33  A junction in a
circuit
11 When a potential difference of 16 V is applied across the
ends of a wire, the current flowing in the wire is 2.4 A.
Assume the wire is ohmic. 16 A current of 2.0 A flows through a battery when a light
a What is the resistance of the wire? globe is connected across its terminals. The potential
difference across the terminals is 6.0 V.
b What potential difference is needed to make a current
of 3.0 A flow through the wire? a What is the quantity of electrical charge that flows in
the globe each second?
12 What is the potential difference across a 1.8 kΩ resistor in
b How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge
which a current of 240 mA flows?
that passes through the battery?
13 The reading of voltmeter V1 in Figure 13.31 is 5 V. What is c How long does it take the battery to supply 480 J of
the reading of V2? energy?
d How many coulombs of charge will pass through the
battery in this time?

V1 17 Currents I1 and I2 respectively flow in resistances R1 and R2

placed in series across a potential difference V. Show that
12 V the potential difference is shared in the same ratio as the
V R
V2 resistances: 1 = 1 .
V2 R2
18 Currents I1 and I2 respectively flow in resistances R1
and R2 placed in parallel across a potential difference V.
FIGURE 13.31 Voltmeters
measuring potential
Show that the current is shared in inverse ratio to the
difference across two resistors I R
in series
resistances: 1 = 2
I 2 R1

400 CHAPTER FOUR

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063
 19 A student has three resistors: 50 Ω, 100 Ω and 150 Ω. a What is the current in one 100 W globe?
a If the student arranges the resistors in series, what is b If three 100 W globes are turned on, what is the current
the total resistance? in the fuse?
b What is the equivalent resistance if the students c How many globes can be turned on before the fuse
arranges them in parallel? melts?
20 Three 10 Ω resistors and one 20 Ω resistor are joined 25 A combination series and parallel circuit is shown in
in series across a 10.0 V supply. What is the potential Figure 13.34.
difference across each? Start by drawing a circuit diagram. a Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit. Hint:
21 Three 10 Ω resistors and one 20 Ω resistor are joined in start by calculating the equivalent resistance of the
parallel across a 10.0 V supply. What is the current through parallel section, and modelling it as a single resistor in
each? Start by drawing a circuit diagram. series with the other components.
b Find the current in each resistor.
22 Two globes drawing 50 W each are connected in series
across a 10.0 V supply. Each globe has a resistance of 0.5 Ω. c Calculate the potential difference across each resistor.
a Calculate the potential difference across one globe.
b Calculate the current through both globes.
R1 5 5 V
23 Two 1 kΩ resistors are placed in series with a 9 V battery,
an ammeter and an unknown resistor, R. The ammeter
reads 1.5 mA.
a What is the resistance of the resistor, R? Show your
working, including a circuit diagram.
12 V R2 5 8 V R3 5 8 V
b What would the ammeter read if it were placed in
parallel with one of the 1 kΩ resistors? Give a detailed
explanation.
24 Household globes, each 100 W, are connected to each
other in parallel array, and then this arrangement is R4 5 6 V
connected in series to a power supply with a 7.5 A fuse
of negligible resistance. When 7.5 A or more flows in the FIGURE 13.34  A combination series and
fuse, it melts and breaks the circuit. The power supply can parallel circuit
be considered to be 240 V DC.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 13 » ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 401

 14 Magnetism
OUTCOMES Students:
INQUIRY QUESTION •• investigate and describe qualitatively the force produced between magnetised and magnetic materials in
the context of ferromagnetic materials (ACSPH079)
How do magnetised
and magnetic objects •• use magnetic field lines to model qualitatively the direction and strength of magnetic fields produced by
magnets, current-carrying wires and solenoids and relate these fields to their effect on magnetic materials
interact?
that are placed within them (ACSPH083) ICT
•• conduct investigations into and describe quantitatively the magnetic fields produced by wires and
solenoids, including: (ACSPH106, ACSPH107)
µI
– B = 0 ICT N
2πr
– B = 0
µ NI ICT N
L
•• investigate and explain the process by which ferromagnetic materials become magnetised (ACSPH083)
•• apply models to represent qualitatively and describe quantitatively features of magnetic fields ICT N
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
Shutterstock.com/colematt

402 9780170409063
 Gravitational fields are created by objects

FUSION, The University of Edinburgh.

Used with permission from Peter Reid
with mass (chapter 4), and electric fields
(chapter 12) are created by objects with
charge. Magnetic fields are created by
moving charged particles, such as the
movement of electrons in a current.
Some materials also create magnetic
fields due to the behaviour of their
electrons. Recall that a field is a way for a
force to act between objects that are not
in contact.
Magnetic fields are important to us
in many ways. Earth has a magnetic field
that protects us from cosmic rays from FIGURE 14.1  Earth’s magnetosphere

the Sun (Figure 14.1). Magnetic materials

are used in many devices, such as transformers and USB drives. In this chapter, we will describe the
characteristics of magnetic fields and examine how magnetised and magnetic objects interact.

Magnetism and magnetic

14.1
materials
Magnetic fields are created by moving charges, and exert forces on moving charges. Magnets create
magnetic fields and experience forces due to magnetic fields because of the moving charged particles
(electrons) that they contain.
The magnetic field is given the symbol B in physics, and is measured in units of tesla, T. The tesla is a
very large unit, and most everyday fields are measured in mT or µT. For example, the magnetic field due

knilbeW
to Earth varies between about 30 µT and 60 µT on Earth’s surface, depending upon where you are. Strong
permanent magnets made of neodymium alloys can produce a field of around 1 T, and fields of nearly Hyperphysics:
ferromagnetism
100 T can be produced using high-power and high-tech equipment in laboratories.
Read more about
The words magnet and magnetism come from the word ‘magnetite’, an iron ore (Fe3O4) that attracts ferromagnetism and
follow the links to
iron. Magnetite was observed to attract iron by the ancient Greeks around 3000 years ago. One legend find out more.
says that the material magnetite was named after the shepherd Magnes. The iron nails of his shoes
reportedly stuck to pieces of magnetite as he pastured his flocks.
We call materials that can be magnetised ferromagnetic, where ferro means iron. Most magnetic
materials in use today still contain iron. When a material is magnetised, it creates its own magnetic field. WS

Most materials are not ferromagnetic and cannot be magnetised. Worksheets

Ferromagnets
Homework
Ferromagnetic materials, when magnetised, are attracted into a magnetic field. You will have noticed
this if you have ever played with a magnet and used it to pick up pins or paper clips. As described later, the
presence of a magnetic field is what magnetises the material. Once magnetised, the material experiences
a force due to the field.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 403

 INVESTIGATION 14.1

Critical and Identifying magnetic materials

creative thinking

Ferromagnetic materials are attracted into magnetic fields. Can you predict what sort of materials in your
classroom will be ferromagnetic?

AIM
To identify some ferromagnetic materials

MATERIALS

•• Strong magnet
•• Paper clips
•• Coins
•• Iron filings in a transparent container
•• Other magnets including fridge magnets
•• Samples of other materials of different types including plastics, copper, aluminium
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Magnets can become demagnetised by being dropped Avoid dropping the magnets or allowing them to bang
or banged together a lot. together.
A pair of strong magnets can pinch you. Handle magnets one at a time.
Magnets can be toxic, and small magnets are a choking Never put a magnet in your mouth and always wash your
hazard. hands after any investigation.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Gather your sample materials and space them out on your desk.
2 Place the strong magnet close to the first sample.
3 Record how the sample responds.
4 Move the strong magnet away, reverse it, and place it close to the sample again. This time the opposite end
of the magnet will be close to the sample.
5 Record how the sample responds.
6 Repeat steps 2–5 for each of your samples.

RESULTS
Make a table summarising your results as shown. Include your predictions. Write your prediction for each
sample before you test it.

SAMPLE PREDICTED BEHAVIOUR OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Can you find any patterns in your results?

2 Were all the metal samples attracted to the magnet?
3 Was it only metals that were attracted?
4 Did it matter which end of the magnet you used?

404 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 DISCUSSION

1 State if your results agree with what you would expect.

2 List two ways could you improve this experiment.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

In Investigation 14.1, you will have noticed that most materials are not ferromagnetic. It is the
properties and behaviour of electrons within the material that give rise to ferromagnetism. You will
know from chemistry that electrons orbit the nucleus in shells. This shell structure is important for
understanding magnetic materials. Within shells, the electrons move in orbitals. If you are studying
chemistry, you will be familiar with the names of these orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2p and so on. The shell structure
changes when atoms bind together to form molecules.
Every electron in a material creates its own tiny magnetic field as it orbits a nucleus, I

because it is acting as a tiny circular current. This is shown in Figure 14.2. We shall see
later in this chapter how currents create magnetic fields. When there are two electrons e2
v
(paired electrons) in an orbital, they create opposite magnetic fields, which cancel out.
Materials that only have paired electrons are not ferromagnetic.
FIGURE 14.2  The electron orbiting the
Ferromagnetism arises from unpaired electrons in the shells. nucleus can be modelled as a current
Electrons also have a property known as spin. The electrons are probably not really
spinning – this is just the name given to a property in quantum mechanics. However,
they do have their own tiny magnetic field in addition to the field due to their orbital motion. A charged
ball would have a magnetic field if it were spinning, so this property associated with a particle’s magnetic
field is called spin.
The spin of a particle is a measure of a particle’s own magnetic field. Spin is a quantum mechanical
property of particles, and is discussed in Physics in Focus Year 12.
Hence, electrons in materials have magnetic fields from two sources – their orbital motion and their
spin. The total magnetic field from each electron is the sum of these two.
In materials where the electrons all have pairs, the magnetic fields due to each electron in a pair
cancel out. Even in materials where there are unpaired electrons, their magnetic fields are randomly
arranged and may end up all cancelling each other out.
In ferromagnetic materials, the fields due to the unpaired electrons tend to line up. Usually this
happens only in small local regions. These small local regions of alignment are called magnetic domains.
As the field in each domain may be different, the overall magnetic field is still zero or very small. However,
if the local magnetic fields can be made to line up, the result is a material that has a large magnetic knilbeW

field – a magnet.
Note that protons and neutrons in the nucleus also have spin, and their own magnetic fields, but the Creation of
magnetic fields
total magnetic field due to the nucleus is tiny compared to that due to electrons so it doesn’t contribute Watch the animation
to ferromagnetic behaviour. Nuclear magnetism is important in technologies such as nuclear magnetic and read about how
orbiting electrons
resonance (NMR) imaging or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). create magnetic
fields.
When two magnets are brought close together, they exert a force on each other. This is how we know
that the magnetic field must exist – there is a force between magnets that acts at a distance. Remember
that the field model for forces, whether gravitational, electric or magnetic, is how we describe action at
a distance.
Two magnets will either attract or repel each other. You may have noticed this in Investigation 14.1.
This is because a magnet has two poles, which we call a north pole and south pole. Like poles repel, just
as like charges do, so a north pole will repel another north pole. Unlike poles attract, so a north pole is
attracted to a south pole and vice versa.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 405

 This naming convention arises from observations of the magnetic field of Earth (Figure 14.1,
page 403). Compass needles can be observed to swing so that they point approximately towards the
geographic North Pole of Earth. As it is the north pole of the compass needle that swings towards the
geographic North Pole, this tells us that the geographic North Pole is a magnetic south pole. In fact, as
you can see from Figure 14.1, the geographic and magnetic poles don’t quite line up. The magnetic poles
also move and occasionally reverse.

INVESTIGATION 14.2

Critical and The force exerted between magnetised materials

creative thinking

AIM
Literacy
To investigate the force between two magnets

MATERIALS

•• 2 strong magnets with at least two parallel flat sides (e.g. ‘button’ or rectangular shaped magnets)
•• Tape
•• Sensitive kitchen scales (1 g precision)
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
Magnets can be toxic and small magnets are a choking hazard. Never put a magnet in your mouth and always
wash your hands after any investigation.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Tape one of the magnets to the kitchen scale so that one pole is
pointing upwards. You may need to observe the magnets first to
determine which sides are the poles.
2 Record the reading on the scale.
3 Hold the second magnet at least 10 cm above the first, with one
pole pointing directly down towards it (as in Figure 14.3).
4 Very slowly move the second magnet down and note how the
scale reading changes – does it increase or decrease?
5 Note whether you can feel any force on the magnet in your hand.
Does it appear to be pushing upwards or pulling downwards?
6 Record your observations.
7 Move the second magnet back up again, and reverse its direction.
Refer to pages 8 Repeat steps 4–7.
96-7 to revise the
rules on drawing RESULTS FIGURE 14.3  Experimental set up for
force diagrams. investigating the forces between two
Record your observations. Draw a diagram showing the directions of magnets
the forces acting on each of the magnets.

406 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the magnet taped to the scale when the second magnet was far away,
and when the second magnet was close by. Make sure you include the normal force of the scale on the magnet.

DISCUSSION
By Newton’s third law, the normal force exerted by the magnet on the scales is equal and opposite to the
normal force the scales exert on the magnet. The normal force exerted on the scales is what it converts to a
displayed mass reading. So, the apparent change in mass can be converted to a change in the normal force
exerted on the magnet.
1 Apply Newton’s second law to your diagram showing the forces on the magnet. Write an equation relating
the forces acting, noting that the magnet is in equilibrium. (Hint: review Figure 4.16, page 103.)
2 Explain why the scale reading increased or decreased when the second magnet was moved close to it.
3 Identify the Newton’s third-law force pair to the force exerted by the magnet in your hand on the magnet
taped to the scale.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Most materials are not ferromagnetic and cannot

Getty Images/Bill Pierce

be magnetised to produce magnets. Most materials

knilbeW
can be classified as either diamagnetic or paramagnetic.
Paramagnets are very, very weakly attracted into The Meissner
effect
magnetic fields. Diamagnets are repelled by magnetic A small magnet
fields. Most diamagnets are only very, very weakly will levitate
above a cooled
repelled. The behaviour of both paramagnetic and superconductor
because of the
diamagnetic materials is hard to observe without Meissner effect.
specialised and highly sensitive equipment. An Read about it and
watch the video.
exception to this is a superconductor below its FIGURE 14.4  A magnet hovers over a disc of
superconductor cooled with liquid nitrogen
critical temperature. The critical temperature is the
temperature at which it becomes superconducting.
Below the critical temperature, a superconductor is a strong diamagnet and is repelled by a magnet. By
Newton’s third law, the magnet must also be repelled by the superconductor. This can be seen in Figure
14.4 where a magnet is levitating above a cooled superconductor. The downwards gravitational force is
balanced by the upwards magnetic force.
KEY
CONCEPTS

●● Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetised. Magnetised materials create
magnetic fields.
●● The magnetic fields are due to the motion of the electrons in the material.
●● Most (but not all) ferromagnetic materials contain iron.

CHECK YOUR
1 Define ‘ferromagnetic’. UNDERSTANDING
2 Distinguish between ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials.
3 a Explain how a fridge magnet can stick to a fridge when the fridge is not magnetised. 14.1
b Draw a diagram showing all the forces acting on the magnet.
c Identify the Newton’s third-law reaction force to all the forces in your diagram.
4 Describe how you could make measurements to determine how the force that one magnet exerts on
another varies with the distance between the magnets. What graph(s) would you plot?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 407

 14.2 Magnetic field lines
You learned in chapter 12 that field lines can be used to represent the strength and direction of an electric
field. Recall that for an electric field, the direction of the field is the direction of the force exerted on a
positive charge. The density of field lines is proportional to the strength of the field.
Magnetic field lines give the same sort of information for magnetic fields. Magnetic field lines show the
direction of force acting on a magnetic north pole. The density of the magnetic field lines is proportional
to the field strength. The field lines are a visual model of the field.
Remember what it feels like to push two magnets together with
Shutterstock.com/Awe Inspiring Images

a b
their north poles facing. The north pole of each is pushed away by the
N
other – the force is away from the other magnet, so the magnetic field
lines point out from a north pole. However, if you turn one magnet
around, the north pole of one will be attracted to the south pole of
the other. So, magnetic fields go into south poles, because this is the
direction of the force on a north pole.
We can measure the direction of a magnetic field by placing a
compass in it. Compass needles are made from magnetised iron or
S steel. A compass needle has a north and a south pole. The north pole
is attracted to south poles, and repelled by other north poles. Hence,
compass needles are useful for visualising magnetic fields.
Magnetic field lines are also easy to visualise using iron filings,
FIGURE 14.5  a Iron filings align with the magnetic field around
a bar magnet; b The magnetic field lines of the bar magnet which act as tiny compass needles, as shown in Figure 14.5.
Figure 14.5a shows a bar magnet with iron filings around it. The iron
filings are ferromagnetic and become magnetised by the field of the bar magnet. Once magnetised, they
align themselves with the magnetic field. Figure 14.5b shows a field line diagram for the bar magnet.
Note that the field is stronger close to the poles of the magnet, and strongest inside the magnet.
There is a relationship between magnetism and electricity, which was discovered in 1819 by Hans
Weblink
Christian Øersted. During a lecture demonstration, he found that an electric current in a wire deflected
Magnetic field
lines a nearby compass needle. This showed that a magnetic field is created by the flow of charge, or current.
Look at the field line This observation gave physicists the first clue to how ferromagnetic materials work, but it took more
diagrams. How does
the field of a bar than another 200 years, and the development of quantum mechanics, to arrive at our current model.
magnet differ from When iron filings are placed around a current-carrying wire, as in Figure 14.6, they form loops. These
that of an electric
charge? loops show the field lines due to the current. The circular nature of these magnetic field lines was first

b
Alamy Stock Photo/sciencephotos

FIGURE 14.6  a Iron filings showing the magnetic field lines around a current-carrying wire; b Magnetic field lines as seen from
above for a current-carrying wire (current coming out of the page)

408 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 observed and published by Michael Faraday. Careful measurements by Jean-Baptise Biot and Félix Savart,
described in more detail in the next section, showed that the field lines get less dense further from the
wire. This means that the field gets weaker as you get further from the wire.
Bending a current-carrying wire changes the shape of the magnetic field lines. If a current-carrying
wire is formed into a loop (as shown in Figure 14.7a), it produces a field that is strong within the loop, and
weaker outside the loop where the field lines spread out. This field is shown in Figure 14.7b. Note that the
field also looks like that of a bar magnet, with a north and south pole.
Recall that in our discussion of ferromagnetic materials, we stated that an electron acts like a loop of
current as it orbits the nucleus. Figure 14.7c shows the magnetic field lines due to an orbiting electron. It
is these magnetic fields due to individual electrons, as well as the electron spin, that add up to give the
magnetic field of an orbiting electron. Adding up the contributions from all the electrons in a material
gives the magnetic field due to the material.

a
Science Source

b c

e2 B
v

I
B

FIGURE 14.7  a Iron filings showing the magnetic field around a single current-carrying loop of wire; b Magnetic field lines for a current loop; c Magnetic
field lines for an electron orbiting the nucleus

You can see from Figure 14.7b that the magnetic field lines within the current loop are more densely
spaced than the lines outside the loop. Hence, the field is stronger in this region. By winding a wire into
a coil, we get many current loops. This gives a much stronger field within the coil and a very weak field
outside the coil. Such a device is called a solenoid. Figure 14.8 shows the magnetic field due to a solenoid.
The loops or turns are shown loosely wound in Figure 14.8b so that you can see how the field lines due

a b
Science Photo Library/Andrew Lambert Photography

FIGURE 14.8  a Iron

Exterior filings showing the
magnetic field around
a solenoid; b Magnetic
field lines for a loosely
wound solenoid

Interior

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 409

 to the individual turns reinforce each other within the solenoid. Outside the solenoid, the fields from
adjacent turns tend to cancel, giving a weak external field.
The more turns of wire, the greater the field. In a tightly wound solenoid, the internal field lines are
straight and parallel. Outside the coil, the field lines spread out. Hence, there is a large uniform internal field
and a very small external field. The result is an extremely useful device. Remember that energy is stored as
potential energy in any field, so a solenoid is a way of storing energy in a magnetic field. Solenoids are used
in inductors, transformers, electromagnets, magnetic switches and many other applications.
Look again at all the field line drawings in Figures 14.5 to 14.8. Except where the field lines extend
beyond the edge of the diagram, you can see that they form loops. Magnetic field lines form closed loops
around currents. Magnetic field lines from permanent magnets form closed loops passing out of the
north pole, around the magnet and back into the south pole, and through the material back to the north
pole. Unlike electric charges, which can be isolated, magnetic poles always come in pairs. Hence, the field
lines always either form a closed loop or lead from a north to a south pole.
The diagrams shown in Figures 14.5 to 14.8 allow you to see a slice through the magnetic field in the
plane containing the iron filings. The field line diagrams also show the field lines in a single plane, but
remember that fields are actually three-dimensional. You can use iron filings suspended in oil to see
magnetic field lines in three dimensions.

INVESTIGATION 14.3

Critical and Visualising magnetic field lines (1)

creative thinking

AIM
To observe the magnetic field lines of some magnets in three dimensions

MATERIALS

•• Bottle of baby oil

•• Iron filings (about 15 mL)
•• A test tube that fits snugly into the neck of the bottle
•• Small magnets that fit inside the test tube (e.g. small spherical magnets, bar magnets, strips of fridge magnets)
•• Paper towel
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
The oil containing filings may be used by someone if not Dispose of the oil with filings properly, or label and
correctly disposed of, causing skin irritation and abrasions. keep in the laboratory stores.
Glassware may break and cut your hands. Always be careful using glassware and clean up any
breakages according to your teacher's instructions.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Peel the label off the bottle. Tip a little of the oil out of the bottle so that the test tube fits in. Ask your teacher
where to put this excess oil – do not pour it down the sink.
2 Add the iron filings to the oil in the bottle.
3 Insert the test tube into the neck of the bottle. It should fit snugly so oil does not seep out around it. Clean up
any spills immediately with paper towel.
4 Carefully slide the first magnet into the tube. Do not drop it in, as the tube may break.

410 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 5 Draw a diagram or take a photograph showing how the iron filings have arranged themselves in the oil. You
may need more than one diagram or photo to show the field from different angles.
6 Carefully remove the first magnet.
7 Repeat steps 4–6 using each magnet in turn.

RESULTS
You should have a collection of diagrams showing the field lines for different magnets.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Compare and contrast the fields for the different magnets.

2 Can you identify where the poles of the magnets are?
3 What indication is there of the way the field varies with distance from each magnet?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

It can be difficult to visualise magnetic fields directly, particularly for complicated arrangements
of currents. Computer simulations are useful for visualising fields. You may have used one when you
studied electric fields (chapter 12). Physicists often use simulations for modelling systems as well as for
visualisation. However, remember that a simulation is a model – it is not the real system. A simulation has
limitations, just like any other model.

INVESTIGATION 14.4

Visualising magnetic field lines (2) Critical and creative

thinking
AIM
Information and
To model the magnetic field lines of some current configurations using computer simulations communication
technology capability
MATERIALS

knilbeW
•• Computer
•• Magnetic field line simulator (see weblink for examples) Magnetic field
line simulators
METHOD Use these
simulations to
1 Follow the instructions in the magnetic field line simulator that you are using. model magnetic
field lines. Try one
2 When you have the magnetic field lines displayed, make a copy of the diagram (for example by taking a or more of them.
screen shot). Save the image.
3 Vary the magnitude and direction of the current. Record how the field changes.
4 Try using different arrangements of currents (for example, a long straight wire, two parallel wires with parallel
and antiparallel currents, a loop, a solenoid, etc.).
5 Keep records of each configuration that you examine and the resulting field lines.

RESULTS
You should have a collection of diagrams showing the field lines for different arrangements of currents.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 411

 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 What do your magnetic field models (the field line diagrams) tell you about the force that would be exerted on a
magnet at different positions?
2 What indication is there of the way the field varies with distance from each current?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Magnetic field lines are a visual model of the magnetic field.

●● Magnetic field lines show the direction of force acting on a magnetic north pole at a point. The
WS
density of the magnetic field lines is proportional to the field strength.
Worksheets
Revision
Homework
●● Magnetic field lines come out of north poles and go into south poles.
●● Magnetic field lines for magnetic fields due to currents form closed loops about the current.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Copy Figure 14.5b (page 408) in the middle of a sheet of paper. Extrapolate the field lines that are cut off at the
edges of Figure 14.5b to show their complete paths.
14.2 2 Imagine you have a source of magnetic field in an opaque
box that you cannot open. Could you tell if it was a
magnetic material or a current source inside the box?
Justify your answer.
3 Figure 14.9 shows a horseshoe magnet.
a Predict and draw the magnetic fields lines for this
magnet.
b Identify regions of strong magnetic field for this
magnet.
c Examine your field line drawing from part a. Do the
magnetic field lines form loops in this case? Explain
your answer. Modify your drawing if necessary.
4 Two current-carrying wires lie on a table in a cross. One is
aligned east–west and carries current west. The other is
aligned north–south and carries an equal current north.
a Draw the magnetic field at the surface of the desk.
b Identify any areas where the total magnetic field is S N
zero. Hint: use Figure 14.6 (page 408) to help you FIGURE 14.9  A horseshoe magnet
decide on the direction of the field for each wire.

14.3 Magnetic fields produced by current-

carrying wires and solenoids
Weblink
Øersted’s
experiment
As Øersted first observed in 1819, a current-carrying wire creates a magnetic field. This observation led
Find out about
Øersted’s experiment, to many discoveries in electromagnetism, and the development of motors, generators and many other
and try it yourself.
useful devices.

412 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 Permanent magnets, made of magnetised ferromagnetic materials, are a convenient way of producing
a small magnetic field. However, when a large field is needed, an electromagnet using a current-carrying
coil of wire is usually used.
Different current configurations can be used to create magnetic fields of different magnitudes and
different shapes.

INVESTIGATION 14.5

Investigating magnetic fields due to currents

Critical and creative
AIM thinking
Write an aim for your investigation. What is your inquiry question?

MATERIALS

•• Magnetic field meter or compass (alternatively, a smart phone with compass and magnetic field meter (EMF
meter) app installed)
•• DC power supply
•• Cardboard tube
•• Light globe of same voltage as power supply (e.g. if you are using a 12 V supply, use a 12 V globe)
•• Insulated wire (at least 2 m long)
•• Connectors (such as alligator clips)
•• Tape
•• At least 1 m of clear bench space
Note: if you have a magnetic field meter, you will be able to make quantitative measurements of field
strength. If not, you can use a compass to measure angles of deflection, which give an indication of field strength.
!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
There is a danger of electric shock. Be careful not to set the voltages and currents too high.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 If you are using a magnetic field meter or an app on your smart phone, read the instructions before you begin.
Make sure you know how to use it, and whether it needs to be aligned with the field to make measurements.
2 Measure the magnetic field strength or note the direction of the compass needle before connecting any
equipment. Write down your result.
3 Connect the length of wire to the light globe at one end and the power supply at the other. Connect the
other contact of the globe to the power supply. You now have a single loop circuit. Note: never connect the
wire alone across the power supply as it does not have enough resistance and will short-circuit the power
supply.
4 Stretch out the wire so you have some length that is well away from the power supply and the wire is straight.
You may want to tape a section to the bench.
5 Turn on the power supply. The light should glow, indicating that you have current flow. If it does not, check
your connections.
6 Measure the field around the straight length of wire, or note the compass deflection. Record how it varies
above and to the sides of the wire. Note the direction of current. Observe what happens if the direction of the
current is reversed.
7 Turn off the power supply and disconnect the wire from the power supply. Leave it connected to the light.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 413

  8 Wrap the wire around the cardboard tube to form a coil,
holding it in place with tape as necessary. Make sure you
always wrap in the same direction. Leave enough length free
to reconnect to the power supply.
 9 Connect the wire, now in a coil, to the power supply.
10 Repeat steps 6 and 7, making measurements inside the tube,
at its ends, and to the side.
11 Lay the wire back and forth on the bench, taping down as
needed (Figure 14.10).
12 Repeat steps 6 and 7.
Other arrangements of the wire can also be investigated.
FIGURE 14.10  Experimental set-up for
RESULTS measuring magnetic field due to parallel
current-carrying wires, with antiparallel currents
You should have a record of the magnetic field due to the current
in a long straight length of wire, a coil, and a flat array of wires.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Using your results, draw field line diagrams for the various current arrangements.
2 If you were able to make quantitative measurements, are there useful graphs you can use to represent your
results?

CONCLUSIONS
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire

Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart performed many experiments with magnets and current-carrying
wires. They found that for a point P some distance from a long straight current-carrying wire:
◗◗ the magnetic field is perpendicular to both the direction of the current and to a line between the
wire and P
◗◗ the magnitude of the field is inversely proportional to the distance from the wire to P, as shown in
Figure 14.11b
◗◗ the magnitude of the field is proportional to the current, as shown in Figure 14.11c.
These observations can be summarised mathematically as:
µ I
B= 0
2 πr
where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance r from a wire carrying current I. The constant
µ0 is called the permeability of free space.
µ 0 = 4 π × 10−7 T m A −1
The constant µ 0 has the same function for magnetic fields as the permittivity of free space, ε 0, has
for electric fields. It tells us the strength of a field created by a given current in vacuum, and ensures the
units of field are correct.
We can use this equation to deduce the units for magnetic field.
If:
µ I
B= 0
2 πr
then
( −1
[µ ] [ I ] T m A ( A )
[B ] = 0 =
) =T
[r ] m

414 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 b B FIGURE 14.11 
a a Measuring field
strength due to a
current-carrying wire;
b Field strength, B, as
a function of distance,
r, from a wire; c Field
strength, B, as a
function of current, I,
carried by a wire

c B

Hence, magnetic field is measured in units of T, where T is the symbol for tesla. The unit tesla was

knilbeW
named for Nikola Tesla, who did important work in electricity and magnetism. The tesla can be reduced
to fundamental units as 1 T = 1 kg s−2 A−1. Nikola Tesla
We have seen already in chapter 12 that point sources (such as a single positive or negative charge) Find out more
1 about Tesla’s
create a field that varies with 2 . A current-carrying wire is not a point source – it is a line source, and interesting life and
r 1 his contributions to
so it creates a field that varies with . science.
r

WORKED EXAMPLE 14.1

Calculate the magnetic field strength at a distance of 10 cm from a long, straight wire carrying a current
of 10 A.

ANSWER LOGIC
r = 10 cm; A = 10 A •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
r = 0.10 m •• Convert data to SI units.

µ0 I •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate the field strength to

B= current and distance.
2 πr

B=
( 4 π × 10−7 T m A −1 )(10 A ) •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.

2 π × 0.1 m
−5
= 2 × 10  T •• Calculate the answer.
−5
B = 2.0 × 10  T •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 415

 TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Find the field at distances of 20 cm, 40 cm, 60 cm, 80 cm and 1 m from the wire.
2 Plot a graph of field as a function of distance from the wire.

WS
I We have seen that current-carrying wires produce magnetic fields that form loops,
Worksheets
The right-
Homework as in Figure 14.6. We also know that field is a vector quantity, so the loops must have a
hand rule
direction. Placing compasses around a wire can tell us the direction of the field at any
point. We find that if the current is coming towards you, the direction of the field lines is
anticlockwise about the current.
A quick way to find the direction of a magnetic field due to a current is to use the ‘rule
B of thumb’ shown in Figure 14.12. Point your right thumb in the direction of the current.
r Your fingers then naturally curve in the direction of the field. Remember to use your right
hand.
When drawing field line diagrams, remember there is an infinite number of possible
FIGURE 14.12  Quick ‘rule of thumb’ magnetic field lines you can draw. Choose a sensible number, and space them so that the
for finding the direction of magnetic density of field lines is proportional to the field strength. This means that for a current-
field lines: point your right thumb in the
direction of the current and your fingers carrying wire, the distance between field lines should get bigger as you get further from
curl in the direction of the field lines the wire.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14.2

A long wire is carrying current directly upwards. Draw the magnetic field lines due to the
current as seen from above.

ANSWER LOGIC
I is upwards out of the page. •• Recall that field lines form circular loops around a current.
•• Use the ‘rule of thumb’ to find the direction of the field lines.
•• Remember that the field decreases with 1 .
r

FIGURE 14.13  Magnetic field lines due to a long,

straight current-carrying wire, with current coming
out of the page

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Draw the magnetic field lines for a long straight wire carrying current to the left.

416 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 Magnetic field due to a current-carrying solenoid
a b

Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

From Serway/Jewett, Physics for Scientists and
Engineers with Modern Physics, 9E. © 2014 Cengage
As we have seen, a current-carrying wire creates a magnetic field. If
we want to create a large field, we use lots of wires. One way to do N
this is to coil a single wire into a solenoid, or coil.
Each loop of the wire creates a magnetic field, as shown in
Figure 14.8 (page 409). Inside the coil these fields add up to give a
large and approximately uniform magnetic field. The more loops
or turns of wire, the greater the field, and the more uniform it is. In
a tightly wound solenoid, the internal field lines are straight and
S
parallel. Outside the coil, the field lines spread out. Hence, there is a
large uniform internal field and a very small external field. FIGURE 14.14  Magnetic field lines of a a solenoid and b a
Figure 14.14 compares the magnetic field lines of a short, tightly bar magnet. The solenoid has a north pole at its top.
wound coil to that of a bar magnet. Note the similarity in the field line
arrangement. As the solenoid has almost the same magnetic field as the bar magnet, we can say that
it too has a north and south pole. The poles are located at the ends of the coil.
The field inside a solenoid depends upon the current, I, that it carries and the number of loops of wire,
N, and the length, L, of the solenoid:
µ NI
B= 0
L
The more loops or turns for a given length, the greater the field.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14.3

As part of an investigation, a student winds 200 turns of wire onto a 10 cm long cardboard tube. If they
want a magnetic field of 0.002 T inside the tube, what current must flow through the coil?

ANSWER LOGIC
N = 200; L = 10 cm; B = 0.002 T; we want to find I. •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
L = 0.10 m •• Convert data to SI units.

µ 0 NI •• Identify the appropriate formula to relate the field strength to

B= the current, number of turns and coil length.
L
BL •• Rearrange for current.
I=
µ0 N
( 0.002 T )( 0.1 m ) •• Substitute known values, with units, into the formula.
I=
( 4 π × 10−7 T m A −1 )( 200 )
I = 0.796 A •• Calculate the answer.
I = 0.8 A •• State the final answer with appropriate significant figures
and units.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

What current would be needed to produce this field in the coil if:
1 the number of turns was doubled but the length kept the same?
2 the length of the coil was doubled but the number of turns stayed the same?
3 both the number of turns and the length was doubled?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 417

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Current-carrying wires produce magnetic fields.
●● Magnetic field lines form circular loops around current-carrying wires.
●● The direction of the field around a current-carrying wire can be found from the ‘rule of thumb’
(Figure 14.12).
µ0 I
●● The magnitude of the field around a current-carrying wire is given by B = .
2πr
●● A solenoid is a coil of wire. A current-carrying solenoid has a large, approximately uniform
magnetic field inside the coil, and a small magnetic field outside the coil.
µ0 NI
●● The magnitude of the field inside a solenoid is given by B = .
L

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 a Calculate the current necessary to produce a field of 0.15 T at a distance of 1.0 cm from a wire.
b What is the field at a distance of 2.0 cm from this wire?
14.3 2 The magnetic field is being measured at a distance of 1.0 cm from a long straight current-carrying wire.
a Calculate the magnetic field at this position to complete Table 14.1.

TABLE 14.1  Magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire

CURRENT (A) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
FIELD (T)

b Draw a graph to represent the data. Calculate the gradient of the graph from the graph. Explain the
significance of the gradient.
3 Two current-carrying wires lie parallel to each other on a table.
a Draw a magnetic field line diagram to represent the field due to the wires:
i  when they carry equal current in the same direction.
ii  when they carry equal current in opposite directions.
b Describe the field at a point on the table equidistant between the two wires for each of the cases
described in part a.
4 Describe the features of the magnetic field due to a current-carrying solenoid.
5 A student wishes to make a solenoid capable of producing a magnetic field of 0.01 T with a current of no
more than 2 A. The student has a tube with a radius of 1.5 cm and a length of 15 cm. Calculate the length of
wire needed if the student winds it along the entire length of the tube.

14.4 Magnetisation: making magnets

If you stroke a steel pin with a strong magnet, it will line up the magnetic fields in the iron in the steel.
The pin then becomes magnetised and can be used as a compass needle, and can also be used to pick
up other pins.

418 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 14.6

Making magnets Critical and creative

thinking
AIM
To magnetise a nail by exposing it to the magnetic field of a strong magnet
Read the method below, and then write a hypothesis for this investigation.

MATERIALS

•• Strong magnet
•• Steel nail
•• Small steel paper clips (or steel pins with a pincushion)
•• Container for paper clips or pins
Note: not all metal nails or paper clips are ferromagnetic. You may need to try a few different sorts. Steel pins
are generally ferromagnetic and lighter than paper clips, but are sharp and easily lost.
!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
Pins are sharp and easily lost. Use a pincushion to store pins, and always put them back ASSESSMENT
immediately.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD
Note: do not put your pins close to the magnet. You need to control their exposure to the magnetic field.
1 Before you begin magnetising your nail, check that the pins are not attracted to it.
2 Stroke the nail with the permanent magnet, once. Note which way the magnet was held, and which direction
you moved it relative to the nail.
3 Hold the magnetised nail just above the container of un-magnetised pins. Count how many pins the
magnetised nail picks up. Note whether all the pins picked up are directly touching the magnetised nail.
4 Remove the pins from your magnetised nail and set them aside.
5 Repeat steps 2–4, always stroking the nail in the same direction.

RESULTS
Make a table recording how many pins were picked up each time. Draw diagrams showing any interesting results,
such as pins forming a chain attached to the nail.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Can you identify a relationship between the number of times the nail was stroked and the number of pins
picked up?

DISCUSSION

1 State whether your results agreed with your hypothesis.

2 Explain how it is possible for a chain of pins to form from the nail. Describe what is happening to the pins.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 419

 Many materials will be magnetised while they are within a magnetic field, but they lose their
magnetisation when they are removed from the field.
Weblink A permanent magnet is a magnetic material that maintains its magnetic field after being magnetised.
How are
magnets made? Permanent magnets are made by taking a ferromagnetic material and placing it in a large magnetic
You can read field. The material may be a metal alloy such as aluminium–nickel–cobalt (Alnico) or neodymium–
about the magnet
manufacturing iron–boron, or a ceramic such as barium ferrite or strontium ferrite. The magnet is usually made by
process at these sites.
compressing the powdered material into the desired shape, and then a solenoid, which creates a large
magnetic field, magnetises the material.
A ferromagnet that has not been magnetised and is not in a magnetic field does not produce a
magnetic field of its own. The tiny magnetic fields due to individual electrons line up in very tiny
regions called domains, but the fields due to different domains do not line up. So, on average, the
domain fields add up to give zero net field.
However, when you put a ferromagnet in a magnetic field, this applied field makes some of the electron
fields line up with it. Domains where the internal field is aligned with the applied field get bigger. Domains
where the internal field is not aligned get smaller as the electron fields rotate to line up with the external
field. The larger the external field, the more domains line up with it and the bigger these domains get. So, the
bigger the external field, the bigger the field that is produced by the material. This is shown in Figure 14.15.
If the applied field is large enough, then every unpaired electron will have its magnetic field aligned
with the external field. This is called saturation magnetisation. At this point, the ferromagnet is producing
its largest possible magnetic field.

a b c

From Serway/Jewett, Physics for

Scientists and Engineers with
Modern Physics, 9E. © 2014 Cengage
S
B
S
dA
➝ ➝
B B

FIGURE 14.15  a An un-magnetised ferromagnet will have small domains in which the magnetic fields due to individual atoms line up, but on
average the fields all cancel out. b When subject to a magnetic field, the fields due to individual atoms start to line up, and the domains get bigger.
The material starts to have its own magnetic field – it is magnetised. c A larger external field causes more domains to line up, and the material
becomes more strongly magnetised.

When the ferromagnet is removed from the applied field, then its magnetisation typically decreases
as some domains becomes un-aligned. This happens because of internal energy. All the particles are
vibrating and moving about (see chapter 11). The higher the temperature, the more internal energy,
Weblink
and the more the particles jiggle about. The more the particles jiggle about, the more random the
Electromagnets
arrangement of their magnetic fields becomes. The more random the arrangement of fields, the lower the
Follow the instructions
to make your own total magnetic field, and the lower the magnetisation. However, for a ferromagnet at low temperature,
electromagnet.
the arrangement does not become completely random.
The lower the temperature is, the less the magnetisation is lost. The magnetisation does not return
to its initial zero state – there is a residual magnetisation. This means the ferromagnet continues to
produce its own magnetic field – it is magnetised, and hence is a magnet. How well the material remains
magnetised depends on what it is made of and how large the magnetising field was.
Thin, flat fridge magnets, such as those often used for advertising, have domains running in strips
along the length or width of the magnet. If you get two fridge magnets and put them with their magnetic
sides together, and then slide them against each other, it will feel like their surfaces are rippled. However,
when you feel the surfaces of the fridge magnets with your fingers, they feel smooth. The sensation of
rippling comes from the north pole and south pole domains on the two magnets lining up and attracting,
and then, as you slide them, the north pole domains line up with north pole domains and repel each other.

420 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Ferromagnetic materials have their internal magnetic fields aligned within small domains.
●● Ferromagnets can be magnetised by placing them in magnetic fields. Solenoids are used to create
the large magnetic fields used for manufacturing magnets. The applied magnetic field pulls the
magnetic fields of the individual domains into alignment. When the applied field is removed,
some domains remain aligned and the material is magnetised.
●● Saturation magnetisation is when all domains are fully aligned with the applied field. Residual
magnetisation is the remaining magnetisation when the applied field is removed.
●● A steel nail or pin can be magnetised by stroking it with a strong magnet.

CHECK YOUR
1 Define ‘saturation magnetisation’ and ‘residual magnetisation’. UNDERSTANDING
2 Describe how you could make a compass using a magnet, a steel pin and a length of thread.
3 Which would be more useful for manufacturing magnets: a material with high residual magnetisation, or one 14.4
with low residual magnetisation? Justify your answer.
4 Recall what you learned about thermodynamics in chapter 11. Explain how increasing the temperature of a
magnet can decrease its magnetisation.

14.5 Modelling magnetic fields

We have seen that magnetic fields can be modelled in various ways.
Field lines are a way of modelling and visualising a magnetic field. The arrows on field lines represent the
direction of the magnetic field at various points in space. The arrows show the direction of the force exerted
on a north magnetic pole by the field. The spacing between the lines gives an indication of the strength of
the field. Remember that field lines (electric, magnetic or gravitational) do not show the trajectory of a
particle – they show the direction of the force at a point. When you draw field lines, you have a choice of
how many lines you draw. Field lines do not physically exist – they are a way of modelling the field.
We have also used a conceptual model of the electron as a charged particle travelling in a circular
path, and with its own magnetic field due to its spin. We used this model to help us understand magnetic
materials, in particular, ferromagnets. This model gives us useful predictive and explanatory power, but
again it is a model – not the physical reality. Like all models, it is limited. For example, it does not offer any
explanation for why an electron should have its own magnetic field. You will meet more sophisticated
models of electrons when you study quantum mechanics in Physics in Focus Year 12.
Another way of modelling magnetic fields is mathematically – using equations to describe the field.
Two mathematical models have been introduced in this chapter.
First, we introduced a mathematical model for the magnetic field due to a long straight current-
carrying wire. This model assumes that the wire is very long, so that the effects of the ends of the wire
can be ignored. This works well when the point at which the field is to be calculated is very close to the
wire compared to the length of the wire, and is not close to either end. However, for short lengths of wire,
this model is not as accurate.
The second model introduced was for a current-carrying solenoid. Again, this model makes
assumptions and approximations. We make the approximation that the field is constant inside the
solenoid, which is based on the assumption that the solenoid is long compared to its radius, and that it
is tightly wound.
Mathematical models are common in physics. They are particularly valuable because they allow us
to make quantitative, testable predictions. In Investigation 14.7, you can compare the predictions for the
mathematical model of the field inside a solenoid to your own measurements.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 421

 INVESTIGATION 14.7

Critical and Measuring the field inside a solenoid

creative thinking
AIM
Numeracy Write a hypothesis for this investigation based on the mathematical model of the magnetic field inside a solenoid.

MATERIALS

•• Hollow solenoid with a known (large) number of turns

•• Variable DC power supply
•• Ammeter
•• Magnetic field meter with probe
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT Electricity can cause shocks. Use only low voltages and currents.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Connect the solenoid and ammeter to the power supply in a series circuit as shown in Figure 14.16.

FIGURE 14.16 
Series circuit with
ammeter and coil
connected to power
supply

2 Before you turn on the power supply, measure the magnetic field inside the solenoid. Record your
measurement. Note the position of the meter probe – you will need to keep the meter at the same position
for consistent results.
3 Turn on the power supply to a low voltage.
4 Record the magnetic field inside the solenoid. Record the current through the solenoid (the ammeter reading).
5 Increase the voltage from the power supply.
6 Repeat steps 4 and 5 until you have at least six data points.
7 With the current constant, slowly move the magnetic field meter probe around inside the solenoid. Note
whether the reading changes.

422 MODULE THREE » WAVES AND THERMODYNAMICS 9780170409063

 RESULTS

1 Construct a table containing your measured data for current and field. Remember to include units and
uncertainties. You may need to consult the manuals for the magnetic field meter and the ammeter to find
their precision.
2 Draw a large diagram of the solenoid, and show on it how the field varied with position inside the coil,
particularly near the ends.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Plot a graph of magnetic field as a function of current. Draw a line of best fit on your graph and find the
vertical axis intercept and the gradient.
µ NI
2 Does your data match the predictions of the mathematical model B = 0 for the intercept and gradient?
L
3 How close to constant was the magnetic field inside the solenoid?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation
including an evaluation of the mathematical model of the magnetic field inside a solenoid.

Mathematical models use equations that can be solved analytically or numerically. When you solve an
equation analytically, you perform mathematical operations to rearrange it until you have an expression
for the variable you are interested in. You may then substitute in values for a particular case to calculate
the parameter you are interested in.
However, some equations are very difficult, or time consuming, or even impossible to solve.
Sometimes we want to calculate so many values that doing it manually would take too long. In these
cases, we use numerical methods and create numerical models. As we generally use a computer for this,
they are often referred to as computational models or computational simulations. Physicists often use
numerical methods and create computational simulations of complex systems. Sometimes these are
written in specialised mathematical software languages, but common spreadsheet software can be used
for simple simulations.

INVESTIGATION 14.8

Modelling the magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire

Critical and creative
thinking
AIM
µ I
To model the magnetic field of a long current-carrying wire using the equation B = 0 and spreadsheet
software 2 πr Numeracy

MATERIALS Information and

communication
•• Computer with suitable spreadsheet software (Note: the instructions given here are for Microsoft Excel and technology capability

may need to be modified for other spreadsheet software)

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 423

 METHOD

1 Open a worksheet in your spreadsheet software, and add a title at the top. Save the spreadsheet with a
filename that you will remember.
2 Enter the data that will remain constant in cells near the top. Enter labels in the cells above so you know what
each piece of data refers to (see Figure 14.17).
3 Create a set of data for the distance, r:
• Write the title, r, in a cell and put the first value you want to use in the cell below.
• Create a column of distance data as long as you want by entering in an appropriate formula into the cell
below, and then copying it into a number of cells below. For example, in Figure 14.17, the first data point
for r is in cell A7. Cell A8 has the formula ‘=A7+0.0005’. A8 was then copied into 100 cells in the column
below A8.
4 Calculate the magnetic field data:
• Write the title ‘B’ in the cell next to the ‘r’ title cell.
• In the cell below, enter an appropriate formula to calculate the magnetic field. This formula will need to
Other refer to the cells that contain the values for µo and I, as well as the data for r. For the example shown in
mathematical Figure 14.17, the formula used is ‘=($A$4*$B$4)/(2*3.142*A7)’ in cell B7. Note the use of $ signs in front of
equations can
also be modelled the cell references for the constant data. These $ signs tell the software not to change these references if
in this way, such you copy this cell.
as the equation
for magnetic field • Copy the formula into the cells below, to the same number of cells as you have for r.
inside a solenoid, 5 Visualise your simulation results:
µ NI
B= 0 . • Create a scatter plot of the magnetic field as a function of distance.
L
• Adjust the axes to give appropriate scales.
• Give your plot a descriptive title and label the axes.

A B C D E F G H I J
1 Magnetic field simulation
2
3 µ(0) ( T.m/A) I (A)
Magnetic field of a current-carrying wire
4 1.2568E-06 10
0.002
5
6 r (m) B (T)
0.0015
Magnetic field (T)

7 0.001 0.002
8 0.0015 0.00133333
9 0.002 0.001 0.001
10 0.0025 0.0008
11 0.003 0.00066667 0.0005
12 0.0035 0.00057143
13 0.004 0.0005 0
14 0.0045 0.00044444 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
15 0.005 0.0004 Distance from wire (m)
16 0.0055 0.00036364

FIGURE 14.17  Spreadsheet simulation of magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire

6 Exploring your simulation:

• Change the value for the current. Try increasing it and decreasing it. Keep copies of the different graphs
(for example, by making a copy of the sheet within the same file before making each change).
• Change the starting value of the distance, and the amount by which it increases as you go down your
r data column.

424 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

 RESULTS

knilbeW
Your results are the data you have created and the graphs.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Excel

spreadsheet
1 Does your graph show what you expect based on the equation? for magnetic
fields
2 What happens when you change the different variables? The spreadsheet for
this investigation,
3 How could you extend this investigation? with extension
sheets, can be
CONCLUSION found here.

Write a short conclusion summarising your findings.

KEY CONCEPTS

●● Physicists use a range of models including conceptual, mathematical and numerical models.
Numerical models are based on mathematical models.
●● Magnetic fields can be described using all these types of models. Field lines are a conceptual
model. The equations for magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire and inside a current-
carrying solenoid are mathematical models. Computational simulations (numerical models) can
be created using these mathematical models and spreadsheet software.

CHECK YOUR
1 Distinguish between conceptual, mathematical and numerical models. UNDERSTANDING
2 Apply your conceptual model for magnetic fields to the field line model to explain why field lines never cross.
3 Describe three models you have previously used in your physics studies. Classify them as conceptual or 14.5
mathematical.
4 Describe one or more approximations typically made when solving problems involving motion in physics.
When are they reasonable? When should they not be made?
µ I
5 The mathematical model for the magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire says that B = 0 .
2πr
a What does this model predict the field to be inside the wire? Is this physically reasonable?
b For what values of r is this model appropriate?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 425

 14   CHAPTER SUMMARY
•• Magnetic fields are created by moving charges and current- field outside the coil. The magnitude of the field inside the
carrying wires. µ NI
coil is given by B = 0 .
•• Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetised. L
Magnetised materials create magnetic fields. The magnetic •• Ferromagnets can be magnetised by placing them in
fields are due to the motion of the electrons in the material. magnetic fields. Solenoids are used to create the large
•• Magnetic field lines are a visual model of the magnetic field. magnetic fields used for manufacturing magnets. The
They show the direction of force acting on a magnetic north applied magnetic field pulls the magnetic fields of the
pole. The density of the magnetic field lines is proportional to individual domains into alignment. When the applied field is
the field strength. removed, some domains remain aligned and the material is
magnetised.
•• Magnetic field lines come out of north poles and go into
south poles. Magnetic field lines form circular loops around •• Physicists use a range of models including conceptual,
current-carrying wires. mathematical and numerical models. Numerical models are
based on mathematical models.
•• The direction of the field around a wire can be found from
the ‘rule of thumb’ (using your right hand, point your thumb •• Magnetic fields can be described using all these types of
in the direction of the current then your fingers will curl models. Field lines are a conceptual model. The equations
in the direction of the field). The magnitude of the field is for magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire and inside
µ I a current-carrying solenoid are mathematical models.
given by B = 0 . Computer simulations (numerical models) can be created
2πr
using these mathematical models and spreadsheet
•• A current-carrying solenoid has a large, approximately
software.
uniform magnetic field inside the coil, and a small magnetic

14   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 List the two sources of magnetic fields. b Are there any points in Figure 14.18 where the magnetic
field is zero? If so, where?
2 Define ‘magnetic domain’. Draw a diagram to help
explain your answer. 7 Describe how magnetic field strength varies with distance
from a long straight current-carrying wire.
3 Describe how you could test whether a material was
ferromagnetic. 8 What are the units of the constant µ0? Write these units in
fundamental units.
4 Describe how you could test whether a ferromagnetic
material was magnetised. 9 Explain why most materials are not magnetic. In what ways
are ferromagnets different?
5 Draw the magnetic field of a bar magnet, showing the
north and south poles of the magnet. 10 Draw the magnetic field lines due to a wire carrying current
directly downwards, as seen from above.
6 Figure 14.18 shows two bar magnets placed with their
north ends together. 11 A current-carrying wire lies in a north–south line. A small
a Draw the magnetic field lines associated with this magnetic compass needle is placed beneath the wire.
arrangement. a Predict what will happen to the compass needle when
the current in the wire flows:
i from north to south.
ii from south to north.
S N N S
b If the compass were placed above the wire, what
difference would it make to the direction in which the
FIGURE 14.18
compass needle pointed?

426 CHAPTER FOUR

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063
 12 A small magnetic b Predict the effect on the
compass needle is placed magnetic field within the
at the centre of a single solenoid of:
loop of wire that carries i increasing the current in
an electric current of 2 A, N the solenoid.
as shown in Figure 14.19.
ii reversing the direction FIGURE 14.20
The loop has a radius of
of the current in the
2.0 cm. The plane of the FIGURE 14.19
solenoid.
coil is vertical and east–
west. The magnitude of the magnetic field of the loop is iii increasing the number of turns of wire in the solenoid
much greater than Earth’s magnetic field at this location. without changing the length of the solenoid.
a In which direction will the north pole of the compass 17 Calculate the magnetic field inside a 20 cm long solenoid
needle point? with 500 turns when it carries a current of 2.0 A.
b If the direction of the current in the wire is reversed, in 18 A 15 cm long solenoid produces a magnetic field of 0.015 T
which direction will the compass needle now point? when carrying a current of 1.0 A. Calculate the number of
13 Calculate the magnetic field a distance 5.0 cm from a wire turns, N, for this solenoid.
carrying a current of 0.5 A. 19 A solenoid has an internal magnetic field of 0.10 T. Predict
14 Calculate the distance from a wire carrying a current of 15 A the effect on the field when:
at which the field is 1.0 mT. a the current through the solenoid is doubled.
15 Calculate the current necessary in a long straight wire to b the radius of the solenoid is doubled without changing
produce a magnetic field of 50 μT, approximately that due the number of turns.
to Earth, at a distance of 1 cm. c the length of the solenoid is doubled without changing
the number of turns.
16 Figure 14.20 shows a solenoid that carries a current in the
direction as shown in the diagram. 20 Compare and contrast electric and magnetic fields.
a Copy the diagram and carefully draw the magnetic field
of the solenoid.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 427

 MODULE 4  : ELECTRICITY AND
» END-OF-MODULE REVIEW
MAGNETISM

1 Chen is conducting an experiment on electric charge. c For how long could this battery produce a current of
He rubs a comb with a woollen cloth, and finds that the 0.5 A?
comb is then able to pick up polystyrene beads. Beads d A length of wire is connected across the terminals
that come into contact with the comb become charged. of the battery. Describe how changing each of the
a Explain how the comb becomes charged by rubbing following characteristics of the wire would affect the
with the cloth. length of time before the battery became flat.
b Explain how the charged comb is able to pick up i the length of the wire
neutral beads. Draw a diagram. ii the diameter of the wire
c After the experiment, two beads (A and B) are found to
repel each other, but each will attract a third bead (C). 6 A circuit is shown in Figure 14.21. The battery supplies a
What can you deduce about the sign of charge on the potential difference of 3 V. Model the globes as identical
three beads? resistors with resistance 5 Ω each when they are turned on.

2 A Van de Graaff generator has been charged so that its 1 2

25 cm radius dome has a charge of 0.10 C. The dome is
spherical, so it produces a field the same as that of a point
charge located at the centre of the dome.
a Draw a field line diagram for the dome.
b Calculate the electric field at a distance of 10 cm from
the surface of the dome.
c Calculate the force experienced by a small object with
charge +1.0 nC at this position.
d Sketch the force acting on this object as a function of
distance from the dome.

3 A Van de Graaff generator has been charged so that

its dome has a positive charge. A positively charged FIGURE 14.21  A circuit
polystyrene bead is placed close to the dome.
a If allowed to move, will the bead accelerate towards or a Draw a circuit diagram for the circuit shown in
away from the dome? Figure 14.21.
b Does the potential energy of the dome–bead system b Calculate the voltage across and current through each
increase or decrease as it accelerates? globe.
c Does the bead move in the direction of increasing or c Calculate the power used by each globe.
decreasing potential?
d The globes are disconnected and then reconnected in
d Repeat parts a–c for a negatively charged bead. series. Repeat parts a–c for this case.
4 A pair of parallel plates is used to create a uniform electric e In which case would the battery be drained faster?
field. The potential difference between the plates is 12 V, Justify your answer.
and the plates are spaced 1.0 cm apart.
7 A student measures the voltage–current characteristics for
a Draw a field line diagram for this arrangement. a component, as shown in Table 14.2.
b Draw equipotential lines for this arrangement. a Draw a graph showing the I–V characteristics of this
c Calculate the electric field between the plates. component.
b Is this component ohmic or non-ohmic? Explain your
5 A 1.5 V rechargeable battery is rated at 2000 mAh.
answer.
a How much potential energy does each electron gain as
c Calculate the resistance of this component.
it flows through the battery?
d Explain the difference between a positive and a
b How many electrons in total can flow through the
negative current.
battery before it is ‘flat’?

428 MODULE FOUR » ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9780170409063

TABLE 14.2

V (V) −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
I (mA) −12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

8 Materials can be classified by how they respond to 10 A 50 m length of wire is initially laid out straight. It carries a
magnetic fields. current of 1.0 A.
a Define ‘ferromagnetic’. a Calculate the magnetic field at a distance of 2.0 cm
b Describe how a ferromagnetic material behaves in a from the wire.
magnetic field. Include a diagram showing magnetic b Sketch a graph of the magnetic field as a function of
domains in your answer. distance from the wire.
c Describe how a ferromagnetic material can be used to The wire is now coiled into a solenoid (coil) of length 20 cm
make a permanent magnet. and radius 2.0 cm.
c Calculate the number of loops in the coil.
9 Magnetic field lines are used to visualise magnetic fields.
d Calculate the magnetic field in the centre of the coil.
a In what ways are magnetic field lines similar to electric
field lines, and in what ways are they different? e Sketch a graph of the magnetic field as a function of
radial position within the coil.
b Draw a magnetic field line diagram for a bar magnet.
c Draw a magnetic field line diagram for a length of
current-carrying wire. Show the direction of the current
and the field lines.
d Draw a magnetic field line diagram for a single loop
of current. Show the direction of the current and the
field lines.

▻ Make a fluid model of a circuit using a pump and pipes.

▻ Conduct a literature review and find out how semiconductor materials work.

▻ Measure I–V characteristics for various components, such as resistors, globes, diodes, LEDs and motors.

▻ Extend Investigation 13.1 (pages 371–3) to look at variation of current with area, or with type of metal.

▻ Investigate more complex resistive circuits, including combinations of series and parallel resistors.

▻ Build a circuit that performs a useful task.

▻ Research Earth’s electric and magnetic fields.

▻ Research animals that are sensitive to electric or magnetic fields.

▻ Conduct an energy audit of your home or school, or find out more about how the electricity is produced.

▻ Measure the magnetic field in different places, and around different devices.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 14 » MAGNETISM 429

 APPENDICES
Appendix 1: SI and non-SI units
International System of Units (SI)
The international body that decides the appropriate units to be used for the various physical quantities is
the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM). The system of units approved by the CGPM and now
widely used by the scientific community throughout the world is known as Système International d’Unités
(abbreviated SI).
In your experimental work you should use SI units (or their multiples or submultiples).
The SI consists of seven base units and two supplementary units. All other derived units are based on
these nine fundamental units.
The base and supplementary units, together with the derived units with special names that might be
relevant to your experimental work, are listed in Tables A1.1 and A1.2.

TABLE A1.1  SI base units

PHYSICAL QUANTITY NAME OF UNIT ABBREVIATION

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric current ampere A

Thermodynamic kelvin K
temperature

Luminous intensity candela cd

Amount of substance mole mol

As you become familiar with each new unit you should make a practice of correctly using its abbreviated
form.
The internationally recognised prefixes for the SI units together with their abbreviations are given in
Table A1.3.

TABLE A1.2 SI supplementary units derived from SI base units

SI BASE UNIT
NAME SYMBOL QUANTITY EQUIVALENTS EQUIVALENTS

hertz Hz frequency 1/s s−1

radian rad angle m/m dimensionless

2 2
steradian sr solid angle m /m dimensionless

newton N force, weight kg m/s2 kg m s−2

pascal Pa pressure, stress N/m2 kg m−1 s−2

joule J energy, work, heat Nm kg m2 s−2

watt W power, radiant flux J/s kg m2 s−3

coulomb C quantity of electric charge As As

430 APPENDICES 9780170409063

 SI BASE UNIT
NAME SYMBOL QUANTITY EQUIVALENTS EQUIVALENTS

volt V electromotive force, electrical potential J/C kg m2 s−3 A−1

difference, electric potential voltage

farad F electrical capacitance C/V kg−1 m−2 s4 A2

s/V

ohm V electrical resistance, impedance, V/A kg m2 s−3 A−2

reactance

siemens S electrical conductance 1/V kg−1 m−2 s3 A2

A/V

weber Wb magnetic flux J/A kg m2 s−2 A−1

tesla T magnetic field strength, magnetic flux V s/m2 kg s−2 A−1

density Wb/m2
N/(A m)

degree °C temperature relative to 273.15 K K − 273.15 K − 273.15

Celsius

lumen lm luminous flux cd sr cd

lux lx illuminance lm/m2 m−2 cd

becquerel Bq radioactivity (decays per unit time) 1/s s−1

gray Gy absorbed dose (of ionising radiation) J/kg m2 s−2

sievert Sv equivalent dose (of ionising radiation) J/kg m2 s−2

TABLE A1.3 Prefixes for SI units

PREFIX ABBREVIATION VALUE

exa E 1018

peta P 1015

tera T 1012

giga G 109

mega M 106

kilo k 103

hecto h 102

deka da 10

deci d 10−1

centi c 10−2

milli m 10−3

micro μ 10−6

nano n 10−9

pico p 10−12

femto f 10−15

atto a 10−18

9780170409063 APPENDICES 431

 Non-SI units
A number of non-SI units are still in use in scientific literature for a variety of reasons. Some of these are being
phased out, but others are likely to remain in use. The more common non-SI units that you might come
across are listed in Table A1.4.

TABLE A1.4 Non-SI units

PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT ABBREVIATION CONVERSION TO SI UNITS

time minute min 60 s

hour h 3.6 × 103 s
day d 8.64 × 104 s
year y 3.156 × 107 s

mass unified mass unit u 1.661 × 10−27 kg

tonne t 1000 kg

angle degree ° dimensionless

energy electron-volt eV 1.602 × 10−19 J

kilowatt hour kW h 3.60 × 103 J

pressure millimetre of mercury mmHg 133.3 Pa

charge elementary or electronic e 1.602 × 10−19 C

charge

source activity curie Ci 3.7 × 1010 Bq

radiation
absorbed dose rad rad 0.01 Gy
equivalent dose rem rem 0.01 Sv

Using SI units
There are certain conventions now adopted widely in scientific literature when SI units are being used. Some
of the more important ones are given below.

1 When recording a measurement, write the unit in full or use the recommended abbreviation
(e.g. 25 metre or 25 m). Using abbreviations save space and time. Notice the space between the numeral
and the unit.
2 SI units named after scientists:
a If the full word is used, it starts with a lower case letter (e.g. 10 newton, 7 joule, 105 pascal, 50 hertz)
b If the abbreviation is used, it is (or at least commences with) a capital letter (e.g. 10 N, 7 J, 105 Pa, 50 Hz).
c Measurements are written as products. ‘3 kg’ means ‘the product of 3 and the mass known as a
kilogram’, just as ‘3x’ in maths means the product of 3 and x. Therefore ‘s’ is not added to units (e.g. 5 kg
not 5 kgs).
d A full-stop is not placed after the abbreviation of a unit, unless it is at the end of a sentence.
e When units are combined as a quotient (e.g. metre per second), a solidus (/) or negative index may be
used. So m/s or m s−1 are both acceptable, though the latter is used more widely. Never use more than
one solidus in a unit as in m/s/s for acceleration, which should be m/s2 or m s−2. It is ambiguous, just
as writing 36/6/3 in maths is ambiguous. (This could mean 2 or 18.)

Weblink Converting between units

Converting Treat the unit as a multiplier. Use the prefixes in Table A1.3 also as multipliers. For example, 4 kg is the same as:
between units
Learn more about 4 × k × g = 4 × 1000 × g = 4000 g
converting between
units.
There are 4000 g in 4 kg.
1500 cm is the same as 1500 × (10−2 m) = 15 m.

432 APPENDICES 9780170409063

 Appendix 2: Some important physical quantities
From time to time you will need to find a value of a physical property from a reputable source. These might
include finding: Weblink

NIST physical
•• the value of a physical constant, such as Newton’s universal gravitational constant or the electric constant. reference data
•• a physical property, such as boiling point or refractive index, which is characteristic of a particular material. The National Institute
of Standards and
•• a conversion factor such as micrometres to metres, electron-volt to joule, unified mass unit to kilogram. Technology (NIST)
provides a wide range
All physical quantities, including physical constants, are measured to very precise levels of accuracy. of data, including
Standard reference
Some important physical quantities, including some physical constants, are listed alphabetically in data (SRF). For
example, click on
Table A2.1. They are given to four significant figures. The uncertainty in most of these figures is better than ‘Other NIST Data’
six-figure accuracy. They are taken from sources such as the National Institute of Science and Technology to enter the NIST
Gateway.
(NIST). NIST is a specialist organisation dedicated to metrology (study of measurement).

TABLE A2.1 Physical constants, physical measures and conversion factors

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS Weblink

Avogadro constant, NA 23
6.022 × 10 mol −1 NIST physical
element
laboratory
1 8.988 × 109 N m2 C−2 This website provides
Coulomb law constant,
4 πω 0 atomic and nuclear
data for every
element.
Universal gravitation constant, G 6.674 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2

Permittivity of free space electric constant, ε0 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1

Permeability of free space magnetic constant, µ0 4π × 10−7 H m−1 = 12.57 × 10−7 H m−1

Planck constant, h 6.626 × 10−34 J s = 4.136 × 10−15 eV s

Speed of electromagnetic radiation in free space, c 2.998 × 108 m s−1

PHYSICAL MEASURES

Mass of electron 9.109 × 10−31 kg = 5.486 × 104 u

Mass of proton 1.6726 × 10−27 kg

Mass of neutron 1.6749 × 10−27 kg

Rydberg constant (for hydrogen), RH 1.097 × 107 m−1

Gravitational field strength at Earth’s surface), g (9.80 +/− 0.3) N kg−1

Acceleration due to gravity at Earth’s surface, g (9.80 +/− 0.3) m s−2

Mass of Earth 5.976 × 1024 kg

Mass of Moon 7.348 × 1022 kg

Mass of Sun 1.989 × 1030 kg

Period of rotation of Earth 8.616 × 104 s

Radius of Earth (equatorial) 6.378 × 106 m

Radius of Earth (mean) 6.371 × 106 m

Radius of Earth’s orbit about Sun (mean) 1.496 × 1011 m

Radius of Moon’s orbit around Earth (mean) 3.844 × 108 m

Radius of Sun 6.960 × 108 m

Solar constant (mean) 1.370 × 103 W m−2

9780170409063 APPENDICES 433

 PHYSICAL MEASURES

Density of water (pressure and temperature dependent) 9.982 × 103 kg m−3

Air density (pressure and temperature dependent) 1.292 × 103 kg m−3

Air pressure (temperature dependent) 1.013 × 105 Pa

Speed of sound in air at 0°C 331.4 m s−1

CONVERSION FACTORS

Absolute zero, 0 K −273.15°C

Unified mass unit, u 1.661 × 10−27 kg = 931.5 MeV

Electron-volt, eV 1.602 × 10−19 J

Elementary electron charge, e 1.602 × 10−19 C

Coulomb 6.242 × 1018 elementary charges

Appendix 3: Electric and electronic symbols

TABLE A3.1 Electric and electronic symbols

COMPONENT COMPONENT
GROUP COMPONENT SYMBOL GROUP COMPONENT SYMBOL

Sources of Cell Variable

emf 1 resistor
2

Battery,
DC power Light-
supply dependent
resistor (LDR)

Variable DC
power supply Filament globe

AC power
Thermistor
supply

Resistance Resistor

Fuse

Rheostat,
resistor with or
sliding contact,
potentiometer,
voltage divider Capacitance (Non-polarised)
capacitor
or

Variable
capacitor

434 APPENDICES 9780170409063

 COMPONENT COMPONENT
GROUP COMPONENT SYMBOL GROUP COMPONENT SYMBOL

Polarised Cathode ray

capacitor, oscilloscope

1
CRO
electrolytic (CRO)
capacitor

Transformer Iron-cored Amplifiers Voltage

transformer amplifier
(one secondary
Operational 1
winding)
amplifier (op 2
amp)
Diodes Junction diode
Transducers Motor
Zener diode

Photodiode
Microphone

Light-emitting
diode (LED)
Loudspeaker

Four-diode
bridge

External Earth
connections

Meters Ammeter Circuit Non-connected

A
connections leads

Voltmeter Connected
V
leads

Galvanometer or

Appendix 4: Resistance codes

First Second Number Tolerance
A resistor is a physical object or circuit element that digit digit of zeros
has resistance. The resistance of an actual, physical
resistor is indicated in one of two ways:
•• a colour code: a set of stripes on the resistor to
indicate the resistance and the tolerance or A B C D
uncertainty in the value
•• a number–letter code: numbers with a letter to
FIGURE A4.1  A resistor marked with four coloured bands
mark the decimal point.

Resistance colour code

The resistor is marked with three or four colour
bands painted on the resistor near one end as shown
A B C
in Figures A4.1 and A4.2.

FIGURE A4.2  A resistor marked with three coloured bands

9780170409063 APPENDICES 435

 The colour of band A nearest the end is the first The fourth band from the end indicates
digit in the resistance value. The colour of band B the tolerance or percentage uncertainty in the
represents the second digit. The colour of band C resistance value (Table A4.2).
gives the number of zeros to follow these two digits
(Table A4.1).
TABLE A4.2 Colour code for tolerances of resistors

TOLERANCE (%) COLOUR

TABLE A4.1 Colour code for digits
1 Brown
DIGIT COLOUR
2 Red
0 Black
5 Gold
1 Brown
10 Silver
2 Red
20 No band D shown
3 Orange

4 Yellow
If you hold the resistor so the stripes are on the
5 Green left, you may find it easier to work out the resistance
6 Blue and the tolerance. If there are only three stripes,
7 Violet
that is there is no tolerance band, the percentage
uncertainty is 20%.
8 Grey
Figure A4.3 summarises the colour code details.
9 White

Colour Value Value Multiply by Tolerance

Black 0 0 1 Red = +/−2%
Brown 1 1 10 Gold = +/−5%
1 2 3 4 Red 2 2 100 Silver = +/−10%
Orange 3 3 1000 No band = +/−20%
Yellow 4 4 10 000 This gives the
Green 5 5 100 000 maximum error in
Blue 6 6 1 000 000 the value of the
resistor.
Violet 7 7 not
Grey 8 8 used
White 9 9

FIGURE A4.3  Summary of resistance colour code system

Examples
Stripe (reading from the stripe nearest to the end):
•• A–B–C: yellow (4), violet (7), orange (1000), gold (±5) ⇒ (47 000 ± 5%) Ω% or (47 ± 3) kΩ
•• A–B–C–D: orange (3), white (9), brown (10), silver (±10%) ⇒ (390 ± 10%) Ω or (390 ± 39) Ω
•• A–B–C: brown (1), green (5), black (1) and no fourth colour ⇒ (15 ± 20%) Ω or (15 ± 3) Ω

Resistance number–letter codes

In this system, which is often used on circuit diagrams, the numeral may have a letter in front of, behind or
between the digits. The resistance is given to two significant figures. The letters R, K and M are used as multipliers:
R for ‘1’, K for ‘×103’ or M for ‘×106’. The letters R, K or M are used to show where the decimal point goes.

436 APPENDICES 9780170409063

 Tolerances are given letter codes at the end
(Table A4.3). Examples
•• 2R5J ⇒ 2.5 Ω (2.5 ± 5%) Ω or (2.5 ± 0.1) Ω
TABLE A4.3 Letter code for tolerances of resistors •• 47KM ⇒ 47 k Ω (47 ± 20%) kΩ or (47 ± 10) Ω
TOLERANCE (%) LETTER •• M22K ⇒ (0.22 ± 10%) MΩ or (220 ± 22) kΩ
1 F

2 G

5 J

10 K

20 M

Appendix 5: Scientific notation and significant figures

When we measure quantities on instruments, the last figure in the measurement is usually uncertain.
This is because of the in-built uncertainty in the instrument itself, even if we have avoided errors such as
parallax error. Thus, if our electronic balance gives a reading of, say, 10.514 g, then we need to be aware
that the last figure (4) will be uncertain. It is likely that the true mass is somewhere between 10.512 g and
10.516 g.
Significant figures show how many digits in the reading are meaningful. The last figure is always deemed
to be uncertain. By keeping track of the number of significant figures in all the instrumental measurements
used to calculate a quantity, we can determine the extent to which our answer correctly represents the
accuracy of our instruments. To reflect this accuracy, we always give our answer to the same number of
significant figures as the least accurate data used. (If we use an even lower number of significant figures than
this, then we might as well use less accurate instruments!)

The rules
1 Every non-zero digit is significant. For example, 3.78 and 294 both have three significant figures.
2 Every zero in the middle of a reading is significant. For example, the mass reading of 10.514 g has five
significant figures.
3 Every zero to the right of a reading is significant. For example, 31.20 has four significant figures. The
exception to this is a number with no decimal point and a trail of zeros, such as 500 kg. This volume may
have one, two or three significant figures. To avoid this ambiguity, we must be given more information,
stated in standard form. For example, if the volume is provided as 5.00 × 102 kg, then we know that
it has three significant figures. If this is not clarified, we assume that it has the maximum number of
significant figures.
4 Every zero before a number is not significant, and only shows the place value. For example, 0.005 only has
one significant figure and 0.0090 has two significant figures. Again, rewriting these numbers in standard
form clarifies this. (These numbers would be written as 5 × 10−3 and 9.0 × 10−3 respectively.)

Calculations
Rounding off
For rounding off an answer to a given number of significant figures, we examine the next figure on the right
only. If it is 5 or more, then we round up.

9780170409063 APPENDICES 437

 Example
If we need to round off 10.9847 to:
•• four significant figures, then we write 10.98 (8 is the fourth significant figure. The next figure on the
right of 8 is 4, so we do not round up.)
•• three significant figures, then we write 11.0. (9 is the third significant figure. The next figure on the
right of 9 is 8, so we round up. Adding 1 to the 9 causes 10.9 to become 11.0.)

Adding or subtracting numbers

The answer cannot have more significant figures after the decimal point (i.e. decimal places) than the least
accurate data.

Example
73.251 ← three decimal places
+11.4 ← one decimal place, therefore, this is the least accurate data
84.651

This answer cannot have more than one decimal place, so must be rounded off to 84.7.
Multiplying or dividing numbers
Again, the answer cannot have more significant figures than the least accurate data.

Example
7.53 × 6.0958 + 45.9 (to three significant figures)

The least accurate figure (7.53) has three significant figures, so we round off the answer to three significant
figures.

Use of data such as the universal gravitational constant, G

Ideally, physical data such as the universal gravitational constant should be quoted to at least the same
number of significant figures as the experimental data. However, physical data is not taken into account
when determining the number of significant figures in the answer – only experimental data such as masses
and volumes is considered.

Advice
Data provided in a question or in a test should not be rounded off prior to its use in a calculation. For
example, if G is given as 6.674 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2, then in a calculation we write 6.674 × 10−11, not 6.7 × 10−11.
Similarly, if a volume is given as 20.00 mL, we write 20.00 in the calculation, not 20 (even though on our
calculator we would only enter the number as 20). This makes the accuracy of the reading clear for the
purposes of determining the number of significant figures we provide in the answer.

438 APPENDICES 9780170409063

 Appendix 6: Periodic table of elements

9780170409063 APPENDICES 439

 GLOSSARY
A chromatic dispersion where different converging (convex) lens a lens which
colours of light refract by slightly different causes parallel rays of light to converge
absolute (uncertainty) uncertainty
amounts convex surface a surface curved outwards
expressed in the units of the measured
quantity circuit diagram a diagram showing the
coulomb, C unit of electric charge
connections between components in a
absolute zero the hypothetical condition crest the top of a wave
circuit, using circuit symbols to represent
where all particles in a substance have no
the components critical angle the angle of incidence that
kinetic energy
closed system a system where matter will give an angle of refraction of 90°
acceleration change in velocity over time
cannot enter or leave, but which energy can current the flow of charged particles, I = q/t.
accurate the degree to which a measurement be transferred into or out of by work or heat In a circuit the charged particles are most
result approaches the ‘true value’ often electrons.
coefficient of kinetic friction, μk
air resistance the drag force exerted by air dimensionless constant of proportionality
between the friction force and normal D
alternating current (AC) current that
changes direction, oscillating in direction force between two surfaces when the deceleration negative acceleration
surfaces are sliding relative to one another:
amplitude the largest distance of the decibel (dB) a logarithmic scale used for the
Ffriction, kinetic = μkN
particle from the mean, or rest, position intensity of sound, with zero decibels being
before returning coefficient of static friction, μs the threshold of hearing
dimensionless constant of proportionality
angle of incidence the angle made between delocalised valence electrons electrons
between the maximum friction force and
the incident ray and the normal drawn at that are so loosely held by their atoms that
normal force between two surfaces when
the point of incidence they are free to move through a metallic
the surfaces are stationary relative to one
lattice. Responsible for both good electrical
angle of reflection the angle made between another: Ffriction, static = μsN
and heat conductivity.
the reflected ray and the normal drawn at component (vector) the projection of a
the point of reflection dependent variable the variable being
vector quantity along an axis
measured in an experiment
angle of refraction the angle from the ray compression an area where the medium
to the normal after refraction has occurred deposition a cooled gas directly forming a
has become more dense as a wave passes
solid, without an intermediate liquid phase
antinodes points along a standing wave concave surface a surface curved inwards
where constructive interference always depth study an investigation or an activity
occurs condensation gas forming a liquid as its completed by a student or students to
particles lose energy through cooling explore more deeply a topic from the Year 11
average the mean value
conduction the transfer of heat energy Physics course that they find interesting
B through a substance by particle collision derived data data that is deduced from raw
conductor a material that allows current to data by mathematical manipulation, such
beat frequency the difference between two
flow through it easily, for example a metal. A as graphs, algebraic equations or geometric
sound sources frequencies, the frequency
material with a low resistivity. constructions
at which the resultant sound oscillates
between constructive and destructive constructive interference when destructive interference when
interference superposition gives a resultant wave with a superposition gives a resultant wave with
greater amplitude than the constituent waves a smaller amplitude than the constituent
boiling point the temperature at which the
waves
vapour pressure from particles escaping contact force the force that one surface
the liquid equals the pressure on the liquid exerts on another that it is in contact with. diamagnetic not able to be permanently
from its surrounding environment (such as The contact force is the sum of the normal magnetised; diamagnets are repelled by
the atmosphere). Characterised by bubbles force and the friction force. magnetic fields. The internal magnetic
forming below the surface. fields of a diamagnet align in the opposite
controlled variable variables that are kept direction to an external field.
constant so that they do not interfere with
C diffraction the bending of a wave around a
the outcome of the experiment
centre of mass also known as the centre corner as it passes an obstruction
convection the transfer of heat energy by
of gravity, this is the average (mean) position diffuse reflection where light is reflected in
bulk movement of particles
of all matter in the system, weighted by many directions from a rough surface
mass convection cell the circulation of a fluid
that is heated below and cooled from the dipole equal and opposite charges close
charge a fundamental property of matter, together
top, under the influence of gravity
which creates and is affected by electric
fields convection current the transfer of heat direct current (DC) current that flows in
through the mass movement of a fluid to a the same direction at all times
charged having a non-zero net charge
region of lower temperature

9780170409063 GLOSSARY 451

displacement (kinematics) the position of electrostatic force the force exerted by friction force the component of the
an object relative to the origin. It is a vector charged objects on other charged objects, contact force that one surface exerts on
and includes direction. when the objects are stationary another surface that is parallel to the
displacement (waves) the perpendicular empirical able to be verified by gaining
surfaces. It acts to prevent the sliding of one
distance a particle in the medium has evidence through observation and surface against the other.
moved from its rest or mean position experimentation fundamental (mode of vibration) the
displacement interval the change in equilibrium (of an object) having no net
lowest frequency resonant note or mode of
displacement force acting, so the acceleration of the object vibration of an object

distance the actual length between two

is zero and it has constant acceleration
G
points. It is a scalar and has no direction. equipotential line or surface on which
potential is constant gravitational field the force per unit
distance interval the magnitude of the mass acting on an object with mass due
change in position between ending and evaporation particles on the surface of a to other objects with mass. The force field
beginning points. A scalar. liquid escaping to become gaseous, even surrounding any object with mass.
diverging (concave) lens a lens which
though the liquid is below boiling point
gravitational force the force exerted on any
causes parallel rays of light to diverge object with mass by any other object with
F
Doppler effect the shift in the frequency and mass. It surrounds us and penetrates us, and
wavelength of waves that results from the falsifiable able to be disproved it binds the galaxy together.
relative motion between source and observer ferromagnetic able to be permanently
magnetised, having magnetic properties like H
drag the friction force that a fluid exerts
on a solid surface when the surface moves that of iron. The internal magnetic fields of a heat energy that is being transferred due to
relative to the fluid ferromagnet align with an external field and a temperature difference
ferromagnets are attracted into a magnetic
dynamic a state in which the object or field. heat capacity the ratio of the amount of
system is moving, and in which there may heat added to or subtracted from a material,
be a net force and hence an acceleration field force a force which is exerted via to the temperature change produced. Units
a field, so does not need direct contact. are Joules/Kelvin (J/K).
E The four field forces are the gravitational,
electromagnetic, strong and weak forces. hypothesis a tentative prediction, usually
echo a reflection of sound heard after the based on an existing model or theory; also
first harmonic another term for the a tentative explanation of an observation
original sound
fundamental, the mode of vibration with the based on an existing model or theory
elastic collision a collision in which the lowest frequency
total kinetic energy of the colliding objects
focal length the distance from the optical I
is unchanged by the collision
centre to the point where parallel rays impulse, I the change in momentum
electric field the force field created by passing through the lens will intersect of an object
 due
 to the action of a force
charged objects, which exerts a force on
focal point the point at which rays or waves I = F Δt = Δ p
other charged objects. The force per unit
charge acting on a charged object. meet after they have been reflected or incident ray a ray striking a surface
refracted
electric field line a line with an arrow on a independent variable the variable that
forced vibration vibrations that occur in is controlled or manipulated by the
field diagram showing the direction of the
force on a positive charge an object when it is forced to vibrate by experimenter
another object
electric potential the potential energy per inelastic collision any collision in
fractional (uncertainty) absolute which the total kinetic energy of the
unit charge at a point in space, measured in
units of volts, V uncertainty expressed as a fraction of colliding objects is decreased by the
the measurement, often expressed as a collision
electric potential energy potential energy percentage
arising from the interaction of charged instantaneous (speed) the rate at which
objects; the potential energy stored in an frame of reference a framework for distance is covered over a time interval that
electric field observing physical phenomena that allows is so brief as to be negligible
for an origin. It enables the measurement of
electromagnetic radiation oscillating quantities involved in changing position. insulator a material that does not allow
perpendicular magnetic and electric fields current to flow through it. A material with
free (natural) vibrations vibrations an effectively infinite resistivity.
electromagnetic spectrum the range occurring when a body vibrates by itself
of all wavelengths or frequencies of intensity the amount of sound energy
electromagnetic radiation frequency the number of crests or whole (measured in joules, J) passing through a
waves generated in a time interval unit area (a square metre, m2) in one second
electromagnetism an area of science relating
friction the contact force that one surface intermolecular forces relatively weak
to the electric and magnetic properties and
interactions of matter and energy exerts on another, parallel to the surfaces. forces that hold molecules together, not
Friction acts to resist the sliding of one to be confused with covalent or ionic
electron volt unit of energy (not potential surface against another. bonding
difference), 1 eV = 1 e × 1 V = 1.6 × 10–19 J

452 GLOSSARY 9780170409063

 internal energy the sum of the potential M normal a line drawn perpendicular to the
energy in bonds and the kinetic energy of boundary between two substances
magnetic field the force per unit current
particles in a substance normal force the component of the contact
element that acts on moving charges or
inverse square law describes how the magnetic materials due to other moving force that one surface exerts on another surface
intensity of light is inversely proportional to charges or magnetic materials. The force that is perpendicular to the surfaces. It acts to
the distance from the source field surrounding any moving charge or prevent one surface moving into the other.
Isolated system a system where neither magnetic material.
energy nor matter can enter or leave O
magnification ratio of the size of an image
and the object itself Ohm’s law resistance is a constant, and
K is the ratio of potential difference to
maximum static friction the maximum
V
kinetic energy energy due to the motion of friction force that one surface can exert on current: R =
objects another, Ffriction, maximum static = μsN I
Ohmic describes a component for which
kinetic friction the component of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution the resistance, R, does not depend on potential
contact force acting parallel to the surfaces distribution of energies of particles in a difference; R = V/I = constant
in contact, when there is slipping of the substance of temperature T
surfaces against each other optical centre the point on the optical axis
measurand quantity being measured of a lens where the rays pass through and
kinetic particle model describes what remain unrefracted
mechanical energy the total bulk kinetic
happens when particles physically interact
energy and potential energy of an object or origin the point from which all other positions
kinetic theory theory explaining the system, does not include thermal or other in a frame of reference are measured
different states of matter internal energies
outlier a data point that is distant from the
Kirchhoff’s current law a statement mechanical waves waves which cause a other data points in the sample
of conservation of charge saying that vibration in a physical medium
the total current in to a junction must overtone harmonics other than the first
mechanics an area of science relating to the harmonic
be equal to the total current out of a
motion and interaction of objects and that
junction. ΣI = 0. Also known as Kirchhoff ’s
uses the ideas of force and energy to explain P
junction law.
phenomena
Kirchhoff’s voltage law a statement of parallel (circuits) arranged side by side,
medium the substance through which a with common connections at each end
conservation of energy for a circuit saying
wave is passing
that the sum off all potential differences parallel circuit multi-loop circuit, with
around a loop must be zero: ΣV = 0. Also melting a solid being changed to a liquid components arranged in parallel
known as Kirchhoff ’s loop law. through heating
paramagnetic not able to be permanently
melting point the temperature at which magnetised, paramagnets are weakly
L melting occurs. At this same temperature, attracted by magnetic fields. The internal
latent heat energy added during a change a liquid being cooled will solidify, so this is magnetic fields of a paramagnet align with
of state while the temperature remains also the freezing point for that substance. an external field.
constant model a representation of a system or paraxial assumptions three assumptions
law of conservation of energy the energy phenomenon that explains the system or made about lenses and refracting light when
of an isolated system is constant. Energy phenomenon. A model may be mathematical ray diagrams are constructed
can neither be created nor destroyed. It may equations, a computer simulation, a physical
object, words or other form. perfectly inelastic collision a collision in
be transformed from one form to another.
which the colliding objects become stuck
limit of reading the smallest unit of momentum, p the product of mass and together and move as a single object after
 
measurement on a measuring instrument velocity, p = m v . Momentum is a vector the collision
quantity with direction the same as that of
literature review a report and evaluation period the time it takes before a wave
the velocity and units kg m s–1.
of information from secondary sources on a repeats itself
topic of interest
N permanent magnet a material which
logbook the record of an experiment stays magnetised after being exposed to a
net force the total force acting on an object,
or investigation kept by the scientist magnetic field and then removed from
the vector sum of all forces acting on the
performing the experiments; it is a legal the field
object
record of the experiments and their results
neutral uncharged, or having zero net permeability of free space, μ0 constant of
longitudinal waves waves which cause proportionality for magnetic fields, gives the
charge
a back-and-forth motion of the medium magnetic field strength in vacuum due an
along the same direction as that of the nodes points along a standing wave where electric current. It has units T m A–1.
propagation of the wave destructive interference always occurs
permittivity of free space the physical
loudness a subjective quality of perception non-ohmic describes a component for constant that determines how large an electric
of the amount of sound energy arriving at a which resistance, R, depends on potential field is produced by a charge in vacuum. It has
person’s ear difference, so R is not constant the value 8.9 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2.

9780170409063 GLOSSARY 453

phase change a physical change from one real image an image which can be focused secondary data data or information that
state of matter to another without changing on a screen has been collected by someone else
chemical composition reflection the return of a wave or particle seismic waves disturbances travelling as
pitch the perceived characteristic of a sound from a surface or a boundary waves through Earth’s crust or rocks
related to its frequency refraction a change of direction of a wave semiconductor material which allows
Planck curve a graph of intensity versus upon entering a different medium at an current to flow, but not easily. A material
wavelength for an object’s electromagnetic angle other than 0° caused by a change of with a high resistivity.
radiation speed of the wave series arranged one after another, end
plane surface a flat surface refractive index a relative measure of how to end
point source (of light) a single point from
much refraction will occur when light enters series circuit single loop circuit with all
where light radiates a medium components in series
reliable when repeat measurements give
point source (of sound) a source of sound solenoid a coil of wire which can carry a
that, for the purposes of measuring its the same results within experimental current. A current-carrying solenoid has
location, is treated as being a single point uncertainty a large internal magnetic field and small
in space reproducibility giving the same result, external field. Also called an inductor when
polar having an equal amount of positive
within uncertainty, when repeated used in a circuit.
and negative charge, but arranged so that measurements are made solidification the formation of a solid as
one area is more positive and another more reproducible giving the same result, within liquid particles lose energy. Also called
negative uncertainty, when repeated measurements freezing.
potential difference the difference in
are made sound waves waves which can be heard
potential between two points, also called research question the specific questions when transmitted to the human ear
voltage that a particular experiment or investigation specific heat capacity heat capacity per
potential energy energy contained in a
is designed to answer unit mass of a substance
system due to the forces exerted by objects residual magnetisation the magnetic field
specific latent heat of fusion the energy
on each other within the system, hence the that remains in a ferromagnetic after it has required to change the state of 1 kg of a
energy due to the positions of objects in a been magnetised and the external field substance from its solid to liquid without
system removed any change in temperature
power rate of change of energy; rate of resistance ratio of potential difference to
specific latent heat of vaporisation the
energy transfer or transformation current in a component, R = V/I. The heat required to change 1 kg of a substance
precise the degree to which individual
larger the resistance, the smaller the from its liquid to gaseous state
measurements cluster around the mean current.
specular reflection the reflection of light
resistor an electrical device that resists the
primary data data that you have measured which occurs from a smooth surface
or collected yourself flow of electric current in a circuit
speed the distance covered in a time
resonance the oscillation of a physical
principal axis a line that passes through interval
the centre of the lens at right angles to system at its natural frequency
spin a quantum mechanical property of
the lens resultant (vector) the sum of appropriate
particles, a measure of the particle’s intrinsic
component vectors magnetic field
Q reverberation the prolonging of an original
standing or stationary wave a wave that
quantum physics an area of science relating sound without it being perceived as a does not appear to be travelling
to the behaviour and interactions of waves, distinct echo
atoms and subatomic particles static a state in which there is no net force
S and the object or system is not moving
R saturation magnetisation the maximum static friction the component of the contact
radiation the direct emission of energy as magnetisation possible for a material, when force acting parallel to the surfaces in
electromagnetic waves all internal magnetic fields are completely contact, when there is no slipping of the
aligned surfaces
rarefaction an area where the medium has
become less dense as a wave passes scalar a number that has only magnitude sublimation the process where a heated
(size) solid turns directly into a gas
raw data original data taken directly from a
measurement system scatter plot/graph a graphical superposition the algebraic addition of
representation of the relationship between the displacement of two or more waves
ray a representation of light as a line with interacting at the same point
an arrow the individual data points of two variables
scientific method a systematic process systematic error an error that results in a
ray diagram a construction diagram tracing consistent, predictable offset from the ‘true
rays of light of observation, experimentation,
measurement and analysis to either support value’; for example, a zero error
Rayleigh wave a seismic wave that travels or disprove a hypothesis
along the ground

454 GLOSSARY 9780170409063

 T transparent allowing the transmission of virtual image a perceived image of an
light through, it without distortion object where it is not physically present
thermal fluid circulation generated by
pressure gradients caused by differential transverse waves waves which cause a voltage potential difference
heating. Concerning flight, it generally refers transverse or perpendicular motion of the
to the updraught. See convection current medium to the direction of propagation of W
the wave wavefront a representation of a wave as
thermal conductivity the flow of energy per
second through 1 metre of a material per trough the bottom of a wave a line perpendicular to the direction of
degree temperature difference between the propagation
two ends of the material U wavelength distance between two
thermal equilibrium two substances uncertainties estimate of the range of successive corresponding points on a wave,
in thermal equilibrium have the same values within which the ‘true value’ of a e.g. between two crests or two troughs
temperature. They do not exchange heat measurement or derived quantity lies wavenumber the number of complete
energy. uniform electric field electric field which waves per unit distance
thermals convection currents in the does not vary with position in some region waves an area of science relating to the
atmosphere where warm air is rising movement of energy and information
V without the overall movement of objects
thermodynamics an area of science relating
to the transfer and transformation of energy valid results that are affected by a single work energy transferred to an object when a
independent variable and hence are force acts on it
thin lens equation an equation used to find
reproducible
the focal length of a lens
vaporisation particles escaping a liquid to X
time interval the difference between a
form a gas x–y-plane a coordinate system used to
finishing time and a starting time
vector a mathematical quantity that has describe motion in two dimensions. In a
time–base scale usually the x axis on an
both magnitude (size) and direction diagram, the x axis points to the right and
oscilloscope display with units of time
velocity the change in displacement during
the y axis points up the page.
total internal reflection the internal
a time interval
reflection of a ray of light when the angle of
incidence exceeds the critical angle, ic

9780170409063 GLOSSARY 455

 INDEX
absolute uncertainties, 20 chromatic dispersion of light, 291–292 magnetic fields produced by, 412–416
absolute zero temperature, 306 circuit diagrams, symbols used in, modelling magnetic field due to,
abstracts of reports, 25 386–388 423–425
acceleration circuits see electric circuits current–voltage relationships, 374–379
in a straight line, 42–45 closed pipes, standing waves in, 256–257 curved mirrors, images formed by
under constant net force, 126–131 closed systems, 316 reflection in, 281–282
accuracy of measurements, 17–18 clouds, formation of, 317–318
adding forces to find net force, 95–96 coefficient of kinetic friction (μk), 121 data analysis, 20–23
aeroplane in crosswind, 80 coefficient of static friction (μs), 121 data collection, 16–18
air column resonance, finding speed of collisions decibel (dB) scale of sound intensity,
sound by, 257–259 between subatomic particles, 176 242–243
air columns (pipes), vibration of air in, elastic, 162–165 delocalised valence electrons, 322
254–258 forces involved in, 169–171 dependent variables, 11, 16–17
airbags in motor cars, 171 perfectly inelastic, 174–176 deposition, 317
alternating current (AC), 371 in two dimensions, 159–161 depth studies
ammeters, 371 column graphs (charts) in reports, 25–26 designing, 14
Ampere, André-Marie, 369 communication, 24–28 ideas for, 28
amplitude (A) of sound waves, component forces, 95–101 planning, 12–15
relationship to pitch, frequency and compression in longitudinal waves, 192 in problem solving, stages, 9–12
loudness, 236–237 concave surfaces, reflection off, 210 selecting equipment for, 14
amplitude (A) of waves, 198 concept maps for physics, 5–7 types, 8
analogue measuring devices, 18 condensation, 316 derived data, calculating from raw data,
angle of incidence (θi), 209 conduction of heat energy, 321–325 20–21
angle of reflection (θr), 209 conductors, 370 destructive interference of waves, 220,
angle of refraction (θ), 284 conservation of charge in parallel circuits, 221–222
antinodes in standing waves, 225 389–390 diagrams in reports, 25
Aristotle (384–322 BCE), 91 conservation of energy, 316–320 diamagnetic materials, 407
atoms in series circuits, 388 diffraction
ionisation of, 338–339 conservation of energy law, 136, 301 of sound waves, 247–248
Rutherford–Bohr model of, 337 conservation of momentum of waves, 217–219
average speed (vave), 37 law of, 154–156 diffuse reflection of light, 268–269
in more than one dimension, 157, diffusion of gases, 304
bar charts (graphs) in reports, 25 159–161 digital measuring devices, 18
beat frequency, 259 in one dimension, 156–159 direct current (DC), 371
beats, 259–261 constant acceleration in a straight line, direct current (DC) circuits, power and
bibliographies in reports, 26 equation for, 46–51, 64 energy in, 382–384
biconvex lenses, ray tracing, 274 constant force, work done by, 136–139 dispersion of light, 291–293
bimetallic strips as thermometers, constructive interference of waves, 220, displacement vectors, 62–63
308–309 221–222 displacement vs distance graphs for
binoculars, total internal reflection in, 290 contact forces, 89–90 waves, 198–199
Biot, Jean-Baptiste, 409, 414 convection currents (thermals) and cells, displacement vs time graphs for waves,
boiling point, 316 326 198–199
in bottles, 326–327 displacements, adding using vectors,
car crashes, force and impulse in, 170–171 converging lenses, 273 65–66
Carnot, Sadi (1796–1832), 301 convex lens, images in, 280 distance and displacement, 32–33
Celsius temperature scale, 306 convex surfaces, reflection off, 211 in a plane, 64–69
centre of mass, 31 cooling and heating curves, 307–308 distance from sound source and sound
characteristic sounds of musical copyright content in reports, 28 intensity, 242–245
instruments, 223 Coulomb’s law, 353–354 diverging lenses, 273
charged objects crash safety, 172–173 Doppler effect, 261–263
causes of charge, 338–339 critical angle of incidence (θc), 287
interaction with charged and neutral crumple zone, 170 echoes, 246
objects, 339–342, 347 current echolocation, effect of diffraction in, 219
charged particles electric, 369–371 elastic collisions, momentum and energy
electric fields due to, 351–353 flow in metals, 371–373 in, 162–166
fields due to, 351–353 current-carrying wires elastic and inelastic collisions, 177–178

456 INDEX 9780170409063

 elastic potential energy, 134–135 field line diagrams, 343–349 heat, converting potential energy to,
electric charge, 337–342 drawing, 344–345 384–385
electric circuits visualising magnetic field with, 421 heat capacity, 310
power in, 380–381 first harmonic ( fundamental mode of heat energy, 301
symbols for elements, 386 vibration), 249 heating by microwaves, 328–329
electric current, 369–371 focal point of parabola, 210 heating and cooling curves, 307–308
flow in metals, 371–373 force diagrams, 96–97 hyperopia (long-sightedness), 274
electric and electronic symbols, 434–435 force as function of time, graphical hypotheses, 2
electric field lines, 343–347 representation, 166–168 in depth studies, 9–10
drawing, 348 forced vibrations, 228 proposing, 11
electric fields, 91, 343–349 forces
energy changes in, 358–361 adding to find net force, 95–96 ice, latent heat of, 318–319
forces on charged particles in, 349–351 adding using perpendicular images formed by reflection in curved
potential energy and work in, 355–364 components, 98–99 mirrors, 281–282
strengths, 350 between magnetised materials, images formed in plane mirrors, 270–272
uniform, 345–347 406–407 impulse, 166–169
electric potential energy in car crashes, 170–171 in car crashes, 170–171
stored in electric field, 356 resolving into components, 97 incandescent light globes, 380
’zero’ point for measurement, 357–358 types of interactions, 89–94 incident rays, 209
electromagnetic spectrum, 195, 328 fractional (relative or proportional) inclined planes, motion on, 108–112
electromagnetic waves (radiation), uncertainties, 20 independent variables, 11, 16–17
194–197 frame of reference for motion, 31 inelastic vs elastic collisions, 177–178
electromagnetic waves vs mechanical free electrons in current flows, 370–371 instantaneous speed (vinst), 37
waves, 196–197 free (natural) vibrations, 227 insulators, 323, 370
electromagnetism, 4, 7 frequency (f) of sound waves intensity of light (I), and inverse square
electron volt (eV), 360 calculating, 236 law, 294–297
electrons measuring, 238–239 intensity of sound (dB) vs distance from
conceptual model of, 421 relationship to pitch, loudness and source, 242–245
spin of, 405 amplitude, 236–237 intermolecular forces (bonds), 304
electrostatic forces, 338–339 frequency (f) of waves, 198 internal energy, 306
energy, 132–143 relationship to period (T), 201 International System of Units (SI), units
conservation of, 316–320 relationship to velocity (v) and and prefixes for, 430–431, 432
in elastic collisions, 162–166 wavelength (λ), 201–203 interpretation of results, 23
and gravitational field, 139–142 friction, Newton’s 1st and 2nd laws and, inverse square law, 242
in inelastic collisions, 173–176 117–123 investigations, conducting, 15–23
mechanical, 143 friction forces, 89–90, 119–125 ionic bonding for salt, 338
and potential difference, 358–361 fridge magnets, 420 isolated systems, 136, 316
energy model, 304–306 fundamental mode of vibration ( first
energy transfer harmonic), 249 Joule, James Prescott (1818–89), 133, 301
by mechanical waves, 188–189, 190 of strings, 252 junction law see Kirchhoff ’s current law
models of, 321–329
in resonating systems, 231 glass types, refractive index of, 292 Kelvin, Lord (William Thompson), 302
within a system, 228 graphs Kelvin temperature scale, 306
energy transformations in DC circuits, displacement vs time, 197 kinetic energy, 132–134, 305
382–384 drawing and using, 21–22 kinetic energy distribution and
equations of motion, 46–47 of force as function of time, 166–168 temperature variation, 306
equilibrium in one and two dimensions, of motion, 46–47 kinetic friction, 90
103–106 in reports, 25–26 coefficient of (μk), 121
equipotential lines, mapping, 362–364 of waves, 198–200 kinetic friction forces, 119–125
equipotential lines and surfaces, 361–362 gravitational acceleration (g), 50, 51–53 kinetic particle model of matter, 302–304
evaporation, 306, 316 gravitational field, 90 Kirchhoff, Gustav, 388
and energy, 139–142 Kirchhoff ’s current law (junction law),
falling objects gravitational potential energy, 139–141 389–390
energy changes of, 142 stored in gravitational field, 356 Kirchhoff ’s voltage law (loop law), 389
motion of, 50–51 gravity, linear acceleration under, 49–51
Faraday, Michael, 409 latent heat, 317
ferromagnetic materials, 403–405 harmonics (vibration modes) in strings, of ice, 318–319
ferromagnets, magnetisation of, 420 249–251 and state changes, 316–317
field forces, 90–91 latent heat of fusion of solids, 319–320

9780170409063 INDEX 457

Lavoisier, Antoine (1743–94), 301 reliability, accuracy and precision, numerical models of magnetic fields,
LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 380 17–18 423–425
lenses, 213, 273 systematic errors in, 17
images formed by diffraction in, mechanical energy, 143 Øersted, Hans Christian, 408, 412
273–274 mechanical systems, resonance in, ohm (Ω), 375
paraxial assumptions, 275 227–231 ohmic resistors, 376, 378–379
light mechanical waves Ohm’s law, and resistance, 375–376
dispersion of, 291–293 model of, 186–190 open pipes, standing waves in, 254–255
reflection of, 268–270 propagation in media, 187–188 optical fibres, total internal reflection in,
speed of, 195 transfer of energy by, 188–189, 190 289–290
light intensity (I) and inverse square law, mechanical waves vs electromagnetic oscilloscopes, 235–239
294–297 waves, 196–197 outliers, 17
limit of reading of measuring devices, mechanics, 4, 5 overtones, 249
18–19 media, speed of waves in, 187
linear acceleration under gravity, 49–51 Meissner effect, 407 parabolic concave mirrors, 210
linearising non-linear data, 23 melting and melting point, 306, 316 parallel circuits, 389–390, 395–397
literature reviews in depth studies, 9–10 metals resistors in, 392–395
logbooks, keeping, 10, 15–16 current flow in, 371–373 parallel connection, 374
longitudinal pressure wave specific heat capacity of, 312, 314–315 paramagnetic materials, 407
modelling sound as, 241 thermal conductivity of, 322 paraxial assumptions in lenses, 275
sound transmission as, 239–240 microwaves, heating by, 328–329 peer review, 3
longitudinal waves, 186, 192 mirrors, flat, 209 perfectly inelastic collisions, 174–176
compared with transverse waves, models in physics, purposes, 4 period (T) of sound waves
193–194 modes of vibration see vibration modes measuring, 235
loudness of sound waves, 235–239 momentum, 153–161 relationship to frequency (f), 201
relationship to pitch, frequency and in elastic collisions, 162–166 period of waves (T), 198
amplitude, 236–237 in inelastic collisions, 173–176 periodic table of elements, 439
loudspeakers, effect of diffraction on motion periscopes, total internal reflection in, 290
sound from, 217–218 effect of instantaneous speed change permanent magnets, 420
Love waves, 189 on, 36–38 permeability of free space (μ0), 414
equations and graphs of, 46–47 permittivity of free space (ε0), 352
magnetic field lines, 408–410 frame of reference for, 31 perpendicular components of forces,
visualising, 410–412 on inclined planes, 108–112 adding, 98–99
magnetic fields (B), 91, 403 relative in a plane, 77–82 phase changes, 306
due to current-carrying solenoids, in a straight line, 31–41 physical quantities, important, 433–434
417–418 using vectors to describe, 70–76 physics
mathematical modelling of, 421, 423 multimeters, precision of, 19 areas within, 4–7
measuring inside solenoids, 422–423 musical instruments, characteristic nature of, 3–4
modelling, 421–425 sounds of, 223 pipes, air vibration in, 254–258
numerical models of, 423–425 myopia (short- or near-sightedness), 274 pipes with one end closed see closed
produced by current-carrying wires, pipes
412–416 natural ( free) vibrations, 227 pitch of sound waves, 235–239
magnetic materials, identifying, 404–405 net forces in 1 and 2 dimensions, 95–101 relationship to frequency, loudness and
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 405 neutral objects, forces exerted on by amplitude, 236–237
magnetisation, 418–421 charged objects, 339, 347 Planck curves, 327
magnetised materials, force between, Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727), 89 plane mirrors, image formation in,
406–407 applying third law of, 100–101 270–272
magnetite (Fe3O4), 403 first law of motion, 91, 117–119 plane surfaces, reflection off, 209–210
magnetosphere of Earth, 403 second law of motion, 92, 117–119, point source of sound, 242
mathematical models of magnetic fields, 126–127 posters, presenting reports on, 27
421, 423 third law of motion, 92–94 potential see electric potential
matter Newton’s cradle, 162 potential difference (voltage), 358
kinetic particle model of, 303–304 Newton’s laws and momentum, 153–154 work done due to, 374–375
states of, 303–304 nodes in standing waves, 225 potential energy, 132, 134–135, 305
maximum static friction force, 120 non-linear data, linearising, 23 conversion to heat, 384–385
Maxwell, James Clark, 195 non-ohmic resistors, 376–379 gravitational, 139–141
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, 306 non-SI units, 432 and work in electric field, 355–364
measurands, variation in, 18–20 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) power (P), 144–147
measurements imaging, 405 in electric circuits, 380–381

458 INDEX 9780170409063

 expressions for, 381–382 resistance (R), and Ohm’s law, 375–376 measuring frequency of, 238–239
usage in DC circuits, 382–384 resistors, 375 pitch, frequency, loudness and
precision of measurements, 17–18 colour code for, 435–436 amplitude, 236–237
precision of measuring devices, 18–19 number–letter codes for, 436–437 reflection of, 246–247
prefixes for SI units, 431 ohmic and non-ohmic, 376–379 reflection in pipes, 254
presbyopia (’old-age vision’), 274 resistors in parallel, 392–395 refraction of, 213–215
primary data, gathering, 8 resistors in series, 390–392 sources in depth studies, evaluating,
primary-sourced investigations, collecting resonance in mechanical systems, 227, 10–11
data, 16–17 228–230 specific heat capacity (specific heat),
principle of superposition see resonance wavelength 310–315
superposition of waves in closed pipes, 256 determining, 310–311
in open pipes, 255 of metals, 312, 314–315
quantum physics, 4 resonant frequency, 229–230 of water, 311, 312–313
questions in depth studies, 9–10 resultant forces, 95–101 specific latent heat
resultant waves, using superposition to of fusion, 317
radiation, 327–329 construct, 223–224 of vaporisation, 317
radiative heating, 328–329 results, interpreting, 23 specular reflection, 269–270
rainbows, 291–292 reverberation of sound, 246 speed of light (c), 195
rarefaction risk assessment in depth studies, 14–15 speed of sound
of air in pipes, 254 risk matrices, 14–15 in different media, 187
in longitudinal waves, 192 rounding off numbers, 437–438 from air column resonance, 257–259
ray diagrams, 271 rule of thumb for direction of magnetic speed (v), 33–34
ray model of light and reflection, 268–269, field lines, 416 of common objects, 35
270 Rutherford–Bohr model of atom, 337 instantaneous changes in, 36–38
ray tracing biconvex lenses, 274 speed–time graphs, 36
Rayleigh waves, 189 safety in cars, 172–173 spin of electrons, 405
reference lists in reports, 26 salt, ionic bonding of, 338 springs, calculating speed of waves in, 226
reflection satellite dishes, 210 standard deviation of measurements, 20
law of, 269–270 saturation magnetisation, 420 standing waves, 225
and ray model of light, 270 Savart, Félix, 409, 414 in open pipes, 254–255
reflection of light, by curved mirrors, scalar quantities, 33, 34 in pipes closed at one end, 256–257
281–282 scatter plots (graphs), 22 using to calculate wave speed in a
reflection of sound waves, 246–247 scientific method, 2 spring, 226
in pipes, 254 scientific notation, 437 state changes and latent heat, 316–317
reflection of waves, 209–212 secondary sources for research, 8 static equilibrium, 106–107
applications of, 211 seismic waves, 186, 188–189 static friction, 90
off concave surfaces, 210, 212 semiconductors, 370 coefficient of (μs), 121
off convex surfaces, 211, 212 series circuits, 388, 395–397 static friction forces, 119–125
off plane surfaces, 209–210, 212 resistors in, 390–392 stationary waves see standing waves
refraction law, 283–285 series connection, 371, 378 steam, burns from, 317
refraction of light sheep-dragging, physics of, 110 straight-line acceleration, 42–45
images formed in lenses by, 273–274 significant figures, 437–438 straight-line motion, 31–41
towards and away from the normal, 287 slopes, motion on, 108–112 with constant acceleration, 46–51
refraction of waves, 213–215 Snell’s law, 284–286 strings
observing in everyday situations, 216 sodium chloride (NaCl), ionic bonding fundamental frequency of vibration,
refractive index (n), 283–285 in, 338 249–251, 252
calculated using total internal solenoids velocity of wave in, 251
reflection, 288–289 magnetic fields due to, 409–410, subatomic particles, collisions between,
of two types of glass, 292 417–418 176
regular reflection, 269–270 measuring magnetic field inside, sublimation, 317
relative motion in a plane, 77–82 422–423 superconductors as diamagnets, 407
relative velocity, 39–40 solidification, 316 superposition of sound waves producing
relativity, special theory of, 195 solids, latent heat of fusion of, 319–320 beats, 259–261
reliability of measurements, 17 sound intensity (dB), 242–243 superposition of waves, 220–224
report writing, 24–27 sound transmission as longitudinal and acoustics, 221
flowchart for, 27 pressure wave, 239–241 supplemental restraint systems (SRS), 171
reproducibility of results, 3, 17 sound waves symbols, for electric and electronic
research questions, proposing, 11 diffraction of, 247–248 circuits, 434–435
residual magnetism, 420 as longitudinal waves, 186 systematic errors in measurements, 17

9780170409063 INDEX 459

Système International d’Unites (SI), units water waves, as transverse waves, 186
uncertainties
and prefixes for, 430–431, 432 watt, unit of power, 144
estimating, 18–20
wave equations, 201, 202
minimising, 14
tables in reports, 25 modelling, 203–204
uniform electric fields, 345–347
temperature wave model, mechanical, 186–190
units, SI and non-SI, 430–432
measurement of, 308 waveforms in oscilloscopes, 235–239
sensing hot and cold, 302–303 wavefronts, 215
validity of experiments, 3
temperature inversion, 215 wavelength (λ), 198
Van de Graaff generators, 338
temperature variation and kinetic energy relationship with velocity (v) and
vaporisation, 316
distribution, 306 frequency (f), 201–203
vectors, 33, 34
tesla (T), unit of magnetism, 403 wavenumber (k), 200
adding displacements using, 65–66
theories, testable and falsifiable, 2–3 waves, 4, 6
adding more than two, 68–69
thermal conductivity, 321–323 changes in velocity (v), 205
displacement, 62–63
of a metal, 324–325 crests and troughs, 191
motion described with, 70–76
thermal equilibrium, 307–310 diffraction of, 217–219
resolving and adding, 66–68
thermals see convection currents electromagnetic, 194–197
resolving into perpendicular
thermodynamics, 4, 6 graphing, 198–200
components, 58–62
thermometers, 302 reflection of, 209–212
velocities, adding and subtracting, 71–73
bimetallic strips as, 308–309 refraction of, 213–216
velocity (v), 33–34
types of, 308 seismic, 188–189
change in, 74–75
thin lens equation speed in media, 187
relative, 39–40
biconcave lens, 279 standing, 225–226
as vector, 70–71
biconvex lens, 275–279 superposition of, 220–224
velocity (v) of waves
Thompson, Sir Benjamin (Count terminology for, 198
relationship with frequency (f) and
Rumford, 1753–1814), 301 transverse, 191–192
wavelength (λ), 201–203
thumb, rule of for direction of magnetic velocity in strings, 251
in strings, 251
field lines, 416 websites, presenting reports on, 27
velocity vectors and components,
time and speed and velocity, 33–35 ’white noise’, 227
measuring, 75–76
time–speed graphs, 36 work
vibration modes (harmonics) in strings,
total internal reflection, 213, 287–290 done by constant force, 136–139
249–251
calculating refractive index using, done due to potential difference,
vibrations, forced, 228
288–289 374–375
video, presenting reports on, 27
transverse waves, 186, 191 and potential energy in electric field,
virtual images, 270
compared with longitudinal waves, 355–364
voltage (potential difference), 358, 374
193–194 work energy, 301
voltage–current relationships, 374–379
reflection of, 192
voltmeters, 374
tsunamis, 189 x–y plane, 58
tuning forks, 227–228, 230
water, specific heat capacity of, 311,
zero net force and equilibrium, 103–106
312–313

460 INDEX 9780170409063