A PROJECT REPORT ON

GRID-CONNECTED WIND PHOTO VOLTAIC

COGENERATION USING BACK TO BACK VOLTAGE
SOURCE CONVERTERS
Submitted to

Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Ananthapur

In Partial fulfillment of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted by

P.THULASI PRASAD 17P15A0225

G.INDU 16P11A0203
K. MUNI TIRUMALESH 16P11A0207
P.POTHULAIAH 17P15A0224

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Mr. M.C.V.SURESH, M.Tech, (Ph.D)

Assistant Professor, Department of EEE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CHADALAWADA RAMANAMMA ENGINEERING
COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Ananthapur)
(Accredited by NAAC with A grade, An ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Institution)
Chadalawada Nagar, Renigunta Road, Tirupati-517506, A.P,
August-2020
 A PROJECT REPORT ON

GRID-CONNECTED WIND PHOTO VOLTAIC COGENERATION

USING BACK TO BACK VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS
Submitted to

Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Ananthapur

In Partial fulfillment of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted by

P.THULASI PRASAD 17P15A0225

G.INDU 16P11A0203
K. MUNI TIRUMALESH 16P11A0207
P.POTHULAIAH 17P15A0224

Under the Esteemed Guidance

of

Mr. M.C.V.SURESH, M.Tech, (Ph.D)

Assistant Professor, Department of EEE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CHADALAWADA RAMANAMMA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Ananthapur)
(Accredited by NAAC with A grade, An ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Institution)
Chadalawada Nagar, Renigunta Road, Tirupati-517506, A.P,
August-2020
 CHADALAWADA RAMANAMMA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Ananthapur)(Accredited by NAAC with A grade, An ISO
9001: 2008 Certified Institution)Chadalawada Nagar, Renigunta Road, Tirupati-517506, A.P

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project work entitled, “GRID-CONNECTED WIND PHOTO
VOLTAIC COGENERATION USING BACK TO BACK VOLTAGE SOURCE
CONVERTERS” was submitted by

P.THULASI PRASAD 17P15A0225

G.INDU 16P11A0203
K. MUNI TIRUMALESH 16P11A0207
P.POTHULAIAH 17P15A0224

In the department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Chadalawada

Ramanamma Engineering College, Tirupati is submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University Ananthapur in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree Bachelor of Technology Bonafied record of the work carried out under
our guidance and supervision during the academic year 2016-2020.

INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Mr.MCV SURESH, M.Tech,(Ph.D) Mr. K SIVA KUMAR, M.Tech,(Ph.D)
Assistant Professor, Associate Professor
Dept. of EEE, Dept. of EEE
CREC CREC,
Tirupati Tirupati

Submitted for the University Examinations held on:__________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

DECLARATION

We here by certify that the project report entitled “ GRID-CONNECTED

WIND PHOTO VOLTAIC COGENERATION USING BACK TO BACK VOLTAGE
SOURCE CONVERTERS” is submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirement for
the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical & Electronics
Engineering. This is a record of Bonafied work carried out by us under the guidance of
Mr. M.C.V.SURESH, M.Tech, (Ph.D), Assistant professor. The results embodied in
this Project report have not been reproduced / copied from any source and have not
submitted to any other university or institute for the award of any other degree or
diploma.

PLACE:

DATE:

Signature of the Student

P.THULASI PRASAD 17P15A0225

G.INDU 16P11A0203
K. MUNI TIRUMALESH 16P11A0207
P.POTHULAIAH 17P15A0224
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to our guide Mr. M.C.V.SURESH, M.Tech (Ph.D),

Assistant Professor of EEE in Chadalawada Ramanamma Engineering College,
Tirupati for their valuable guidance and encouragement. Their helping attitude and
suggestions have helped in the successful completion of the Project work.

Our special thanks to Sri K.SIVA KUMAR, M.Tech, (Ph.D), Associate

Professor & Head of the Department of ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING, for his kind help and encouragement during the course of our study
and in the successful completion of the Project report.

We like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. T.SUNIL KUMAR REDDY,

M.Tech, Ph.D, Principal of Chadalawada Ramanamma Engineering College,
Tirupati for his consistent help and encouragement until the completion of the Project
report.

We express our helpful thanks to management of Chadalawada

Ramanamma Engineering College, Tirupati for necessary help in carrying out of this
project report.

Finally we would like to express my sincere thanks to all Faculty Members

of the Department of EEE as well who have provided their support to us in the
evaluation of Project report.

We would like to express my deepest gratitude to our parents for their love,
care and moral support without which I would not have been able to execute this task. It
has been a constant source of inspiration for all my academic endeavours.

P.THULASI PRASAD 17P15A0225

 G.INDU 16P11A0203
K. MUNI TIRUMALESH 16P11A0207
P.POTHULAIAH 17P15A0224

CONTENTS

CHAPTER NAME OF THE CONTENT PAGE NO

I Abstract i
II List of Figures ii
III List of Abbreviations iii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-3
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Objective of the Project 3
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY AND EXISTING SYSTEM 4-6
2.1 Literature Survey 4
2.2 Existing Method 6
2.3 Drawbacks 6
CHAPTER 3 MODELING OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM 7-13
3.1 Construction 7
3.2 Wind Generator 7
3.3 Machine Side Voltage Source Rectifier 8
3.4 Methods of MPPT 11
CHAPTER 4 FLOW CHARTS AND MPPT 14-18
4.1 Flow Charts For MPPT Algorithm 14
4.2 MPPT 16
4.3 How Maximum Power Point Tracking Works 16
4.4 MPPT's Are Most Efficient Under These Conditions 17
4.5 How Maximum Power Point Tracker Works 18
CHAPTER 5 WIND ENERGY 19-58
5.1Wind Energy And Wind Power 19
5.2 How Wind Power Is Generated 19
5.3 Wind Turbine 19
5.4 Advantages And Disadvantages of Wind Generated 20
Electricity
5.5 History 22
5.6 Generator Characteristics And Stability 23
5.7 Off Shore Wind Power 24
5.8 Collection And Transmission Network 26
5.9 Various Factors of Wind Power 29
5.10 Turbine Design 38
5.11 Wind Energy 40
5.12 Linear Control 42
5.13 Definition 42
5.14 Time Varying Impulse Response 44
5.15 The Convolution Integral 44
5.16 Discrete Time Systems 45
5.17 Low Power Control of Wind Energy Systems 46
5.18 Maximum Power Point Tracker 48
5.19 I-V Curve 49
5.20 MPPT Implementation 50
5.21 Classification 51
5.22 Comparison of Methods 53
 5.23 MPPT Placement 53
5.24 Operation with Batteries 54
CHAPTER 6 SMALL SIGNAL MODELLING AND STABILITY ANALYSIS 59-73
6.1 Introduction 59
6.2 Simulation Results of PI Controller 60
6.3 Results 61
6.4 Conclusion 70
6.5 References 71

ABSTRACT

This paper introduces a new topology, yet simple and efficient, for a grid-
connected wind-photovoltaic (PV) cogeneration system. A permanent magnet synchronous
generator-based full-scale wind turbine is interfaced to the utility-grid via back-to-back (BtB)
voltage-source converters (VSCs). A PV solar generator is directly connected to the dc-link
capacitor of the BtB VSCs. No dc/dc conversion stages are required, and hence the system
efficiency is maximized. The proposed topology features an independent maximum power
point tracking for both the wind and the PV generators to maximize the extraction of the
renewable energy. The regulation of the VSCs is achieved via the vector control scheme in
the rotating reference frame. The detailed small signal models for the system components are
developed to investigate the overall stability. The influence of the utility-grid faults on the
performance of the proposed system is also evaluated. Nonlinear time-domain simulation
results under different operating conditions are presented to validate the effectiveness of the
proposed topology.
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No Name of the Figures Page No

3.1 The proposed wind-PV cogeneration system 9

3.2 Mechanical characteristics of Wind turbine at different speeds. 9
3.3 Characteristics of the PV array at different solar irradiance level 10
4.1 Flow chart of perturb and observe 14
4.2 Flow chart of incremental conductance method 15
5.1 Wind Energy Distribution 40
5.2 Typical Curve of a wind turbine 47
5.3 Power coefficients of different wind turbine types 47
5.4 Photovoltaic Solar Cell I-V curve 49
The step response of the dc-link voltage to verify the
6.1 60
developed small signal model
6.2 Wind speed and solar Irradiance level 61
6.3a PMSG speed With Respective Time 61
6.3b Wind power in MW with respective time 62
6.3c PV power in MW with respective time 62
6.3d Grid current in kA with respective time 63
6.3e PCC Voltage Characteristics 63
6.3f VSR modulation 64
6.3g VSI modulation 64
6.4a VDC Voltage with respective time 65
6 4b Wind power with respective time 65
6.4c Grid current with respective time 66
6.5a PMSG speed With Respective Time 66
6.5b Vdc Voltage with respective time 67
6.5c Grid current with respective time 67
6.6a Vdc Voltage in 3Phase-ground Fault 68
6.6b Grid current in 3phase- ground fault 68
System response for 1phase to ground fault with and without
6.7 69
protection
6.8 Dc link voltage for different values of IGBT 69
6.9 PCC Voltage response at different values of C f 70
 ABBREVIATIONS

PV Photovoltaic
PMSG Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracker
VSC Voltage Source Converter
VSR Voltage Source Rectifier
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
FSWT Full Scale Wind Turbine
IGBT Insulated Gate Bi-polar Transistor
DG Dispersed Generation
PCC Point Of Common Coupling
SCR Short Circuit Ratio
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator
RTDS Real Time Digital Simulator
STC Standard Test Condition
GWEC Global Wind Energy Council
PI Proportional-Integral
 Grid connected wind photovoltaic cogeneration using Back to Back voltage source converters

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The cost of the wind and solar energy generation has been rapidly falling since
the last decade. Driven by their economic and technical incentives, the global installed
capacity of photovoltaic (PV) and wind generators has approached 303 Giga watts (GW) and
487 GW in 2016, as compared to 6 GW and 74 GW in 2006, respectively [1]. Due to the
intermittent and unregulated nature of the wind and solar energy, power-electronic converters
are utilized as an interfacing stage to the load-side or the utility-grid, and hence distributed
generation units are created [2]-[3]. In literature, most of the distributed generation systems
are solely dedicated for one form of renewable resources, e.g., a solar energy as in [4]-[5] or
wind energy as in [6]-[8]. In order to maximize the benefits of the available renewable
resources, the combination of the wind and solar energy in the same vicinity has been
considered [9]-[22].
The cogeneration of the wind and solar energy has the following characteristics;
1) The availability of the wind and solar energy is generally complementary, and hence
combining both forms of energy increases the overall operational efficiency [23].
2) The combination of the wind and solar co-generators optimizes the utilization of lands
resources, and hence improves the capital investments [24].
3) As compared to the static PV generators, the wind-solar cogeneration systems are
more dynamically capable to support the utility-grid due to the available moment of
inertia in the mechanical system of the wind generators [8].
4) Having two sources of energy increases the generation reliability [9]- [10].

The grid-connected wind-PV cogeneration systems are not widely addressed

[9]-[15]. On the contrary, several wind-PV cogeneration systems are proposed for the
standalone off-grid applications [10], [16]-[22]. A standalone wind-PV cogeneration system
is proposed in [16]-[17]. On the small-scale level, a single-phase cogeneration system has
been proposed in [18] whereas a laboratory-scale system is introduced in [19]-[20].
Generally, the system structure in [16]-[20] comprises a common dc-bus that interfaces
several parallel connected converters-interfaced renewable energy resources, which might

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 Grid connected wind photovoltaic cogeneration using Back to Back voltage source converters

reduce the overall system efficiency and increase the cost [12]. More importantly, the
cascaded connection of power converters requires rigorous controller’s coordination to avoid
the induced interactions dynamics, which might yield instabilities [25]-[26]. A back-to back
(BtB) voltage-source converter (VSC) connected to a doubly-fed induction generator is used
to interface a dc-DC converter-interfaced PV generator and an energy storage unit in[21]. In
[22], a PV generator charging a battery bank and interfaced to a wind driven induction
generator via a VSC is proposed. The wind-PV cogeneration systems in [21]-[22] highlights
the efficient integration of the renewable energy resources with the minimal utilization of
power-electronic conversion stages. However, these systems are proposed for specific off-
grid applications. In [12]-[14], the utility-grid integration of the renewable energy resources
has been improved by using multiple-input converters. A buck/buck-boost fused dc-dcs
converter is proposed in [12]. A dc-dc converter with a current-source interface and a coupled
transformer is proposed in [13] and [14], respectively. However, the proposed systems in
[12]-[14] are based on the dc power distribution which might not be the ideal distribution
medium in the ac-dominated power systems. Up to the authors’ best knowledge, the
combination of the grid-connected wind-PV systems has been solely addressed in[15]. The
system in [15] comprises a BtB VSCs to interface the PV and wind generators to the utility-
grid. On the machine-side-VSC, the dc-link voltage is regulated to the maximum Power point
tracking (MPPT) value of the PV panels by an outer loop proportional-and-integral (PI) dc
voltage controller. The reference values of the machine-side currents are calculated using the
synchronous detection method, and a hysteresis current controller is utilized for the
regulation. On the grid-side-VSC, a hysteresis grid-current controller is used to inject the
total currents into the utility-grid. In spite of the potential benefits of the proposed system in
[15],

The following challenges are noted:

1) The MPPT of either the PV and wind power involves the operation of both VSCs,
which in some cases might decrease the system reliability and increases the losses.
For instance, if the wind velocity is lower than the cut-off speed of the wind turbine,
i.e., no wind power, the machine-side VSC may be unable to track the solar PV
MPPT dc-link voltage [15].
2) The currents of the machine and grid-side converters are regulated using hysteresis
controllers resulting in a variable switching frequency and higher harmonic contents.
Motivated by the promising benefits of the wind-PV generation systems, this paper

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 Grid connected wind photovoltaic cogeneration using Back to Back voltage source converters

introduces a new topology, yet simple and efficient to interface both the wind and PV
generators into the utility-grid.

The contributions of this paper are as following:

1) The realization of the grid-connected wind-PV cogeneration system using BtB VSCs
with no extra dc/dc conversion stages.
2) Independent MPPT operation where the MPPT of the wind and PV generators is
solely achieved by the voltage-source rectifier (VSR), and the voltage-source inverter
(VSI), respectively.
3) The development of the complete small-signal state-space model of the wind-PV
cogeneration system to characterize the overall system stability.
4) The performance of proposed system has been investigated under different operating
conditions, including the utility grid faults, using time-domain simulations.

1.2 Objective of the Project

 To develop a simple, efficient and economical model of grid connected wind-PV
Cogeneration system.

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 Grid connected wind photovoltaic cogeneration using Back to Back voltage source converters

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE SURVEY AND EXISTING SYSTEM

2.1 Literature Survey

2.1.1 F. Blaabjerg, Z. Chen, and S. B. Kjaer are proposed the global electrical energy
consumption is rising and there is a steady increase of the demand on the power capacity,
efficient production, distribution and utilization of energy. The traditional power systems are
changing globally, a large number of dispersed generation (DG) units, including both
renewable and nonrenewable energy sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic (PV)
generators, fuel cells, small hydro, wave generators, and gas/steam powered combined heat
and power stations, are being integrated into power systems at the distribution level. Power
electronics, the technology of efficiently processing electric power, play an essential part in
the integration of the dispersed generation units for good efficiency and high performance of
the power systems. This paper reviews the applications of power electronics in the integration
of DG units, in particular, wind power, fuel cells and PV generators.

2.1.2 A. Yazdani and P. P. Dash, are proposed a control strategy for a single-stage, three-
phase, photovoltaic (PV) system that is connected to a distribution network. The control is
based on an inner current-control loop and an outer DC-link voltage regulator. The current-
control mechanism decouples the PV system dynamics from those of the network and the
loads. The DC-link voltage-control scheme enables control and maximization of the real
power output. Proper feed forward actions are proposed for the current-control loop to make
its dynamics independent of those of the rest of the system. Further, a feed forward
compensation mechanism is proposed for the DC-link voltage-control loop, to make the PV
system dynamics immune to the PV array nonlinear characteristic. This, in turn, permits the
design and optimization of the PV system controllers for a wide range of operating
conditions. A modal/sensitivity analysis is also conducted on a linearized model of the overall
system, to characterize dynamic properties of the system, to evaluate robustness of the

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controllers, and to identify the nature of interactions between the PV system and the
network/loads. The results of the modal analysis confirm that under the proposed control
strategy, dynamics of the PV system are decoupled from those of the distribution network
and, therefore, the PV system does not destabilize the distribution network. It is also shown
that the PV system dynamics are not influenced by those of the network (i.e., the PV system
maintains its stability and dynamic properties despite major variations in the line length,
line X / R ratio, load type, and load distance from the PV system).

2.1.3 L. Nousiainen, J. Puukko, A. Maki, T. Messo, J. Huusari, J. Jokipii. J.

Viinamaki, D. Lobera, S. Valkealahti, and T. Suntio, are proposed A photovoltaic (PV)
generator is internally a power-limited nonlinear current source having both constant-current-
and constant-voltage-like properties depending on the operating point. This paper investigates
the dynamic properties of a PV generator and demonstrates that it has a profound effect on
the operation of the interfacing converter. The most important properties an input source
should have in order to emulate a real PV generator are defined. These properties are
important, since a power electronic substitute is often used in the validation process instead
of a real PV generator. This paper also qualifies two commercial solar array simulators as an
example in terms of the defined properties. Investigations are based on extensive practical
measurements of real PV generators and the two commercial solar array simulators interfaced
with dc-dc as well as three- and single-phase dc-ac converters.

2.1.4 P. Mitra, L. Zhang, and L. Harnefors are proposed the application of a recently
invented power-synchronization control is proposed for integrating a doubly fed induction
generator (DFIG)-based offshore wind farm to a weak ac grid through a voltage-source
converter (VSC)-based high-voltage dc link. The control strategy, along with the ant windup
techniques and the bump less transfer between two different control modes, is elaborately
discussed. Two different fault cases, namely, onshore and offshore faults are considered and
the fault-ride through techniques are presented. In case of the onshore fault, both with-
chopper and without-chopper solutions are investigated. For an offshore fault, a coordinated
fault-ride through scheme is proposed when the offshore HVDC converter and the wind farm
are in voltage-control modes. The entire study is carried out in a real-time digital simulator
(RTDS) platform.

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2.1.5 Y. Wang, J. Meng, X. Zhang and L. Xu, are proposed investigates an improved active
power control method for variable speed wind turbine to enhance the inertial response and
damping capability during transient events. The optimized power point tracking (OPPT)
controller, which shifts the turbine operating point from the maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) curve to the virtual inertia control (VIC) curves according to the frequency
deviation, is proposed to release the “hidden” kinetic energy and provide dynamic frequency
support to the grid. The effects of the VIC on power oscillation damping capability are
theoretically evaluated. Compared to the conventional supplementary derivative regulator-
based inertia control, the proposed control scheme can not only provide fast inertial response,
but also increase the system damping capability during transient events. Thus, inertial
response and power oscillation damping function can be obtained in a single controller by the
proposed OPPT control. A prototype three-machine system containing two synchronous
generators and a PMSG-based wind turbine with 31% of wind penetration is tested to validate
the proposed control strategy on providing rapid inertial response and enhanced system
damping.

2.2 Existing Method

The combination of the grid-connected wind-PV systems has been presented.
The system comprises back to back VSCs to interface the PV and wind generators to the
utility-grid. On the machine-side- VSC, the dc-link voltage is regulated to the maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) value of the PV panels by an outer loop proportional-and-
integral (PI) dc voltage controller. The reference values of the machine-side currents are
calculated using the synchronous detection method, and a hysteresis current controller is
utilized for the regulation. On the grid-side-VSC, a hysteresis grid-current controller is used
to inject the total currents into the utility-grid.

2.3 Drawbacks
 The MPPT of either the PV and wind power involves the operation of both VSCs,
which in some cases might decrease the system reliability and increases the losses.
 If the wind velocity is lower than the cut-off speed of the wind turbine, i.e., no wind
power, the machine-side VSC may be unable to track the solar PV MPPT dc-link
voltage.
 The currents of the machine and grid-side converters are regulated using hysteresis
controllers resulting in a variable switching frequency and higher harmonic contents.

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CHAPTER III
MODELING OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

3.1 Construction
The proposed system consists of a VSR to interface the wind generator, and a VSI to
connect the cogeneration system into the utility-grid as shown in fig 1. The PV generator is
directly connected to the dc-link capacitor of the BtB VSCs via a dc cable [27]. The VSR
and VSI are two-level converters consisting of six cells; each comprises an insulated-gate-
bipolar transistor (IGBT) in parallel with a diode. In the following subsections, the complete
modeling and control of the proposed system is provided.

3.2 Wind Generator

A full-scale wind turbine (FSWT) utilizing a permanent magnet synchronous
generator (PMSG) is elected for its low maintenance and low operational cost [2]. The wind
turbine model is represented as following,

where 𝑃" is the mechanical power captured by the wind turbine blades; 𝐶' is the rotor
coefficient which is a non-linear function of the blade pitch angle (ϐ) and the tip-speed ratio
(𝜆); 𝜌is the air density; 𝑅is the radius of the wind turbine blade; 𝑣1234 is the wind speed; and
𝜔? is the mechanical speed of the rotor. In this paper, ϐ is set to zero in the normal operating
conditions to maximize the wind power generation [13]. The PMSG is modeled as following,

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 Grid connected wind photovoltaic cogeneration using Back to Back voltage source converters

In (2), 𝑣̅A and 𝚤̅A are the stator voltage and current in the complex vectors representation,

respectively, where a complex vector such that 𝑋4 and 𝑋N are the direct
(𝑑 −) and quadrature (𝑞 −) components of 𝑥̅ in the rotating reference frame; 𝑅A and 𝐿A are
the stator-winding resistance and inductance, respectively; 𝑗is the imaginary unit number; 𝜓is
the flux linkage of the rotor magnets; Ƥ is the number of poles pairs; 𝑇" is the mechanical
torque; whereas 𝐽and 𝛽are the motor inertia, and viscous friction, respectively.

3.3 Machine - Side Voltage Source Rectifier (VSR)

Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the mechanical rotor speed and the generated
wind-turbine power at different wind speeds. At any wind speed, there is an optimal value of
the mechanical rotor speed that corresponds to the generation of the maximum wind power.
The extraction of the maximum wind power is achieved by the VSR in Fig. 1. The MPPT

algorithm for the wind generator uses the wind speed to generate the

optimal value of the rotor speed following the mechanical characteristics in Fig. 2
[17], [19]. As shown in (4), a PI speed controller (𝐺A(𝑠) = 𝑔'A + 𝑔2A⁄𝑠) is implemented to

regulate the rotor speed to the optimal value and dictates the 𝑞-component of

stator current reference whereas the 𝑑-component of stator current reference is

set to zero to operate at the maximum produced torque [19].

Where ‘𝑠’ represents the differential operator. Solving (3) and (4), assuming 𝐼AN ≈ 𝐼AN∗
within the bandwidth of the speed controller (𝐺A(𝑠)), and setting 𝑔2A⁄𝑔'A = 𝛽⁄𝐽, the closed-
loop transfer-function of the speed controller becomes;

where the

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 Grid connected wind photovoltaic cogeneration using Back to Back voltage source converters

Band width is and is selected to be around 10% of the bandwidth of

the inner current controller [discussed in the following paragraph]. The speed controller
parameters, i.e., 𝑔'A and 𝑔2A, can be tuned accordingly. As shown in Fig. 1 and (5), a PI

current controller is employed so that the generated stator

currents of the PMSG follow the corresponding references in (4).

Where is the decoupling loops; 𝐻 is a gain;

Whereas the superscript “°” denotes the steady-state value of the variable. The current

controller in (5) is designed by solving (2) and (5). By setting the

closed loop transfer function of the current controller becomes;

where the bandwidth of the current controller is

and is to be around 10-20% of the switching frequency of the

VSR.

Fig.3.1 The proposed wind-PV cogeneration system.

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Fig 3.2 Mechanical characteristics of the wind turbine at different wind speeds.

Fig 3.3 Characteristics of the PV array at different solar irradiance level

3.3.1 Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is

a modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this
modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to
allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such
as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar
battery chargers,[1] the other being maximum power point tracking.

The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the

switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on
compared to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.

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The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load (the
device that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the load
must be as smooth as telecommunication.

Pulses of various lengths (the information itself) will be sent at regular intervals (the carrier
frequency of the modulation).

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Clock | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
__| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____

_ __ ____ ____ _
PWM signal | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
_________| |____| |___| |________| |_| |___________

Data 0 1 2 4 0 4 1 0

The inclusion of a clock signal is not necessary, as the leading edge of the data signal can be
used as the clock if a small offset is added to the data value in order to avoid a data value
with a zero length pulse.

_ __ ___ _____ _ _____ __ _

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
PWM signal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
__| |____| |___| |__| |_| |____| |_| |___| |_____

Data 0 1 2 4 0 4 1 0

3.3.2 A MPPT OR Maximum PowerPoint Tracker

The efficiency of a solar cell is very low. In order to increase the efficiency, methods are to
be undertaken to match the source and load properly. One such method is the Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT). This is a technique used to obtain the maximum possible
power from a varying source. In photovoltaic systems the I-V curve is non-linear, thereby
making it difficult to be used to power a certain load. This is done by utilizing a boost
converter whose duty cycle is varied by using a MPPT algorithm. Few of the many
algorithms are listed below.

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3.4 Methods for MPPT

There are many methods used for maximum power point tracking a few are listed below:
• Perturb and Observe method
• Incremental Conductance method
• Parasitic Capacitance method
• Constant Voltage method
• Constant Current method

3.4.1 Perturb and Observe Method

This method is the most common. In this method very less number of sensors are
utilized. The operating voltage is sampled and the algorithm changes the operating voltage in
the required direction and samples𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉. If 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉 is positive, then the algorithm increases
the voltage value towards the MPP until 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉is negative. This iteration is continued until
the algorithm finally reaches the MPP. This algorithm is not suitable when the variation in the
solar irradiation is high. The voltage never actually reaches an exact value but perturbs
around the maximum power point (MPP).

3.4.2 Incremental Conductance Method

This method uses the PV array's incremental conductance 𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑉to compute the sign
of𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉. When 𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑉is equal and opposite to the value of I/V (where 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉=0) the
algorithm knows that the maximum power point is reached and thus it terminates and returns
the corresponding value of operating voltage for MPP. This method tracks rapidly changing
irradiation conditions more accurately than P&O method. One complexity in this method is
that it requires many sensors to operate and hence is economically less effective.

P=V*I
Differentiating w.r.t voltage yields;

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When the maximum power point is reached the slope 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉=0. Thus the condition
would be;

3.4.3 Parasitic Capacitance Method

This method is an improved version of the incremental conductance method, with the
improvement being that the effect of the PV cell's parasitic union capacitance is included into
the voltage calculation [5] and [6].

3.4.4 Constant Voltage Method

This method which is a not so widely used method because of the losses during
operation is dependent on the relation between the open circuit voltage and the maximum
power point voltage. The ratio of these two voltages is generally constant for a solar cell,
roughly around 0.76. Thus the open circuit voltage is obtained experimentally and the
operating voltage is adjusted to 76% of this value.

3.4.5 Constant Current Method

Similar to the constant voltage method, this method is dependent on the relation
between the open circuit current and the maximum power point current. The ratio of these
two currents is generally constant for a solar cell, roughly around 0.95. Thus the short circuit
current is obtained experimentally and the operating current is adjusted to 95% of this value.

The methods have certain advantages and certain disadvantages. Choice is to be made
regarding which algorithm to be utilized looking at the need of the algorithm and the
operating conditions. For example, if the required algorithm is to be simple and not much

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effort is given on the reduction of the voltage ripple then P&O is suitable. But if the
algorithm is to give a definite operating point and the voltage fluctuation near the MPP is to
be reduced then the IC method is suitable, but this would make the operation complex and
more costly.

CHAPTER IV
FLOW CHARTS AND MPPT

4.1 Flow Charts of MPPT Algorithms

Two of the most widely used methods for maximum power point racking are studied
here. The methods are
1. Perturb & Observe Method.
2. Incremental Conductance Method.

The flow charts for the two methods are shown below.
Flow chart for perturb & observe

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Fig.4.1 Flow chart of perturb & observe

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Fig.4.2. Flow chart of incremental conductance method

These two algorithms are implemented using the Embedded MATLAB function of
Simulink, where the codes written inside the function block are utilized to vary certain signals
with respect to the input signals.

4.2 MPPT:

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MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge

controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain
conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called
‘maximum power point’ (or peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar
radiation, ambient temperature and solar cell temperature. Typical PV module produces
power with maximum power voltage of around 17 V when measured at a cell temperature of
25°C, it can drop to around 15 V on a very hot day and it can also rise to 18 V on a very
cold day.

A MPPT or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that

optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery bank or utility grid.
To put it simply, they convert a higher voltage DC output from solar panels (and a few wind
generators) down to the lower voltage needed to charge batteries.

(These are sometimes called "power point trackers" for short - not to be confused with
PANEL trackers, which are a solar panel mount that follows, or tracks, the sun).

4.2.1 MPPT Charge Controller

A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller embedded with MPPT

algorithm to maximize the amount of current going into the battery from PV module.

MPPT is DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC input from PV module,

changing it to AC and converting it back to a different DC voltage and current to exactly
match the PV module to the battery.

4.3 How Maximum Power Point Tracking Works

Here is where the optimization or maximum power point tracking comes in. Assume
your battery is low, at 12 volts. A MPPT takes that 17.6 volts at 7.4 amps and converts it
down, so that what the battery gets is now 10.8 amps at 12 volts. Now you still have almost
130 watts, and everyone is happy.

Ideally, for 100% power conversion you would get around 11.3 amps at 11.5 volts,
but you have to feed the battery a higher voltage to force the amps in. And this is a
simplified explanation - in actual fact the output of the MPPT charge controller might vary
continually to adjust for getting the maximum amps into the battery.

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On the left is a screen shot from the Maui Solar Software "PV Design Pro" computer
program (click on picture for full size image). If you look at the green line, you will see that
it has a sharp peak at the upper right - that represents the maximum power point. What an
MPPT controller does is "look" for that exact point, and then does the voltage/current
conversion to change it to exactly what the battery needs. In real life, that peak moves
around continuously with changes in light conditions and weather.

A MPPT tracks the maximum power point, which is going to be different from the
STC (Standard Test Conditions) rating under almost all situations. Under very cold
conditions a 120 watt panel is actually capable of putting over 130+ watts because the
power output goes up as panel temperature goes down - but if you don't have some way of
tracking that power point, you are going to lose it. On the other hand under very hot
conditions, the power drops - you lose power as the temperature goes up. That is why you
get less gain in summer.

4.4 MPPT's are Most Effective Under These Conditions

Winter, and/or cloudy or hazy days - when the extra power is needed the most.

 Cold weather - solar panels work better at cold temperatures, but without a MPPT you
are losing most of that. Cold weather is most likely in winter - the time when sun
hours are low and you need the power to recharge batteries the most.
 Low battery charge - the lower the state of charge in your battery, the more current a
MPPT puts into them - another time when the extra power is needed the most. You can
have both of these conditions at the same time.
 Long wire runs - If you are charging a 12 volt battery, and your panels are 100 feet
away, the voltage drop and power loss can be considerable unless you use very large
wire. That can be very expensive. But if you have four 12 volt panels wired in series

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for 48 volts, the power loss is much less, and the controller will convert that high
voltage to 12 volts at the battery. That also means that if you have a high voltage panel
setup feeding the controller, you can use much smaller wire.

4.5 How A Maximum Power Point Tracker Works

The Power point tracker is a high frequency DC to DC converter. They take the DC
input from the solar panels, change it to high frequency AC, and convert it back down to a
different DC voltage and current to exactly match the panels to the batteries. MPPT's
operate at very high audio frequencies, usually in the 20-80 kHz range. The advantage of
high frequency circuits is that they can be designed with very high efficiency transformers
and small components. The design of high frequency circuits can be very tricky because the
problems with portions of the circuit "broadcasting" just like a radio transmitter and causing
radio and TV interference. Noise isolation and suppression becomes very important.

There are a few non-digital (that is, linear) MPPT's charge controls around. These are
much easier and cheaper to build and design than the digital ones. They do improve
efficiency somewhat, but overall the efficiency can vary a lot - and we have seen a few lose
their "tracking point" and actually get worse. That can happen occasionally if a cloud passed
over the panel - the linear circuit searches for the next best point, but then gets too far out on
the deep end to find it again when the sun comes out.

The power point tracker (and all DC to DC converters) operates by taking the DC
input current, changing it to AC, running through a transformer (usually a torrid, a doughnut
looking transformer), and then rectifying it back to DC, followed by the output regulator. In
most DC to DC converters, this is strictly an electronic process - no real smarts are involved
except for some regulation of the output voltage. Charge controllers for solar panels need a
lot more smarts as light and temperature conditions vary continuously all day long, and
battery voltage changes.

CHAPTER V
WIND ENERGY

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5.1 Wind Energy and Wind Power

Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the
atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind
flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This
wind flow, or motion energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to
generate electricity.

5.2 How Wind Power Is Generated

The terms "wind energy" or "wind power" describe the process by which the wind is
used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy
in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks
(such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power
into electricity to power homes, businesses, schools, and the like.

5.3 Wind Turbines

Wind turbines, like aircraft propeller blades, turn in the moving air and power an
electric generator that supplies an electric current. Simply stated, a wind turbine is the
opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind
to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a
generator and makes electricity.

5.3.1 Wind Turbine Types

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups; the horizontal-axis variety, like the
traditional farm windmills used for pumping water, and the vertical-axis design, like the
eggbeater-style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. Most large modern wind
turbines are horizontal-axis turbines.

5.3.2 Turbine Components

Horizontal turbine components include:

 blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft energy;

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 a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a generator;

 a tower that supports the rotor and drive train; and
 Other equipment, including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment, and
interconnection equipment.

5.3.2 Turbine Configurations

Wind turbines are often grouped together into a single wind power plant, also known
as a wind farm, and generate bulk electrical power. Electricity from these turbines is fed into
a utility grid and distributed to customers, just as with conventional power plants.

5.3.4 Wind Turbine Size and Power Ratings

Wind turbines are available in a variety of sizes, and therefore power ratings. The
largest machine has blades that span more than the length of a football field, stands 20
building stories high, and produces enough electricity to power 1,400 homes. A small home-
sized wind machine has rotors between 8 and 25 feet in diameter and stands upwards of 30
feet and can supply the power needs of an all-electric home or small business. Utility-scale
turbines range in size from 50 to 750 kilowatts. Single small turbines, below 50 kilowatts, are
used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or water pumping.

5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind-Generated Electricity

5.4.1 Renewable Non-Polluting Resource

Wind energy is a free, renewable resource, so no matter how much is used today,
there will still be the same supply in the future. Wind energy is also a source of clean, non-
polluting, electricity. Unlike conventional power plants, wind plants emit no air pollutants or
greenhouse gases. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, in 1990, California's wind
power plants offset the emission of more than 2.5 billion pounds of carbon dioxide, and 15
million pounds of other pollutants that would have otherwise been produced. It would take a
forest of 90 million to 175 million trees to provide the same air quality.

5.4.2 Cost Issues

Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10 years,
the technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators. Roughly

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80% of the cost is the machinery, with the balance being site preparation and installation. If
wind generating systems are compared with fossil-fueled systems on a "life-cycle" cost basis
(counting fuel and operating expenses for the life of the generator), however, wind costs are
much more competitive with other generating technologies because there is no fuel to
purchase and minimal operating expenses.

5.4.3 Environmental Concerns

Although wind power plants have relatively little impact on the environment
compared to fossil fuel power plants, there is some concern over the noise produced by the
rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and birds and bats having been killed (avian/bat
mortality) by flying into the rotors. Most of these problems have been resolved or greatly
reduced through technological development or by properly sitting wind plants.

5.4.4 Supply and Transport Issues

The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that it is intermittent and
does not always blow when electricity is needed. Wind cannot be stored (although wind-
generated electricity can be stored, if batteries are used), and not all winds can be harnessed
to meet the timing of electricity demands. Further, good wind sites are often located in
remote locations far from areas of electric power demand (such as cities). Finally, wind
resource development may compete with other uses for the land, and those alternative uses
may be more highly valued than electricity generation. However, wind turbines can be
located on land that is also used for grazing or even farming.

5.5 History

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Charles Brush's windmill of 1888, used for generating electricity.

Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind. For more
than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind
power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later,
requiring sources of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and
in arid regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps
provided water for live stock and steam engines.

With the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in
lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power. Throughout the 20th century
parallel paths developed small wind stations suitable for farms or residences, and larger
utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to electricity grids for remote use of
power. Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny stations for
battery charging at isolated residences, up to near-giga watt sized offshore wind farms that
provide electricity to national electrical networks.

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of
electricity. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines
distributed over an extended area, but the land between the turbines may be used for
agricultural or other purposes. For example, Gansu Wind Farm, the largest wind farm in the
world, has several thousand turbines. A wind farm may also be located offshore. Almost all
large wind turbines have the same design a horizontal axis wind turbine having an upwind
rotor with three blades, attached to a nacelle on top of a tall tubular tower.

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In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often
34.5 kV), power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this
medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to
the high voltage electric power transmission system.

5.6 Generator Characteristics and Stability:

Induction generators, which were often used for wind power projects in the 1980s and
1990s, require reactive power for excitation so substations used in wind-power collection
systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction. Different types of
wind turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances, so
extensive modeling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new wind farm is
required by transmission system operators to ensure predictable stable behavior during
system faults. In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage during
faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators.

Today these generators aren't used any more in modern turbines. Instead today most
turbines use variable speed generators combined with partial- or full-scale power converter
between the turbine generator and the collector system, which generally have more desirable
properties for grid interconnection and have Low voltage ride through-capabilities. Modern
concepts use either doubly fed machines with partial-scale converters or squirrel-cage
induction generators or synchronous generators (both permanently and electrically excited)
with full scale converters.

Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to
specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include power
factor, constancy of frequency and dynamic behavior of the wind farm turbines during a
system fault.

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5.7 Offshore Wind Power:

The world's second full-scale floating wind turbine (and first to be installed without
the use of heavy-lift vessels), Wind Float, operating at rated capacity (2 MW) approximately
5 km offshore of Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal
Main articles: Offshore wind power and List of offshore wind farms

Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in large bodies of water
to generate electricity. These installations can utilize the more frequent and powerful winds
that are available in these locations and have less aesthetic impact on the landscape than land
based projects. However, the construction and the maintenance costs are considerably higher.

Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind power. DONG
Energy, Vattenfall and E.ON are the leading offshore operators. As of October 2010, 3.16
GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According
to BTM Consult, more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of
2014 and the UK and Germany will become the two leading markets. Offshore wind power
capacity is expected to reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant
contributions from China and the US.

5.8 Collection and Transmission Network

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (usually
34.5 kV) power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this
medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to
the high voltage electric power transmission system.

A transmission line is required to bring the generated power to (often remote)

markets. For an off-shore plant this may require a submarine cable. Construction of a new

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high-voltage line may be too costly for the wind resource alone, but wind sites may take
advantage of lines installed for conventionally fueled generation.

One of the biggest current challenges to wind power grid integration in the United
States is the necessity of developing new transmission lines to carry power from wind farms,
usually in remote lowly populated states in the middle of the country due to availability of
wind, to high load locations, usually on the coasts where population density is higher. The
current transmission lines in remote locations were not designed for the transport of large
amounts of energy. As transmission lines become longer the losses associated with power
transmission increase, as modes of losses at lower lengths are exacerbated and new modes of
losses are no longer negligible as the length is increased, making it harder to transport large
loads over large distances. However, resistance from state and local governments makes it
difficult to construct new transmission lines. Multi state power transmission projects are
discouraged by states with cheap electricity rates for fear that exporting their cheap power
will lead to increased rates. A 2005 energy law gave the Energy Department authority to
approve transmission projects states refused to act on, but after an attempt to use this
authority, the Senate declared the department was being overly aggressive in doing so.
Another problem is that wind companies find out after the fact that the transmission capacity
of a new farm is below the generation capacity, largely because federal utility rules to
encourage renewable energy installation allow feeder lines to meet only minimum standards.
These are important issues that need to be solved, as when the transmission capacity does not
meet the generation capacity, wind farms are forced to produce below their full potential or
stop running all together, in a process known as curtailment. While this leads to potential
renewable generation left untapped, it prevents possible grid overload or risk to reliable
service.

5.9 Various Factors of Wind Power

5.9.1 Growth Trend

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Worldwide installed wind power capacity forecast (Global Wind Energy Council)

In 2010, more than half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional
markets in Europe and North America. This was largely from new construction in China,
which accounted for nearly half the new wind installations (16.5 GW).

Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show that 2007 recorded an increase of
installed capacity of 20 GW, taking the total installed wind energy capacity to 94 GW, up
from 74 GW in 2006. Despite constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual
market for wind continued to increase at an estimated rate of 37%, following 32% growth in
2006. In terms of economic value, the wind energy sector has become one of the important
players in the energy markets, with the total value of new generating equipment installed in
2007 reaching €25 billion, or US$36 billion.

Although the wind power industry was affected by the global financial crisis in 2009
and 2010, a BTM Consult five-year forecast up to 2013 projects substantial growth. Over the
past five years the average growth in new installations has been 27.6% each year. In the
forecast to 2013 the expected average annual growth rate is 15.7%. More than 200 GW of
new wind power capacity could come on line before the end of 2014. Wind power market
penetration is expected to reach 3.35% by 2013 and 8% by 2018.In 2013 wind power
constituted 13% of installed power generation capacity in the EU and generated 7.8% of
power used

5.9.2 Capacity Factor

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as
much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year.
The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity

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factor. Typical capacity factors are 15–50%; values at the upper end of the range are achieved
in favorable sites and are due to wind turbine design improvements.

Online data is available for some locations, and the capacity factor can be
calculated from the yearly output. For example, the German nationwide average wind
power capacity factor over all of 2012 was just under 17.5%
(45867 GW·h/yr. / (29.9 GW × 24 × 366) = 0.1746), and the capacity factor for
Scottish wind farms averaged 24% between 2008 and 2010.

Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is affected by several parameters,
including the variability of the wind at the site and the size of the generator relative to the
turbine's swept area. A small generator would be cheaper and achieve a higher capacity factor
but would produce less electricity (and thus less profit) in high winds. Conversely, a large
generator would cost more but generate little extra power and, depending on the type, may
stall out at low wind speed. Thus an optimum capacity factor of around 40–50% would be
aimed for.

A 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy noted that the capacity
factor of new wind installations was increasing as the technology improves, and projected
further improvements for future capacity factors. In 2010, the department estimated the
capacity factor of new wind turbines in 2010 to be 45%. The annual average capacity factor
for wind generation in the US has varied between 28.1% and 32.3% during the period 2008–
2013.

Wind energy penetration refers to the fraction of energy produced by wind compared
with the total generation. There is no generally accepted maximum level of wind penetration.
The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing
mechanisms, capacity for energy storage, demand management and other factors. An
interconnected electricity grid will already include reserve generatingand transmission
capacity to allow for equipment failures. This reserve capacity can also serve to compensate
for the varying power generation produced by wind stations. Studies have indicated that 20%
of the total annual electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal
difficulty. These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms,
some degree of dispatch able energy or hydropower with storage capacity, demand
management, and interconnected to a large grid area enabling the export of electricity when

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needed. Beyond the 20% level, there are few technical limits, but the economic implications
become more significant. Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large scale
penetration of wind generation on system stability and economics.

A wind energy penetration figure can be specified for different durations of time, but
is often quoted annually. To obtain 100% from wind annually requires substantial long term
storage or substantial interconnection to other systems which may already have substantial
storage. On a monthly, weekly, daily or hourly basis or less wind might supply as much as or
more than 100% of current use, with the rest stored or exported. Seasonal industry might then
take advantage of high wind and low usage times such as at night when wind output can
exceed normal demand. Such industry might include production of silicon, aluminum, steel,
or of natural gas, and hydrogen, and using future long term storage to facilitate 100% energy
from variable renewable energy. Homes can also be programmed to accept extra electricity
on demand, for example by remotely turning up water heater thermostats.

5.9.3 Variability

Windmills are typically installed in favorable windy locations. In the image, wind
power generators in Spain, near an Osborne bull.

Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different
timescales: hourly, daily, or seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant.
Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to
maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating
large amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatch able
nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental operating
reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could require an increase in the already existing
energy demand management, load shedding, storage solutions or system interconnection with
HVDC cables.

Wind power is variable, and during low wind periods it must be replaced by other
power sources. Transmission networks presently cope with outages of other generation plants
and daily changes in electrical demand, but the variability of intermittent power sources such
as wind power, are unlike those of conventional power generation plants which, when

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scheduled to be operating, may be able to deliver their nameplate capacity around 95% of the
time.

Presently, grid systems with large wind penetration require a small increase in the
frequency of usage of natural gas spinning reserve power plants to prevent a loss of
electricity in the event that conditions are not favorable for power production from the wind.
At lower wind power grid penetration, this is less of an issue.

GE has installed a prototype wind turbine with onboard battery similar to that of an
electric car, equivalent of 1 minute of production. Despite the small capacity, it is enough to
guarantee that power output complies with forecast for 15 minutes, as the battery is used to
eliminate the difference rather than provide full output. The increased predictability can be
used to take wind power penetration from 20 to 30 or 40 per cent. The battery cost can be
retrieved by selling burst power on demand and reducing backup needs from gas plants.

A report on Denmark's wind power noted that their wind power network provided less
than 1% of average demand on 54 days during the year 2002. Wind power advocates argue
that these periods of low wind can be dealt with by simply restarting existing power stations
that have been held in readiness, or interlinking with HVDC. Electrical grids with slow-
responding thermal power plants and without ties to networks with hydroelectric generation
may have to limit the use of wind power. According to a 2007 Stanford University study
published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, interconnecting ten or
more wind farms can allow an average of 33% of the total energy produced (i.e. about 8% of
total nameplate capacity) to be used as reliable, base load electric power which can be relied
on to handle peak loads, as long as minimum criteria are met for wind speed and turbine
height.

Conversely, on particularly windy days, even with penetration levels of 16%, wind
power generation can surpass all other electricity sources in a country. In Spain, in the early
hours of 16 April 2012 wind power production reached the highest percentage of electricity
production till then, at 60.46% of the total demand. In Denmark, which had power market
penetration of 30% in 2013, over 90 hours, wind power generated 100% of the country's
power, peaking at 122% of the country's demand at 2 am on 28 October.

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A 2006 International Energy Agency forum presented costs for managing

intermittency as a function of wind-energy's share of total capacity for several countries, as
shown in the table on the right. Three reports on the wind variability in the UK issued in
2009, generally agree that variability of wind needs to be taken into account, but it does not
make the grid unmanageable. The additional costs, which are modest, can be quantified.

The combination of diversifying variable renewable by type and location, forecasting

their variation, and integrating them with dispatch able renewable, flexible fueled generators
and demand response can create a power system that has the potential to meet power supply
needs reliably. Integrating ever-higher levels of renewable is being successfully demonstrated
in the real world:

In 2009, eight American and three European authorities, writing in the leading
electrical engineers' professional journal, didn't find "a credible and firm technical limit to the
amount of wind energy that can be accommodated by electricity grids". In fact, not one of
more than 200 international studies, nor official studies for the eastern and western US
regions nor the International Energy Agency has found major costs or technical barriers to
reliably integrating up to 30% variable renewable supplies into the grid, and in some studies
much more. – Reinventing Fire

Solar power tends to be complementary to wind. On daily to weekly timescales, high

pressure areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds, whereas low pressure areas
tend to be windier and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy peaks in summer,
whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter. Thus the
intermittencies of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat. In 2007 the
Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a
combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydro storage to provide load-
following power around the clock and throughout the year, entirely from renewable sources.

5.9.4 Predictability

Wind power forecasting methods are used, but predictability of any particular wind
farm is low for short-term operation. For any particular generator there is an 80% chance that
wind output will change less than 10% in an hour and a 40% chance that it will change 10%
or more in 5 hours.

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Thus, while the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind
speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power
output becomes less variable and more predictable.

Wind power hardly ever suffers major technical failures, since failures of individual
wind turbines have hardly any effect on overall power, so that the distributed wind power is
reliable and predictable, whereas conventional generators, while far less variable, can suffer
major unpredictable outages.

5.9.5 Energy Storage

The Sir Adam Beck Generating Complex at Niagara Falls, Canada, includes a large
pumped-storage hydroelectricity reservoir. During hours of low electrical demand excess
electrical grid power is used to pump water up into the reservoir, which then provides an
extra 174 MW of electricity during periods of peak demand.

Typically, conventional hydroelectricity complements wind power very well. When

the wind is blowing strongly nearby hydroelectric stations can temporarily hold back their
water. When the wind drops they can, provided they have the generation capacity, rapidly
increase production to compensate. This gives a very even overall power supply and virtually
no loss of energy and uses no more water.

Alternatively, where a suitable head of water is not available, pumped-storage

hydroelectricity or other forms of grid energy storage such as compressed air energy storage
and thermal energy storage can store energy developed by high-wind periods and release it
when needed.[112] The type of storage needed depends on the wind penetration level – low
penetration requires daily storage, and high penetration requires both short and long term
storage – as long as a month or more. Stored energy increases the economic value of wind
energy since it can be shifted to displace higher cost generation during peak demand periods.
The potential revenue from this arbitrage can offset the cost and losses of storage; the cost of
storage may add 25% to the cost of any wind energy stored but it is not envisaged that this
would apply to a large proportion of wind energy generated. For example, in the UK, the 1.7
GW Dinorwig pumped-storage plant evens out electrical demand peaks, and allows base-load
suppliers to run their plants more efficiently. Although pumped-storage power systems are
only about 75% efficient, and have high installation costs, their low running costs and ability

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to reduce the required electrical base-load can save both fuel and total electrical generation
costs.

In particular geographic regions, peak wind speeds may not coincide with peak
demand for electrical power. In the U.S. states of California and Texas, for example, hot days
in summer may have low wind speed and high electrical demand due to the use of air
conditioning. Some utilities subsidize the purchase of geothermal heat pumps by their
customers, to reduce electricity demand during the summer months by making air
conditioning up to 70% more efficient; widespread adoption of this technology would better
match electricity demand to wind availability in areas with hot summers and low summer
winds. A possible future option may be to interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas
with an HVDC "super grid". In the U.S. it is estimated that to upgrade the transmission
system to take in planned or potential renewable would cost at least $60 billion, while the
society value of added wind power would be more than that cost.

Germany has an installed capacity of wind and solar that can exceed daily demand,
and has been exporting peak power to neighboring countries, with exports which amounted to
some 14.7 billion kilowatt hours in 2012. a more practical solution is the installation of thirty
days storage capacity able to supply 80% of demand, which will become necessary when
most of Europe's energy is obtained from wind power and solar power. Just as the EU
requires member countries to maintain 90 days strategic reserves of oil it can be expected that
countries will provide electricity storage, instead of expecting to use their neighbors for net
metering.

5.9.6 Capacity Credit Fuel Savings and Energy Payback

The capacity credit of wind is estimated by determining the capacity of conventional

plants displaced by wind power, whilst maintaining the same degree of system security.
However, the precise value is irrelevant since the main value of wind is its fuel and CO 2
savings, and wind is not expected to be constantly available.

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The energy needed to build a wind farm divided into the total output over its life,
Energy Return on Energy Invested, of wind power varies but averages about 20–25. Thus, the
energy payback time is typically around one year.

5.9.7 Economics

Wind turbines reached grid parity (the point at which the cost of wind power matches
traditional sources) in some areas of Europe in the mid-2000s, and in the US around the same
time. Falling prices continue to drive the levelized cost down and it has been suggested that it
has reached general grid parity in Europe in 2010, and will reach the same point in the US
around 2016 due to an expected reduction in capital costs of about 12%.

5.9.8 Electricity Cost and Trends

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory projects that the levelized cost of wind
power in the U.S. will decline about 25% from 2012 to 2030. Wind power is capital
intensive, but has no fuel costs. The price of wind power is therefore much more stable than
the volatile prices of fossil fuel sources. The marginal cost of wind energy once a station is
constructed is usually less than 1-cent per kWh.

The cost has reduced as wind turbine technology has improved. There are now longer
and lighter wind turbine blades, improvements in turbine performance and increased power
generation efficiency. Also, wind project capital and maintenance costs have continued to
decline. For example, the wind industry in the USA in early 2014 were able to produce more
power at lower cost by using taller wind turbines with longer blades, capturing the faster
winds at higher elevations. This has opened up new opportunities and in Indiana, Michigan,
and Ohio, the price of power from wind turbines built 300 feet to 400 feet above the ground
can now compete with conventional fossil fuels like coal. Prices have fallen to about 4 cents
per kilowatt-hour in some cases and utilities have been increasing the amount of wind energy
in their portfolio, saying it is their cheapest option.

5.9.9 Incentives and Community Benefits

The U.S. wind industry generates tens of thousands of jobs and billions of dollars of
economic activity.[150] Wind projects provide local taxes or payments in lieu of taxes and
strengthen the economy of rural communities by providing income to farmers with wind

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turbines on their land.[148][151] Wind energy in many jurisdictions receives financial or other
support to encourage its development. Wind energy benefits from subsidies in many
jurisdictions, either to increase its attractiveness, or to compensate for subsidies received by
other forms of production which have significant negative externalities.

Secondary market forces also provide incentives for businesses to use wind-generated
power, even if there is a premium price for the electricity. For example, socially responsible
manufacturers pay utility companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind
power infrastructure. Companies use wind-generated power, and in return they can claim that
they are undertaking strong "green" efforts. In the US the organization Green-e monitors
business compliance with these renewable energy credits.

5.9.10 Small-Scale Wind Power

A small Quiet revolution QR5 Gorlov type vertical axis wind turbine on the roof of
Colston Hall in Bristol, England. Measuring 3 m in diameter and 5 m high, it has a name
plate rating of 6.5 kW.

Small-scale wind power is the name given to wind generation systems with the capacity to
produce up to 50 kW of electrical power. Isolated communities, that may otherwise rely on
diesel generators, may use wind turbines as an alternative. Individuals may purchase these
systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electricity for economic reasons, or

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to reduce their carbon footprint. Wind turbines have been used for household electricity
generation in conjunction with battery storage over many decades in remote areas.

Recent examples of small-scale wind power projects in an urban setting can be found
in New York City, where, since 2009, a number of building projects have capped their roofs
with Gorlov-type helical wind turbines. Although the energy they generate is small compared
to the buildings' overall consumption, they help to reinforce the building's 'green' credentials
in ways that "showing people your high-tech boiler" cannot, with some of the projects also
receiving the direct support of the New York State Energy Research and Development
Authority.

Grid-connected domestic wind turbines may use grid energy storage, thus replacing
purchased electricity with locally produced power when available. The surplus power
produced by domestic micro generators can, in some jurisdictions, be fed into the network
and sold to the utility company, producing a retail credit for the micro generators' owners to
offset their energy costs.

Off-grid system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries,
photovoltaic or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine. Equipment such as parking
meters, traffic warning signs, street lighting, or wireless Internet gateways may be powered
by a small wind turbine, possibly combined with a photovoltaic system that charges a small
battery replacing the need for a connection to the power grid.

A Carbon Trust study into the potential of small-scale wind energy in the UK,
published in 2010, found that small wind turbines could provide up to 1.5 terawatt hours
(TWh) per year of electricity (0.4% of total UK electricity consumption), saving 0.6 million
tons of carbon dioxide (Mt CO2) emission savings. This is based on the assumption that 10%
of households would install turbines at costs competitive with grid electricity, around 12
pence (US 19 cents) a kWh. A report prepared for the UK's government-sponsored Energy
Saving Trust in 2006, found that home power generators of various kinds could provide 30 to
40% of the country's electricity needs by 2050. Distributed generation from renewable
resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change. The
electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units with the utility system
can include additional functions, such as the active filtering to enhance the power quality.

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5.9.11 Environmental Effects

The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental

impacts of fossil fuels is relatively minor. According to the IPCC, in assessments of the life-
cycle global warming potential of energy sources, wind turbines have a median value of
between 12 and 11 (gCO2eq/kWh) depending on whether off- or onshore turbines are being
assessed. Compared with other low carbon power sources, wind turbines have some of the
lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated.

While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture
are compatible with it, as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made
unavailable for use.

There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other
artificial structures. The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant,
depending on specific circumstances. Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities, and
protection of peat bogs, affect the sitting and operation of wind turbines.

Wind turbines generate some noise. At a residential distance of 300 meters (980 ft.)
this may be around 45 dB, which is slightly louder than a refrigerator. At 1 mile (1.6 km)
distance they become inaudible. There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects from
noise on people who live very close to wind turbines. Peer-reviewed research has generally
not supported these claims. Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the
visual landscape are significant. Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected
landscapes.

5.9.12 Central Government

Nuclear power and fossil fuels are subsidized by many governments, and wind power
and other forms of renewable energy are also often subsidized. For example, a 2009 study by
the Environmental Law Institute assessed the size and structure of U.S. energy subsidies over
the 2002–2008 periods. The study estimated that subsidies to fossil-fuel based sources
amounted to approximately $72 billion over this period and subsidies to renewable fuel
sources totaled $29 billion. In the United States, the federal government has paid
US$74 billion for energy subsidies to support R&D for nuclear power ($50 billion) and fossil

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fuels ($24 billion) from 1973 to 2003. During this same time frame, renewable energy
technologies and energy efficiency received a total of US$26 billion. It has been suggested
that a subsidy shift would help to level the playing field and support growing energy sectors,
namely solar power, wind power, and bio fuels. History shows that no energy sector was
developed without subsidies.

5.9.13 Public Opinion

Environmental group members are both more in favor of wind power (74%) as well as more
opposed (24%). Few are undecided.

Surveys of public attitudes across Europe and in many other countries show strong
public support for wind power. About 80% of EU citizens support wind power. In Germany,
where wind power has gained very high social acceptance, hundreds of thousands of people
have invested in citizens' wind farms across the country and thousands of small and medium-
sized enterprises are running successful businesses in a new sector that in 2008 employed
90,000 people and generated 8% of Germany's electricity. Although wind power is a popular
form of energy generation, the construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed, often
for aesthetic reasons.

In a survey conducted by Angus Reid Strategies in October 2007, 89 per cent of

respondents said that using renewable energy sources like wind or solar power was positive
for Canada, because these sources were better for the environment. Only 4 per cent
considered using renewable sources as negative since they can be unreliable and expensive.
According to a Saint Consulting survey in April 2007, wind power was the alternative energy
source most likely to gain public support for future development in Canada, with only 16%
opposed to this type of energy. By contrast, 3 out of 4 Canadians opposed nuclear power
developments.

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A 2003 survey of residents living around Scotland's 10 existing wind farms found
high levels of community acceptance and strong support for wind power, with much support
from those who lived closest to the wind farms. The results of this survey support those of an
earlier Scottish Executive survey 'Public attitudes to the Environment in Scotland 2002',
which found that the Scottish public would prefer the majority of their electricity to come
from renewable, and which rated wind power as the cleanest source of renewable energy. A
survey conducted in 2005 showed that 74% of people in Scotland agree that wind farms are
necessary to meet current and future energy needs. When people were asked the same
question in a Scottish renewable study conducted in 2010, 78% agreed. The increase is
significant as there were twice as many wind farms in 2010 as there were in 2005. The 2010
survey also showed that 52% disagreed with the statement that wind farms are "ugly and a
blot on the landscape". 59% agreed that wind farms were necessary and that how they looked
was unimportant. Scotland is planning to obtain 100% of electricity from renewable sources
by 2020.

In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farm projects. The hundreds of
thousands of people who have become involved in Germany's small and medium-sized wind

5.10 Turbine Design

5.10.1 Typical wind Turbine Components 

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1) Foundation
2) Connection to the electric grid
3) Tower
4) Access ladder
5) Wind orientation control (Yaw control)
6) Nacelle
7) Generator
8) Anemometer
9) Electric or Mechanical Brake
10) Gearbox
11) Rotor blade
12) Blade pitch control
13) Rotor hub.

Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted
into position

Wind turbines are devices that convert the wind's kinetic energy into electrical power.
The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today's
wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of horizontal axis and vertical axis types. The
smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power.
Slightly larger turbines can be used for making small contributions to a domestic power
supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid. Arrays
of large turbines, known as wind farms, have become an increasingly important source of
renewable energy and are used in many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance
on fossil fuels.

Wind turbine design is the process of defining the form and specifications of a wind
turbine to extract energy from the wind. A wind turbine installation consists of the necessary

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systems needed to capture the wind's energy, point the turbine into the wind, convert
mechanical rotation into electrical power, and other systems to start, stop, and control the
turbine.

In 1919 the German physicist Albert Betz showed that for a hypothetical ideal wind-
energy extraction machine, the fundamental laws of conservation of mass and energy allowed
no more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind to be captured. This Betz limit
can be approached in modern turbine designs, which may reach 70 to 80% of the theoretical
Betz limit.

The aero dynamics of a wind turbine are not straight forward. The air flow at the
blades is not the same as the airflow far away from the turbine. The very nature of the way in
which energy is extracted from the air also causes air to be deflected by the turbine. In
addition the aerodynamics of a wind turbine at the rotor surface exhibit phenomena that are
rarely seen in other aerodynamic fields. The shape and dimensions of the blades of the wind
turbine are determined by the aerodynamic performance required to efficiently extract energy
from the wind, and by the strength required to resist the forces on the blade.

In addition to the aerodynamic design of the blades, the design of a complete wind
power system must also address the design of the installation's rotor hub, nacelle, tower
structure, generator, controls, and foundation. Further design factors must also be considered
when integrating wind turbines into electrical power grids.

5.11 Wind Energy

Fig.5.1 Wind Energy Distribution

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Distribution of wind speed (red) and energy (blue) for all of 2002 at the Lee Ranch
facility in Colorado. The histogram shows measured data, while the curve is the Rayleigh
model distribution for the same average wind speed.

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion, also called wind. Total wind
energy flowing through an imaginary surface with area A during the time t is:

Where ρ is the density of air; v is the wind speed; A ft is the volume of air passing through A
(which is considered perpendicular to the direction of the wind); A vtρ is therefore the mass
m passing through "A". Note that ½ ρv2 is the kinetic energy of the moving air per unit
volume.

Power is energy per unit time, so the wind power incident on A (e.g. equal to the rotor
area of a wind turbine) is:

Wind power in an open air stream is thus proportional to the third power of the wind
speed; the available power increases eightfold when the wind speed doubles. Wind turbines
for grid electricity therefore need to be especially efficient at greater wind speeds.

Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth, affected by areas of high
pressure and of low pressure. The global wind kinetic energy averaged approximately 1.50
MJ/m2 over the period from 1979 to 2010, 1.31 MJ/m 2 in the Northern Hemisphere with 1.70
MJ/m2 in the Southern Hemisphere. The atmosphere acts as a thermal engine, absorbing heat
at higher temperatures, releasing heat at lower temperatures. The process is responsible for
production of wind kinetic energy at a rate of 2.46 W/m 2 sustaining thus the circulation of the
atmosphere against frictional dissipation.

The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is
considerably more than present human power use from all sources. Axel Kleidon of the Max
Planck Institute in Germany, carried out a "top down" calculation on how much wind energy
there is, starting with the incoming solar radiation that drives the winds by creating
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temperature differences in the atmosphere. He concluded that somewhere between 18 TW

and 68 TW could be extracted.[248]

Cristina Archer and Mark Z. Jacobson presented a "bottom-up" estimate, which

unlike Kleidon's are based on actual measurements of wind speeds, and found that there is
1700 TW of wind power at an altitude of 100 meters over land and sea. Of this, "between 72
and 170 TW could be extracted in a practical and cost-competitive manner". They later
estimated 80 TW. However research at Harvard University estimates 1 Watt/m2 on average
and 2–10 MW/km2 capacity for large scale wind farms, suggesting that these estimates of
total global wind resources are too high by a factor of about 4.

The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone
indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there.

To assess prospective wind power sites a probability distribution function is often fit
to the observed wind speed data. Different locations will have different wind speed
distributions.

5.12 Linear Control

A linear system is a mathematical model of a system based on the use of a linear

operator. Linear systems typically exhibit features and properties that are much simpler than
the nonlinear case. As a mathematical abstraction or idealization, linear systems find
important applications in automatic control theory, signal processing, and
telecommunications. For example, the propagation medium for wireless communication
systems can often be modeled by linear systems.

5.13 Definition

A general deterministic system can be described by an operator, , that maps an

input, , as a function of to an output, , a type of black box description. Linear

systems satisfy the property of superposition. Given two valid inputs

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As well as their respective outputs

Then a linear system must satisfy

For any scalar values and .

The system is then defined by the equation , where is some arbitrary

function of time, and is the system state. Given and , can be solved for. For
example, a simple harmonic oscillator obeys the differential equation:

If

then is a linear operator. Letting , we can rewrite the differential equation as

, which shows that a simple harmonic oscillator is a linear system.

The behavior of the resulting system subjected to a complex input can be described as
a sum of responses to simpler inputs. In nonlinear systems, there is no such relation. This
mathematical property makes the solution of modeling equations simpler than many
nonlinear systems. For time-invariant systems this is the basis of the impulse response or the

frequency response methods, which describe a general input function in terms of unit
impulses or frequency components.

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Typical differential equations of linear time-invariant systems are well adapted to

analysis using the Laplace transform in the continuous case, and the Z-transform in the
discrete case (especially in computer implementations).

Another perspective is that solutions to linear systems comprise a system of functions

which act like vectors in the geometric sense.

A common use of linear models is to describe a nonlinear system by linearization.

This is usually done for mathematical convenience.

5.14 Time-Varying Impulse Response

The time-varying impulse response (t2, t1) of a linear system is defined as the
response of the system at time t = t2 to a single impulse applied at time t = t1. In other words,
if the input x (t) to a linear system is

Where δ(t) represents the Dirac delta function, and the corresponding response y(t) of the
system is

Then the function h(t2,t1) is the time-varying impulse response of the system. Since
the system cannot respond before the input is applied the following causality condition must
be satisfied:

5.15 The Convolution Integral

The output of any general continuous-time linear system is related to the input by an
integral which may be written over a doubly infinite range because of the causality condition:

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If the properties of the system do not depend on the time at which it is operated then it
is said to be time-invariant and h() is a function only of the time difference τ = t-t' which is
zero for τ>0. By redefinition of h() it is then possible to write the input-output relation
equivalently in any of the ways,

Linear time-invariant systems are most commonly characterized by the Laplace

transform of the impulse response function called the transfer function which is:

In applications this is usually a rational algebraic function of s. Because h(t) is zero

for negative t, the integral may equally be written over the doubly infinite range and putting s
= iω follows the formula for the frequency response function:

5.16 Discrete Time System

The output of any discrete time linear system is related to the input by the time-varying
convolution sum:

Or equivalently for a time-invariant system on redefining h(),

Where

Represents the lag time between the stimulus at time m and the response at time n.

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5.17 Control of Low Power Wind Energy Systems

A typical wind turbine power curve is shown in Figure 1. The wind system starts to
generate when wind speed reaches the threshold vcut-in. This threshold is dependent of many
factors of the wind energy system. For higher wind speed values, the generated power of the
wind turbine rises until rated wind speed VN and rated power PN. depends on system design
parameters and it is frequently chosen between 11 and 15 m/s as most of the wind potential is
located under these speeds. For higher wind speeds, the system is regulated at PN until vcut-
off is reached. Then, the wind energy system is automatically put out of production for
security reasons.
The most frequent methods to control a wind turbine are: a) blade pitch control, b) passive
stall control, c) active stall control and d) yaw control.

From this equation, is the air density, A is the blade sweeping area, CP is the power
coefficient, and v is the instantaneous wind speed. When controlling the WT, the power
coefficient is useful as it is the only variable and controllable parameter –wind speed is
variable but not controllable–. The CP value is dependent of the wind speed and the turbine

rotation speed; it has a non linear behavior in terms of the tip-speed ratio and it is a

characteristic of each type of wind turbine. The tip-speed ratio is an aerodynamic variable

of the WT defined on (2), where the WT is rotor speed and R is the WT rotor radius (blade

length). Figure 2 shows the evolution of CP vs. for different types of wind turbines.

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Fig5.2. Typical curve of a wind turbine

Fig 5.3 Power coefficient for different wind turbine types.

From Figure 2, it is observable that a unique optimal point exists for each
kind of WT. This is useful for control purposes because by following this optimum, the
power coefficient is maximized and, therefore, maximizing the WT power generation also for
low speed winds.
The blade pitch control is nowadays the preferred method for large WTs. But for low
power WTs, the blade pitch angle adjustment is expensive and it is not justified. Therefore,
control for light winds, if there is any, can be done by electric means. The electric system can
also regulate the power output for strong winds, but aerodynamic stall control can also be
used.
Multiple poles permanent magnets synchronous generators (PMSG) are preferred for
the < 20 kW range for lower costs reasons and gearless operation. However, it is possible to

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find control structures for wounded synchronous generators. All these low power generation
systems have storage means, mainly battery banks; therefore, control is done referred to the
DC voltage.
For light winds (v <vN), control systems are designed to match the maximal power
transfer point. This can be done by following the optimal tip-speed ratio, therefore obtaining
the maximal CP. For strong winds, regulation at PN is needed. To such a control scheme,
digital programmable systems like fast microcontrollers and digital signal processors are
appropriated. The control variable usually used is the duty cycle of a C/DC power converter
to fit the voltage at the PMSG terminals or to control the excitation circuit of the wounded
generator. Others use the firing angle of a controlled rectifier. The optimal power to rotation
speed relation is largely used to avoid expensive anemometers. A model of the electric
system can be done to obtain an optimal relation between the DC voltage and the rotor speed.
The rotor speed measurement is done by tachymeter or obtained from the electric frequency.

5.18 Maximum PowerPoint Tracking

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT or sometimes just PPT) is a technique used

commonly with wind turbines and photovoltaic (PV) solar systems to maximize power
extraction under all conditions. Although solar power is mainly covered, the principle applies
generally to sources with variable power: for example, optical power transmission
and thermos photovoltaic’s solar systems exist in many different configurations with regard
to their relationship to inverter systems, external grids, battery banks, or other electrical
loads. Regardless of the ultimate destination of the solar power, though, the central problem
addressed by MPPT is that the efficiency of power transfer from the solar cell depends on
both the amount of sunlight falling on the solar panels and the electrical characteristics of the
load. As the amount of sunlight varies, the load characteristic that gives the highest power
transfer efficiency changes, so that the efficiency of the system is optimized when the load
characteristic changes to keep the power transfer at highest efficiency. This load
characteristic is called the maximum power point and MPPT is the process of finding this
point and keeping the load characteristic there. Electrical circuits can be designed to present
arbitrary loads to the photovoltaic cells and then convert the voltage, current, or frequency to
suit other devices or systems, and MPPT solves the problem of choosing the best load to be
presented to the cells in order to get the most usable power out. Solar cells have a complex
relationship between temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output

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efficiency which can be analyzed based on the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT
system to sample the output of the PV cells and apply the proper resistance (load) to obtain
maximum power for any given environmental conditions. MPPT devices are typically
integrated into an electric power converter system that provides voltage or current
conversion, filtering, and regulation for driving various loads, including power grids,
batteries, or motors.

Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power and may incorporate MPPT: such
inverters sample the output power (I-V curve) from the solar modules and apply the proper
resistance (load) so as to obtain maximum power.

The power at the MPP (Pmpp) is the product of the MPP voltage(Vmpp) and MPP current(Impp).

5.19 I-V Curve

Fig 5.4 Photovoltaic solar cell I-V curves

Photovoltaic cells have a complex relationship between their operating environment

and the maximum power they can produce. The fill factor, abbreviated FF, is a parameter
which characterizes the non-linear electrical behavior of the solar cell. Fill factor is defined as
the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Open Circuit Voltage
Voc and Short-Circuit Current Isc. In tabulated data it is often used to estimate the maximum
power that a cell can provide with an optimal load under given conditions, P=FF*Voc*Isc. For
most purposes, FF, Voc, and Isc are enough information to give a useful approximate model of
the electrical behavior of a photovoltaic cell under typical conditions.

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For any given set of operational conditions, cells have a single operating point where
the values of the current (I) and Voltage (V) of the cell result in a maximum power output.
These values correspond to a particular load resistance, which is equal to V / I as specified
by Ohm's Law. The power P is given by P=V*I. A photovoltaic cell, for the majority of its
useful curve, acts as a constant current source. However, at a photovoltaic cell's MPP region,
its curve has an approximately inverse exponential relationship between current and voltage.
From basic circuit theory, the power delivered from or to a device is optimized where
the derivative (graphically, the slope) dI/dV of the I-V curve is equal and opposite
the I/V ratio (where dP/dV=0). This is known as the maximum power point (MPP) and
corresponds to the "knee" of the curve.

A load with resistance R=V/I equal to the reciprocal of this value draws the maximum
power from the device. This is sometimes called the 'characteristic resistance' of the cell. This
is a dynamic quantity which changes depending on the level of illumination, as well as other
factors such as temperature and the age of the cell. If the resistance is lower or higher than
this value, the power drawn will be less than the maximum available, and thus the cell will
not be used as efficiently as it could be. Maximum power point trackers utilize different types
of control circuit or logic to search for this point and thus to allow the converter circuit to
extract the maximum power available from a cell.

5.20 MPPT Implementation

When a load is directly connected to the solar panel, the operating point of the panel
will rarely be at peak power. The impedance seen by the panel derives the operating point of
the solar panel. Thus by varying the impedance seen by the panel, the operating point can be
moved towards peak power point. Since panels are DC devices, DC-DC converters must be
utilized to transform the impedance of one circuit (source) to the other circuit (load).
Changing the duty ratio of the DC-DC converter results in an impedance change as seen by
the panel. At a particular impedance (or duty ratio) the operating point will be at the peak
power transfer point. The I-V curve of the panel can vary considerably with variation in
atmospheric conditions such as radiance and temperature. Therefore it is not feasible to fix
the duty ratio with such dynamically changing operating conditions.

MPPT implementations utilize algorithms that frequently sample panel voltages and
currents then adjust the duty ratio as needed. Microcontrollers are employed to implement the

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algorithms. Modern implementations often utilize larger computers for analytics and load
forecasting.

5.21 Classification

Controllers can follow several strategies to optimize the power output of an array.
Maximum power point trackers may implement different algorithms and switch between
them based on the operating conditions of the array.

5.21.1 Perturb and Observe

In this method the controller adjusts the voltage by a small amount from the array and
measures power; if the power increases, further adjustments in that direction are tried until
power no longer increases. This is called the perturb and observe method and is most
common, although this method can result in oscillations of power output. It is referred to as
a hill climbing method, because it depends on the rise of the curve of power against voltage
below the maximum power point, and the fall above that point. Perturb and observe is the
most commonly used MPPT method due to its ease of implementation. Perturb and observe
method may result in top-level efficiency, provided that a proper predictive and adaptive hill
climbing strategy is adopted.

5.21.2 Incremental Conductance

In the incremental conductance method, the controller measures incremental changes

in PV array current and voltage to predict the effect of a voltage change. This method
requires more computation in the controller, but can track changing conditions more rapidly
than the perturb and observe method (P&O). Like the P&O algorithm, it can produce
oscillations in power output.[18] This method utilizes the incremental conductance (dI/dV) of
the photovoltaic array to compute the sign of the change in power with respect to voltage
(dP/dV).

The incremental conductance method computes the maximum power point by

comparison of the incremental conductance (IΔ / VΔ) to the array conductance (I / V). When
these two are the same (I / V = IΔ / VΔ), the output voltage is the MPP voltage. The controller
maintains this voltage until the irradiation changes and the process is repeated.

The incremental conductance method is based on the observation that at the maximum
power point dP/dV = 0, and that P = IV. The current from the array can be expressed is a
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function of the voltage: P = I(V)V. Therefore dP/dV = VdI/dV + I(V). Setting this equal to
zero yields: dI/dV = -I(V)/V. Therefore, the maximum power point is achieved when the
incremental conductance is equal to the negative of the instantaneous conductance.

5.21.3 Current Sweep

The current sweep method uses a sweep waveform for the PV array current such that
the I-V characteristic of the PV array is obtained and updated at fixed time intervals. The
maximum power point voltage can then be computed from the characteristic curve at the
same intervals.

5.21.4 Constant Voltage

The term "constant voltage" in MPP tracking is used to describe different techniques
by different authors, one in which the output voltage is regulated to a constant value under all
conditions and one in which the output voltage is regulated based on a constant ratio to the
measured open circuit voltage (VOC). The latter technique is referred to in contrast as the
"open voltage" method by some authors. If the output voltage is held constant, there is no
attempt to track the maximum power point, so it is not a maximum power point tracking
technique in a strict sense, though it does have some advantages in cases when the MPP
tracking tends to fail, and thus it is sometimes used to supplement an MPPT method in those
cases.

In the "constant voltage" MPPT method (also known as the "open voltage method"),
the power delivered to the load is momentarily interrupted and the open-circuit voltage with
zero current is measured. The controller then resumes operation with the voltage controlled at
a fixed ratio, such as 0.76, of the open-circuit voltage V OC. This is usually a value which has
been determined to be the maximum power point, either empirically or based on modelling,
for expected operating conditions. The operating point of the PV array is thus kept near the
MPP by regulating the array voltage and matching it to the fixed reference voltage V ref=kVOC.
The value of Vref may be also chosen to give optimal performance relative to other factors as
well as the MPP, but the central idea in this technique is that V ref is determined as a ratio to
VOC.

One of the inherent approximations to the "constant voltage" ratio method is that the
ratio of the MPP voltage to V OC is only approximately constant, so it leaves room for further
possible optimization.

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5.22 Comparison of Methods

Both perturb and observe, and incremental conductance, are examples of "hill
climbing" methods that can find the local maximum of the power curve for the operating
condition of the PV array, and so provide a true maximum power point.

The perturb and observe method requires oscillating power output around the
maximum power point even under steady state irradiance.

The incremental conductance method has the advantage over the perturb and observe
(P&O) method that it can determine the maximum power point without oscillating around
this value. It can perform maximum power point tracking under rapidly varying irradiation
conditions with higher accuracy than the perturb and observe method. However, the
incremental conductance method can produce oscillations (unintentionally) and can perform
erratically under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions. The sampling frequency is
decreased due to the higher complexity of the algorithm compared to the P&O method.

In the constant voltage ratio (or "open voltage") method, the current from the
photovoltaic array must be set to zero momentarily to measure the open circuit voltage and
then afterwards set to a predetermined percentage of the measured voltage, usually around
76%. Energy may be wasted during the time the current is set to zero. The approximation of
76% as the MPP/VOC ratio is not necessarily accurate though. Although simple and low-cost
to implement, the interruptions reduce array efficiency and do not ensure finding the actual
maximum power point. However, efficiencies of some systems may reach above 95%.

5.23 MPPT Placement

Traditional solar inverters perform MPPT for the entire PV array (module association)

as a whole. In such systems the same current, dictated by the inverter, flows through all
modules in the string (series). Because different modules have different I-V curves and
different MPPs (due to manufacturing tolerance, partial shading, etc.) this architecture means
some modules will be performing below their MPP, resulting in lower efficiency.

Some companies (see power optimizer) are now placing maximum power point
tracker into individual modules, allowing each to operate at peak efficiency despite uneven
shading, soiling or electrical mismatch.

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Data suggests having one inverter with one MPPT for a project that has east and west-facing
modules presents no disadvantages when compared to having two inverters or one inverter
with more than one MPPT.

5.24 Operation with Batteries

At night, an off-grid PV system may use batteries to supply loads. Although the fully
charged battery pack voltage may be close to the PV panel's maximum power point voltage,
this is unlikely to be true at sunrise when the battery has been partially discharged. Charging
may begin at a voltage considerably below the PV panel maximum power point voltage, and
an MPPT can resolve this mismatch.

When the batteries in an off-grid system are fully charged and PV production exceeds
local loads, an MPPT can no longer operate the panel at its maximum power point as the
excess power has no load to absorb it. The MPPT must then shift the PV panel operating
point away from the peak power point until production exactly matches demand. (An
alternative approach commonly used in spacecraft is to divert surplus PV power into a
resistive load, allowing the panel to operate continuously at its peak power point.)

In a grid connected photovoltaic system, all delivered power from solar modules will

be sent to the grid. Therefore, the MPPT in a grid connected PV system will always attempt
to operate the PV modules at its maximum power point. Fig. 3. 𝐼'9 − 𝑉'9 characteristics of the
PV array at different solar irradiance

A. Photovoltaic Generator
In this paper, a PV array of a model “PV-UD190MF5” has been considered [28]. The
PV model is highly-nonlinear but reflects no dynamic performance on the transient stability
of the system. The model of the PV generator is given in Appendix A whereas the dc cable
dynamics in Fig. 1 are modeled as following;

The 𝐼'9-𝑉'9 characteristics of the PV array are shown in Fig. 3. At any solar irradiance
level, there is an optimal operating point (𝐼'9 ° , 𝑉'9 ° ) corresponding to the maximum
generated PV power. As shown in Fig. 1, the MPPT algorithm of the PV array (MPPTA) uses
the solar irradiance level (𝑆) to determine the optimal value of the dc-link voltage (𝑉4j ∗ )
[from Fig. 3] that corresponds to the generation of the maximum PV power [4]. Referring to

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Fig. 1, the nominal voltage for PV arrays is designed at 1457V. With nowadays
improvements in the centralized power converters, PV arrays can be directly connected to a
dc-link with nominal dc voltage up to 1500V at 2.0 MVA [29].

B. Grid-Side Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

As shown in Fig. 1, the ac-side of the VSI is terminated by an inductive filter (𝐿o)
with an internal resistance (𝑅o) and a shunt capacitor (𝐶o). The root-mean-square (rms) value
of the three-phase terminal voltage and currents of the VSI are 𝑣j and 𝑖j, respectively. The
utility-grid-impedance comprises an inductive part (𝐿t) in series with the equivalent
resistance of the line (𝑅t); 𝑣t and 𝑖t are the utility-grid three-phase 𝑟𝑚𝑠voltage and currents,

respectively. The filter and the utility-grid impedance are modeled as following;

To avoid the over-modulation of the VSI, the design of the PV array should consider
the coordination between the MPPT voltage of the PV array, i.e., 𝑉4j, and the rms voltage at
the point-of-common coupling (PCC), i.e., 𝑣o, under all irradiance levels. In power
converters, the pulse-width–modulation (PWM) and the switching pattern is dictated by the
ratio between the ac and the dc voltage such that 𝑣̅j = { 4j⁄2,where 𝑚{ is the modulation
signal in complex vectors. As 𝑣̅j is relatively constant, and so 𝑣̅o under the steady-state
conditions, then any major variations in 𝑉4j might induce an over modulated operation or a
poor dc-link utilization, which in turns degrades the injected power quality into the utility-
grid. Referring to Fig. 3, 𝑉4j ranges from 0.997 to 1.012p.u. at zero to fully-rated irradiance
level, respectively. Clearly, this is a slight variation in the dc-link voltage under the wide
spectrum of the irradiance levels, and so the corresponding influence on the injected power
quality and the switching pattern is minimal. The VSI is regulated by the vector control
scheme where a phase-locked-loop (PLL) is used to synchronize the converter with the
utility-grid [30]. In (10), a PI controller (𝐺}(𝑠) = 𝐾'} + 𝐾2}⁄𝑠) is implemented in the PLL

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structure to set the 𝑞- component of the PCC voltage (𝑉jN) to zero and generate the
synchronization angle 𝛿(𝑡), where 𝛿(𝑡) = ∫𝜔(𝑡)𝑑𝑡. Under transient conditions, the angle 𝛿(𝑡)
oscillates to resynchronize the converter with the utility-grid and eventually becomes zero in
the steady-state conditions.

As shown in (11), the main advantage of the vector control is the decoupling between
the active and reactive power regulation. As 𝑉jNis set to zero by (10) and assuming 𝑉j4 is
constant, the active power injection from the VSI (𝑃9A2) can be regulated by controlling 𝐼j4
whereas the reactive power (𝑄9A2) is solely dependent on 𝐼jN.

In conclusion, the roles of the VSI in the proposed system are;

1) DC-Link Voltage Control

The dc-link voltage of the BtB VSCs (𝑉4j) is regulated to the optimal value (𝑉4j ∗ )
[generated by MPPTA] as shown in (12), where a PI dc voltage controller

is implemented.

Referring to Fig. 1, and as shown in (13), the rate of change of the energy in 𝐶4j is
governed by the balance between the delivered wind and PV power (𝑃1234 + 𝑃'9) and the
injected active power to the utility-grid (𝑃9A2), assuming a lossless converter.

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By regulating 𝑉4j in (12), the input, i.e., and the output, i.e., 𝑃9A2,
active powers are balanced in (13), and so the active power component (𝐼j4 ∗ ) is Generated
from (12). Using (11)-(13), the open-loop transfer function of the dc link voltage controller
becomes;

where is the

Band width of the inner current controller of the VSI. Note that the has three poles;

two at zero and one at At low frequencies, the phase angle of

due to the double poles at zero. Therefore, the controller parameters are selected such that

As a result, the phase angle of increases to a maximum value

at a certain frequency

and then asymptotically decreases to approach −180°. The

cross-over frequency is selected as which holds by choosing

such that and hence

becomes the phase margin. By solving the preceding equations, the parameters of the
dc-link voltage controller can be determined [31]-[32].

2) Regulation of the PCC Utility-Grid Voltage

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As shown in (14), a PI ac voltage controller is used to

regulate the PCC voltage by generating that corresponds to the required reactive
power to maintain a unity PCC voltage. The parameters tuning of 𝐾.j(𝑠) is similar to the
design of the dc voltage controller in (12).

As shown in Fig. 1 and (15), the injected currents to the utility-grid are controlled using a PI

ac current controller

Where and are the decoupling and the feed forward loop,
respectively. The current controller 𝐾2(𝑠) is designed following the approach described for
𝐺2(𝑠) in (5). It should be noted that the measured ac quantities, i.e., 𝑖j and𝑣o, are transformed
to the converter reference frame whereas the controller output signals, i.e., 𝑣j, should be
retransformed to the grid reference frame to accurately model the influence of the PLL on the
system dynamics [30]. The frame transformation is mathematically represented in (16),
assuming the angle difference between the two frames is very small such that cos𝛿 ≈ 1 and
sin 𝛿 ≈ 0.

Where the superscript “c” denotes the converter reference frame. The system
parameters are all included in Appendix B.

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CHAPTER VI
SMALL-SIGNAL MODELING AND STABILITY ANALYSIS

6.1 Introduction
The small-signal model has been developed considering the models of the system
components in Section II. The complete state-space model of the entire system comprises 20
states and is given in (17).

Where is the states vector, shown at the bottom of this page, and 𝑇denotes the
matrix transpose; 𝐴is the state-matrix and is given in Appendix C. The states

re
present the integral terms of the VSR current and speed controllers, the VSI current, dc
voltage, ac voltage controllers, and the PLL control loops, respectively.

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A. Dominant Eigen Values

Referring to Table I, the states of the speed and current controller of the VSR, i.e.

and influence the most dominant Eigen values and hence drive the
transient performance of the hybrid system. Moreover, the state of the ac voltage controller of
the VSI, i.e., Δ𝜑9.j, has a significant impact on the system stability. However, the migration
of the dominant modes is less likely to occur because their location is correlated to the
controller’s parameters which are typically constant under different modes of operation.

B. Influence of the and

Referring to Figs. 2-3, the variation range of the optimal speed and dc-voltage

maintain the maximum power extraction at different wind speeds and solar irradiance
levels is 0.501-to-1.0p.u. And 0.997-to-1.012p.u respectively. As expected from the

participation factor analysis in Table I, the states and influence the relatively

highly damped Eigen values, i.e. and , respectively. Therefore, the variations
of the operating points following the MPPT1 and MPPT A has a minimal influence on the
system stability.

6.2 Simulation Results of PI Controller:

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1500
lightly damped
highly damped
exponenetial

1480

1460
Vdc (V)

1440

1420

1400

1380
0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1
time(s)

Fig 6.1. The step response of the dc-link voltage to verify the developed small signal
model

6.3 RESULTS

Wind solar references:

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Wind Speed --------------

Solar Irradiance level-------------

Time--------------
Fig.6.2Wind Speed and Solar Irradiance Level

Wind and solar both:

--------Speed(pu)---

--------Time(sec)----

Fig. 6.3a. PMSG Speed with respective time

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------Time (sec)--------

Fig 6.3b Wind Power in MW with respective Time

-----------------→power (mega watts)

---------------------------------------→Time(sec)

Fig.6.3c. PV Power in MW with respective time

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-----Grid current in kA --------------

------Time (sec)--------

Fig 6.3d Grid Current in kA with respective time

PCC Voltage in pu)--------

------Time (sec)--------
Fig 6.3e PCC Voltage Characteristics

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---------------------------------------→Time(sec)
Fig 6.3f VSR modulation

---------------------------------------→Time(sec)
Fig.6.3g VSI Modulation

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Wind only

Fig 6.4aVdc voltage with respective time

Fig 6.4b Wind Power in MW

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Fig.6.4c Grid Current in kA with respective time

Solar only

Fig 6.5a PMSG speed with respective time

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Fig 6.5b Solar Power with respective time

Fig6.5c Grid current with respective time

6.6 System Response To a 3Phase-Ground Fault

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2000
1.0 PU
0.5 PU

1500
V dc (V )

1000

500
3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
time(s)

Fig 6.6a Vdc Voltage

4
x 10
1
1.0 PU
0.8 0.5 PU

0.6

0.4

0.2
Iga (A)

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
time(s)

Fig 6.6b Grid Current

6.6.1 System Response to a 1Phase- Ground Fault

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1800
NO PROTECTION
1700 WITH PROTECTION

1600

1500
V d c (V )

1400

1300

1200

1100

1000
3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
time(s)

Fig.6.6c 1Phase- Ground Fault with and without protection

1700
-------2.3
1650 -----4

1600

1550

1500
V d c (V )

1450

1400

1350

1300

1250

1200
0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3
time(s)

Fig.6.7. Dc link voltage response with different values of IGBT

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2
-------1.25cf
1.5 -----1.5cf

1
Ig a (A (P U ))

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
1.95 1.955 1.96 1.965 1.97 1.975 1.98 1.985 1.99 1.995 2
time(s)

Fig 6.8. System Response at different values of Cf

6.4 CONCLUSION
This paper has presented the wind-PV cogeneration systems using vector-controlled
grid-connected BtB VSCs. The VSR at the wind generator-side is responsible for extracting
the maximum wind power following the wind speed variations. On the utility-grid side, the
roles of the VSI are to extract the maximum PV power from the PV generator, achieve the
balance between the input-output powers across the dc-link capacitor, and to maintain a unity
PCC voltage under different modes of operation. A small-signal stability analysis has been
conducted for the entire system.

The proposed system has the following advantages;

1) The increased reliability and efficiency due to the combined wind and PV generators.
2) The independent MPPT extraction as the VSR and VSI are solely responsible for
extracting the wind and PV powers, respectively.
3) The regulation of the dc-link voltage under all operating conditions is maintained by
the VSI and hence a better damped performance is yielded.
4) Simple system structure and controllers design.
5) Fault-ride through can be achieved using existing protection schemes. A well-damped
performance has been presented using time-domain simulations results under the Mat
lab/Simulink® environment.

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6.5 REFERENCES
[1] Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century, “Advancing the global
renewable energy transition,” REN21 Secretariat, Paris, France, 2017 [Available Online].
[2] F. Blaabjerg, Z. Chen, and S. B. Kjaer, “Power electronics as efficient interface in
dispersed power generation systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1184-
1194, 2004.
[3] J. Carrasco et al., "Power-electronic systems for the grid integration of renewable energy
sources-a survey," IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 1002-1016, 2006.
[4] A. Yazdani and P. P. Dash, "A control methodology and characterization of dynamics for
a photovoltaic (PV) system interfaced with a distribution network," IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 1538-1551, 2009.
[5] L. Nousiainen, J. Puukko, A. Maki, T. Messo, J. Huusari, J. Jokipii. J. Viinamaki, D.
Lobera, S. Valkealahti, and T. Suntio, “Photovoltaic generator as an input source for power
electronic converters,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 3028-3038, 2013.
[6] Nicholas Strachan, and D. Jovcic, “Stability of a variable-speed permanent magnet wind
generator with weak ac grids,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 25, no. 4, pp.2279-2788, 2010.
[7] P. Mitra, L. Zhang, and L. Harnefors, “Offshore wind integration to a weak grid by VSC-
HVDC links using power-synchronization control – a case study,” IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 453-461, 2014.
[8] Y. Wang, J. Meng, X. Zhang and L. Xu, “Control of PMSG-based wind turbines for
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