Engineering Hydrology; Lecture Note

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Hydrology means the science of water. It is the science that deals with the occurrence,
circulation and distribution of water of the earth and the earth's atmosphere. As a branch of earth
science, it is concerned with the water in streams and lakes, rainfall and snowfall, snow and ice
on the land and water occurring below the earth's surface in the pores of the soil and rocks. In a
general sense, hydrology is a very broad subject of an inter disciplinary nature drawing support
from allied sciences, such as meteorology, geology, statistics, chemistry, physics and fluid
mechanics.

Hydrology is basically an applied science. To further emphasis the degree of applicability, the
subject is sometimes classified as:

1. Scientific hydrology: The study which is concerned directly with academic aspect.
2. Engineering or applied hydrology: A study concerned with engineering applications.

In general sense, engineering hydrology deals with:

(i) Estimation of water resource.
(ii) The study of processes such as precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration and their
interaction
(iii) The study problems such as floods and droughts and strategies to combat them.

Hydrologic Cycle

Water occurs on the earth in all its three states, vis. liquid, solid and gaseous and in various
degrees of motion. Evaporation of water from water bodies such as oceans and lakes; formation
and movement of clouds, rain and snowfall, stream flow and ground water movement are some
examples of the dynamic aspect of water. The various aspects of water related to the earth can be
explained in terms of cycle known as the hydrologic cycle.

0 = evaporation from ocean, 1 = raindrop evaporation, 2 = interception, 3 = transpiration

4 = evaporation from land, 5 = evaporation from water body, 6 = surface runoff, 7 = infiltration,
8 = ground water, 9 = deep percolation
Fig 1 Hydrologic cycle

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 Engineering Hydrology; Lecture Note

The above figure is a schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle. A convenient starting
point to describe the cycle is in the oceans. Water in the oceans evaporates due to the heat energy
provided by solar radiation. Water vapor moves upwards and forms clouds. While much of the
clouds condense and fall back to the oceans as rains, a part of the clouds is driven to the land
areas by winds. There they condense and precipitate on to the land mass as rain, snow, hail, etc.
A part of the precipitation may evaporate back to the atmosphere even while falling. Another
part may be intercepted by vegetation, structures and other such surface modification from which
it may be either evaporated back to atmosphere or move down to the ground surface.

A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth's surface through infiltration
enhance the moisture content of the soil and reach the ground water body. Vegetation sends a
portion of the water from under the ground surface back to the atmosphere through the process of
transpiration. The precipitation reaching the ground surface after meeting the needs of
infiltration and evaporation moves down the natural slope over the surface and through a
network of gullies, streams and rivers to reach the ocean. The ground water may come to the
surface through springs and other outlet after spending a considerable longer time than the
surface flow. The portion of the precipitation by a variety of paths above and below the surface
of the earth reaches the stream channel is called runoff once it enters a stream channel, runoff
becomes stream flow

The sequence of events as above is a simplistic picture of a very complex cycle that has been
taking place since the formation of the earth. It is seen that the hydrologic cycle is a very vast
and complicated cycle in which there are a large number of paths of varying time scale. Further,
it is a continuous re-circulating cycle in the sense that there is neither a beginning nor an end or a
pause. Each part of the hydrologic cycle involves one or more of the following aspects:
(i) Transportation of water
(ii) Temporary storage, and
(iii) Change of state
For example,
(a) The process of rainfall has the change of state and transportation and
(b) The ground water path has storage and transportation aspects. The quantities of water
going through various individual paths of the hydrological cycle can be described by the
continuity equation known as water budget equation or hydrologic equation.

So, the engineering applications of the knowledge of the hydrologic cycle, and hence of the
subjects of hydrology, are found in the design and operation of projects dealing with water
supply, irrigation and drainage, water power, flood control, navigation, coastal works, salinity
control and recreational uses of water

Water Budget equation

For a given problem area, say a catchment in an interval of time ∆t, the continuity equation for
water in its various phases is written as,
Mass inflow - Mass outflow = Change in mass storage

If the density of inflow, outflow and storage volumes are the same, then
VI – Vo = ∆S

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Where VI = inflow volume of water into the problem area during the time period.
V0 = outflow volume of water from the problem area during the time period, and,
∆S = change in the storage of water volume over and under the given area during the
given period.

In applying this continuity equation to the paths of the hydrologic cycle involving change of
states, the volume considered are the equivalent volumes of water at a reference temperature. In
hydrologic calculation, the volumes are often expressed as average depths over the catchment
area. Thus for example, if the annual stream flow from a 10 km 2 catchment is 107 m3, it
corresponds to a depth of 10 7__ = 1 m = 100 cm.

10 x 10 6
Rainfall, evaporation and often runoff volumes are expressed in units of depth over the
catchment.

While realizing that all the terms in a hydrological water budget may not be known to the same
degree of accuracy, an expression for the water budget of a catchment for a time interval Δ t is
written as:
P-R-G-E-T= Δ S
In this, P = precipitation, R = Surface runoff, G = net ground water flow out of the catchment, E
= evaporation, T = transportation and Δ S = change in storage. The above equation is the water
budget equation for the catchment. All terms in the equation have the dimensions of volume.

Note that all these terms can be expressed as depth over the catchment area, (e.g. in
centimeters), and in fact this is a very common unit. Further, the infiltration does not occur
explicitly in the water budget as the infiltration which is a loss to the runoff process is a gain to
the ground water system.

Example - 1: A lake had a water surface elevation of 103.200 m above datum at the beginning
of a certain month. In that month the lake received an average inflow of 6.0 m 3/s from surface
runoff sources. In the same period the outflow from the lake had an average value of 6.5 m 3/s.
Further, in that month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and the evaporation from the lake
surface was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write the water budget equation for the lake and calculate the
water surface elevation of the lake at the end of the month. The average lake surface area can be
taken as 5000 ha. Assume that there is no contribution to or from the ground water storage.

Solution: In a time period Δ t, the water budget for the lake can be written as:
Input Volume - Output Volume = Change in Storage

(I Δ t + P.A) - (Q Δ t + EA) = Δ S

Where, I = average inflow rate
Q = average outflow rate
P = precipitation
E = evaporation
A = surface area of the lake and

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S = change in the lake storage volume

Here, Δ t = 1 month = 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 2.592 x 10 6 s = 2.592 Ms in one month.

Inflow volume = I Δ t = 6.0 x 2.592 = 15.552 Mm3
Outflow volume = Q Δ t = 6.5 x 2.592 = 16. 848 Mm3
Input - due to precipitation= PA = 14.5 x 5000 x 100 x 100 Mm 3 = 7.25 Mm 3
100 x 10 6

Outflow due to evaporation = EA = 16.10 x 5000 x 100 x 100 Mm3 = 3.05 Mm3
100 x 10 6
Hence, Δ S = 15.552 + 7.25 - 16. 848 - 3. 05= 2.904 Mm3
 Change in elevation Δ Z = Δ S = 2.904 x 10 6 = 0.058 m
A 5000 x 100 x 100
New water surface elevation at the end of the month
= 103.200 + 0.058
= 103.258 m above the datum

Example 2: A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm in 90 minutes due to
a stream. At the outlet of the catchment, the stream draining the catchment was dry before the
storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hours with an average discharge value of 2.0 m 3/s.
The stream was again dry after the runoff event.
(a) What is the amount of water which was not available to runoff due to combined effect of
infiltration, evaporation and transpiration?
(b) What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?

Solution: The water budget - equation for the catchment in a time Δ t is:

P-R-G-E-T= Δ S
In the present case take Δ t = duration of the runoff = 10 hours Note that the rainfall occurred
in first 90 minutes and in the rest of 8.5 hours the precipitation was zero.
Δ S = change in the surface storage = 0
(G + E + T) = water not available to runoff due to infiltration
(Causing addition to ground water storage), evaporation and transpiration.
= Losses = L
It is reasonable to assume in this case that there was no contribution by ground water storage to
the runoff in the stream.

a) Hence, P - R = L
P = input due to precipitation in 10 hours
= 150 x 100 x 100 x 10.5 m3 = 157500 m3
100
R = Runoff volume = outflow volume in catchment in 10 hours.
= 2.0 x 10 x 60 x 60 = 72 000 m3
Hence L 157500 - 72 000 = 85,500 m3
= volume of water not available for runoff
b) Runoff/ rainfall = 72000/157500 = 0.457

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This ratio is known as runoff coefficient.

Precipitation
The term precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere. The
usual forms are rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost and dew. Of all these, only the first two contribute
significant amounts of water. Rainfall being the predominant forms of precipitation causing
stream flow, especially the flood flow in the majority of rivers, unless otherwise stated the term
rainfall synonymously with precipitation.

The magnitude of precipitation varies with time and space. Differences in the magnitude of
rainfall in various parts of a country at a given time and variations of rainfall at a place in various
seasons of the year are obvious and need no elaboration. It is this variation that is responsible for
many hydrological problems such as floods and droughts.

Measurement of Precipitation

Precipitation is expressed in terms of the depth to which rainfall water would stand on an area if
all the rain were collected on it. Thus 1 cm of rainfall over a catchment area of 1 km 2 represent a
volume of water equal to 104 m3. The precipitation is collected and measured in a rain gauge.

A rain gauge essentially consists of a cylindrical vessel assembly kept in the open to collect rain.
The rainfall catch of the rain gauge is affected by its exposure condition. To enable the catch of
rain gauge to accurately represent the rainfall in the area surrounding the rain gauge, standard
settings are adopted. For sitting a rain gauge the following considerations are important:

 The ground must be level and in the open and the instrument must present a horizontal
catch surface.
 The gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to reduce wind effects but it must be
sufficiently high to prevent splashing, flooding etc.
 The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area of at least 5.5 m x 5.5 m. No
object should be near to the instrument than 30 m or twice the height of the obstruction.

Rain gauge can be broadly classified into two categories:

(i) Non-recording rain gauge, and
(ii) Recording gauges.

Non-recording Gauges

The non-recording gauge essentially consists of a circular collecting area of 12.7 cm. (5.0 inch)
diameter connected to a funnel. The rim of the collector is set in a horizontal plane at a height of
30.5 cm above the ground level. The funnel discharges the rainfall catch into a recording vessel.
The funnel and recording vessel are housed in a metallic container. The following figure shows
the details of the installation.

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Fig 2 Non-recording rain gauge

Water contained in the receiving vessel is measured by a suitable graduated measuring glass with
accuracy up to 0.1 mm.

For uniformity, the rainfall is measured every day at 8:30 A.M. and is recorded as the rainfall of
that day. The receiving bottle normally does not hold more than 10 cm of rain and as such in the
case of heavy rainfall the measurements must be done more frequently and entered. However,
the last reading must be taken at 8.30 A.M. and the sum of the previous readings in the past 24
hours entered as total of the day. Proper care, maintenance and inspection of rain gauges
especially during dry weather to keep the instrument free from dust and dirt is very necessary.

Recording Gauges

Non-recording rain gauges give the amount of rainfall only. They cannot provide information
regarding when exactly the rain commenced, when the rain ended, what is the intensity of
rainfall and how the intensity of rainfall varies within the duration of the storm. In order to
record the beginning and end of the rain and to measure the intensity of rainfall, a continuous
record of rainfall with time is required. For this purpose we have to use the recording rain gauge.
Recording rain gauges usually work by having a clock-driven drum carrying a graph on which a
pen records the cumulative depth of rainfall continuously. The gauge thus produces a continuous
record of rain vs. time, in the form of a strip chart and is shown in the following figure.

Fig 3 Rainfall strip chart

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Meteorological and Hydrological Data Analysis

Hydrological studies require extensive analysis of meteorological, hydrological and spatial data
to represent the actual processes taking place on the environment and better estimation of
quantities out of it. Precipitation is the source of all waters which enters the land. Hydrologists
need to understand how the amount, rate, duration, and quality of precipitation are distributed in
space and time in order to assess, predict, and forecast hydrologic responses of a catchment.

Estimates of regional precipitation are critical inputs to water-balance and other types of models
used in water-resource management. Sound interpretation of the prediction of such models
requires an assessment of the uncertainty associated with their output, which in turn depends in
large measure on the uncertainty of the input values.
The uncertainties associated with a value of regional precipitation consist of:
1. Errors due to point measurement
2. Errors due to uncertainty in converting point measurement data into estimates of regional
precipitation

It is therefore, necessary to check first the data for its quality, continuity and consistency before
it is considered as input. The continuity of a record may be broken with missing data due to
many reasons such as damage or fault in recording gauges during a period. The missing data can
be estimated by using the data of the neighboring stations correlating the physical,
meteorological and hydrological parameters of the catchment and gauging stations. To estimate
and correlate a data for a station demands a long time series record of the neighboring stations
with reliable quality, continuity and consistency.

Meteorological data
Meteorological facts pertaining to the atmosphere, such as wind, temperature, air density,
precipitation and other phenomena that affect atmospheric condition.

Principles of Data Analysis

a. Corrections to Point Measurements

Because precipitation is the input to the land phase of the hydrologic cycle, its accurate
measurement is the essential foundation for quantitative hydrologic analysis. There are many
reasons for concern about the accuracy of precipitation data, and these reasons must be
understood and accounted for in both scientific and applied hydrological analyses.

Rain gages is an instrument that measure the precipitation and that project above the ground
surface causes wind eddies affecting the catch of the smaller raindrops and snowflakes. These
effects are the most common causes of point precipitation-measurement. Studies from World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) indicate that deficiencies of 10% for rain and well over
50% for snow are common in unshielded gages. The daily measured values need to be updated
by applying a correction factor K after corrections for evaporation, wetting losses, and other
factors have been applied. The following equations are recommended for U.S. standard 8-Inch
(20.32 cm) gauges with and without Alter wind shields.

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 Correction factor for unshielded rain gauges:

0.58
Kru = 100 exp (-4.605 + 0.062 Va )
 Correction factor for Alter wind shielded rain gauges:
0.69
Kru = 100 exp (-4.605 + 0.041 Va )
Where: Va = Wind speed at the gage orifice in m/s

Errors due to splashing and evaporation usually are small and can be neglected. However,
evaporation losses can be significant in low-intensity precipitations where a considerable amount
could be lost. Correction for wetting losses can be made by adding a certain amount (in the order
of 0.03 – 0.10 mm) depending on the type precipitation.

Systematic errors often associated with recording type rain gauges due to the mechanics of
operation of the instrument can be minimized by installing a non recording type gauge adjacent
to each recording gauge to assure that at least the total precipitation is measured. Instrument
errors are typically estimated as 1– 5% of the total catch (Winter (1981)).

Although difficult to quantify and often undetected, errors in measurement and in the recording
and publishing (personal errors) of precipitation observations are common. To correct the error
some subjectivity is involved by comparing the record with stream flow records of the region.

b. Estimation of Missing Data - When undertaking an analysis of precipitation data from

gauges where daily observations are made, it is often to find days when no observations
are recorded at one or more gauges. These missing days may be isolated occurrences or
extended over long periods. In order to compute the total and averages, one must estimate
the missing values.

Several approaches are used to estimate the missing values. Station Average, Normal Ratio,
Inverse Distance Weighting, and Regression methods are commonly used to fill the missing
records.
Station Average Method, the missing record is computed as the simple average of the values at
the nearby gauges. Mc Cuen (1998) recommends using this method only when the annual
precipitation value at each of the neighboring gauges differs by less than 10% from that for the
gauge with missing data. Thus,
1
Px = --- [ P1 + P2 + ..................... + Pm ]
M
Where: Px = The missing precipitation record P 1, P2… Pm = Precipitation records at the
neighboring stations M = Number of neighboring stations. If the annual precipitations vary
considerably by more than 10 %, the missing record is estimated by the Normal Ratio Method,
by weighing the precipitation at the neighboring stations by the ratios of normal annual
precipitations.
Nx P1 P2 Pm
Px = ------- [---- + --- + ...............+ -----]
M N1 N2 Nm
Where: Nx = Annual-average precipitation at the neighboring gage with missing values N 1, N2…
Nm = Annual average precipitation at neighboring gauges
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Example: The normal annual rainfall at stations, A, B, C, and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59,
76.28 and 92.01 cm respectively. In the year 1975, the station D was inoperative and
the stations A, B and C recorded annual precipitation of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89 cm
respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in that year.

Solution:
Average normal precipitation at D = 92.01
Therefore 10 % of ND = 9.20
Maximum permissible annual precipitation = 92.01 - 9.20 = 82.81 which is greater than 80.97,
67.59, 76.28 at all other three stations.
As the normal values vary more than 10 %, the normal ratio method is adopted. Thus,

92.01 91.11 72.23 79.89

PD = ------- [-------- + -------- + --------]
3 80.97 67.59 76.28

= 99.41 cm

Example: Precipitation at station X was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occurred. The respective storm totals at three surrounding stations A, B, and C were
107, 89 and 122 mm. The normal annual precipitation amounts of stations X, A, B,
and C are respectively 978, 1120, 935 and 1200 mm. Estimate the storm precipitation
for station X.

Solution:
NX = Average annual precipitation at X = 978 mm
Therefore, 10 % of NX = 97.8
Thus, maximum permissible annual precipitation at any of the three stations for taking ordinary
mean = 978 + 97.8 = 1075.8 mm < 1120 and 1200.
Hence, the annual precipitations at two of the three stations differ by more than 10 % of NX.
Hence weighted mean should be taken. Hence,

978 107 89 122

PD = ------- [-------- + ------- + --------]
3 1120 935 1200

1 1
= --- [93.5 + 93.1 + 99.4] = --- x 286 = 95.3 mm
3 3

Hence, the missing precipitation data = 95.3 mm. Ans.

The Inverse Distance Method weights the annual average values only by their distances, d m,
from the gauge with the missing data and so does not require information about average annual
precipitation at the gauges.

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m
D= ∑ d m−b
m=1
The missing value is estimated as:
m
1
P x = ∑ d m−b N m
D m=1

The value of b can be 1 if the weights are inversely proportional to distance or 2, if the weights
are proportional to distance squared.

If relatively few values are missing at the gauge of interest, it is possible to estimate the missing
value by regression method.

c. Checking the Consistency of Point Measurements

If the conditions relevant to the recording of rain gauge station have undergone a significant
change during the period of record, inconsistency would arise in the rainfall data of that station.
This inconsistency would be felt from the time the significant change took place. Some of the
common causes for inconsistency of record are:
1. Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location
2. The neighborhood of the station may have undergoing a marked change
3. Change the immediate environment due to damages due to deforestation, obstruction, etc.
4. Occurrence of observational error from a certain date both personal and instrumental

The most common method of checking for inconsistency of a record is the Double-Mass Curve
analysis (DMC). The curve is a plot on arithmetic graph paper, of cumulative precipitation
collected at a gauge where measurement conditions may have changed significantly against the
average of the cumulative precipitation for the same period of record collected at several gauges
in the same region. The data is arranged in the reverse order, i.e., the latest record as the first
entry and the oldest record as the last entry in the list. A change in proportionality between the
measurements at the suspect station and those in the region is reflected in a change in the slope
of the trend of the plotted points. If a Double Mass Curve reveals a change in slope that is
significant and is due to changed measurement conditions at a particular station, the values of the
earlier period of the record should be adjusted to be consistent with latter period records before
computation of areal averages. The adjustment is done by applying a correction factor K, on the
records before the slope change given by the following relationship.

Slope for period AFTER slope change

K=
Slope for period BEFORE slope change

Areal Estimation

Rain gauges represent only point measurements in practice. However, hydrological analysis
requires knowledge of the precipitation over an area. Several approaches have been devised for
estimating areal precipitation from point measurements. The Arithmetic mean, the Thiessen
polygon and the Isohyetal method are some the approaches.

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The Arithmetic mean method

The method is simple and give good results if the precipitation measured at the various stations
in a catchment show little variation. As the name implies the result is obtained by dividing the
sum of the rainfall amounts recorded at all rain gauge stations which are located within the area
under consideration by the number of stations. Thus, if P1, P2 - - - - - - P2 - - - - - Pn are the rainfall
values in a given period in N stations within a catchment, then the value of the mean
precipitation P̄ over the catchment by the arithmetic mean method is :

P1 +P2 +.. .. . ..+Pi +. . .. .. .. . Pn 1 N

P̄ = = ∑ Pi
N N i=1

If the area is flat and the gauges are distributed uniformly over the area and if the variation of
individual gauge record from mean is not too large, this method is probably as accurate as any
other method. In practice, this method is used very rarely.

The Thiessen polygon method

In the Thiessen polygon method, the rainfall recorded at each station is given a weight age on the
basis of an area closest to the station. The average rainfall over the catchment is computed by
considering the precipitation from each gauge multiplied by the percentage of enclosed area by
the Thiessen polygon. The total average areal rainfall is the summation averages from all the
stations. The Thiessen polygon method gives more accurate estimation than the simple
arithmetic mean estimation as the method introduces a weighting factor on rational basis.
Furthermore, rain gauge stations outside the catchment area can be considered effectively by this
method.

The rainfall recorded at that station is, therefore, assigned to that polygon. If P̄ is the mean
rainfall on the basin, and area of the basin is A, then

A 1 P1 + A 2 P 2 + A3 P3 +−−−−−−+ A n pn
P̄=
A

Where, P1 P2, P3, - - - - - Pn represent rain fall at the respective stations whose surrounding
polygons have the areas A1, A2, A3, - - - - - An respectively. A graphical representation of this
method is shown in the following figure by taking 4 stations

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Fig 4 Thiessen-Polygons
Example: Point rainfalls due to a storm at several rain gauge stations in a basin are shown in the
following table. Determine the mean areal depth of rainfall over the basin by
arithmetic and Thiessen-polygons methods
Station Rainfall recorded, Pi (cm) Area of influential Polygon, Ai, (km2)
A 8.8 570
B 7.6 920
C 10.8 720
D 9.2 620
E 13.8 520
F 10.4 550
G 8.5 400
H 10.5 650
I 11.2 500
J 9.5 350
K 7.8 520
L 5.2 250
M 5.6 350
N 6.8 100
O 7.4 160
Solution:
(i) Arithmetic average method:
P̄ = P = 133.1 = 8.87 cm
N 15
ii) Thiessen-polygon method: The Thiessen-polygons are constructed as shown in the above
figure and the polygonal areas are planimetered and the mean areal depth of rainfall is
worked out below:
Rainfall Area of influential Product 2 or 3 Mean areal
Station
recorded, Pi (cm) Polygon, Ai, (km2) Ai x Pi, km2 cm depth of rainfall
1 2 3 4 5
A 8.8 570 5016
B 7.6 920 6992
C 10.8 720 7776
D 9.2 620 5704
E 13.8 520 7176 P̄ = AiPi
F 10.4 550 5720
G 8.5 400 3400
H 10.5 650 6825 Ai
I 11.2 500 5600
= 66714
J 9.5 350 3325
K 7.8 520 4056 7180
L 5.2 250 1300 = 9.30 cm
M 5.6 350 1960
N 6.8 100 680
O 7.4 160 1184

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Total AiPi = 66714

Pi = 133.1 cm Ai = 7180 km2
km2 cm
N = 15

The isohyetal method

An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude. In the isohyetal method, the
catchment area is drawn to scale and the rain gauge stations are marked on the map. The
recorded values (rainfall) for which areal average P̄ is to be determined are then marked on
the plot at appropriate station. Neighboring stations outside the catchment are also considered.
The isohyets of various values are then drawn by considering point rainfalls as guides and
interpolating between them by the eye. The area between the adjacent isohyets is either estimated
on the graph paper or measured by planimeter. Let them as A1, A2, A3 - - - - - - An and let the
average precipitation for these areas be P1, P2, P3 - - - - - - Pn; then the mean precipitation P̄ on
the basin is given by:

A 1 P1 + A 2 P 2 + Ai pi +−−−−−−+ A n p n
P̄=
A

Fig 5 Isohyetal Method

Example: The isohyets for annual rainfall over a catchment basin were drawn. The areas of
strips between the isohyets are indicated in the following table given below. Find the
average depth of annual precipitation over the basin.

Isohyets (cm) Area in km2 Isohyets (cm) Area in km2

75 – 85 580 105 – 115 1000
85 – 95 2960 115 – 135 610
95 – 105 2850 135 – 155 160

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Solution:
P̄ = 580x80 + 2960x90 + 2850x100 + 1000x110 + 610x125 + 160x145
580 + 2960 + 2850 + 1000 + 610 + 160

= 807250 = 98.93 cm
8160

Presentation of Rainfall Data

A few commonly used methods of presentation of rainfall data which have been found to be
useful in interpretation and analysis of such data are given below:
Accumulated rainfall, cm

i. Mass Curve of Rainfall

The mass curve of rainfall is the plot of the accumulated precipitation against time plotted in
chronological order. A typical mass curve of rainfall at a station during a storm is shown in the
following figure.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1

Time, hour
0

Fig 6 Rainfall mass curve

Mass curves of rainfall are very useful in extracting the information on the duration and
magnitude of a storm. Also intensities at various time intervals in a storm can be obtained by the
slope of the curve. For non-recording rain gauges, mass curves are prepared from the knowledge
of the approximate beginning and end of a storm and by using the mass curves of adjacent
recording of gauge station as a guide.

ii. Hyetograph

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A hyetograph is a plot of the intensity of rainfall against the time interval. The hyetograph is
derived from the mass curve and is usually presented as a bar chart. It is very convenient way of
representing the characteristics of a storm and is particularly important in the development of
design storms to predict extreme floods. The area under a hyetograph represents the total
precipitation received in the period. The time interval used depends on the purpose; in urban
drainage problems small durations are used while in flood flow computations in large catchments
the intervals are of about 6 hours.

Fig 7 Rainfall hyetograph

iii. Point Rainfall

Point rainfall, also known as station rainfall refers to the rainfall data of a station. Depending
upon the need, data can be listed as daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal or annual values for various
periods. Graphically, these data are represented as plots of magnitude Vs chronological time in
the form of a bar diagram. Such a plot, however, is not convenient for discerning a trend in the
rainfall as there will be considerable variation in the rainfall. Values of precipitation of three or
five consecutive time intervals plotted at the mid-value of the time interval is useful in
smoothing out the variations and beginning out the trend.

Example: The following are the rain gauge observation during a storm.
(a) Construct mass curve of precipitation
(b) Construct hyetograph
(c) Calculate maximum depth duration
(d) Calculate maximum intensity-duration

Time since commencement

Accumulated rainfall (cm)
of storm (min)
5 0.1
10 0.2
15 0.8

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20 1.5
25 1.8
30 2.0
35 2.5
40 2.7
45 2.9
50 3.1
Solution:
(a) Mass curve of precipitation: The plot of accumulated rainfall (cm) Vs time (min) gives the
mass curve of rainfall. The following figure shows the mass curve of precipitation:
Accumulated rainfall, cm
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Duration, min
2.0

(b) Hyetograph: The intensity of rainfall at successive 5 min. interval is calculated and bar
1.5

graph of i (cm/h) Vs t (min.) is constructed; this depicts the variation of the intensity of
rainfall with respect to time and is called the "hyetograph".
1.0

Time, t Accumulated P in time Intensity, i = Maximum rainfall Maximum

0.5

(min) rainfall (cm) t = 5 min P/t x 60 depth = Pmax + intensity

(cm/h) 2 Pmax+…
nd (cm/hr)
5 0.1 0.1 1.2 0.7 8.40
10 0.2 0.1 1.2 1.3 7.80
15 0.8 0.6 7.2 1.6 6.40
20 1.5 0.7 8.4 1.8 5.40
25 1.8 0.3 3.6 2.3 5.52
30 2.0 0.2 2.4 2.5 5.00
35 2.5 0.5 6.0 2.7 4.63
40 2.7 0.2 2.4 2.9 4.35
45 2.9 0.2 2.4 3.0 4.00

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50 3.1 0.2 2.4 3.1 3.72

9
8
Intensity i, cm/hr

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time t, min

(c) Maximum rainfall depth-duration: By inspection of time (t) and accumulated rainfall (cm)
the maximum rainfall depths during 5, 10, 15, --------------, 50 min. durations are 0.7, 1.3,
1.6, 1.8, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.9, 3.0 and 3.1 cm respectively.

(d) Maximum-intensity-duration: Corresponding to the maximum depths obtained in (c)

above the corresponding maximum intensities can be obtained by P/t x 60 i.e. 8.4, 7.8,
6.4, 5.4, 5.52, 5.0, 4.63, 4.35, 4.0 and 3.72 cm/h respectively.

Hydrological Data
Hydrologic data are needed to describe precipitation; stream flows; evaporation; soil moisture;
snow fields; sedimentation; transpiration; infiltration; water quality; air, and water
temperatures; and other variables or components of hydrologic systems. Sources of data are
numerous, with the U.S. Geological Survey being the primary one for stream flow and
groundwater facts. The National Weather Service (NOAA or National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) is the major collector of meteorological data. Many other federal, state, and local
agencies and other organizations also compile hydrologic data.

The availability of stream flow data is important for the model calibration process in catchment
modeling. Measured hydrograph reflects all the complexity of flow processes occurring in the
catchment. It is usually difficult to infer the nature of those processes directly from the measured
hydrograph, with the exception of some general characteristics such as mean times of response in
particular events. Moreover, discharge data are generally available at only a small number of
sites in any region where different characteristics of the catchment are lumped together.

Missing Data and Comparison with the Precipitation Records

The data so far collected do not indicate any missing data. The potential errors in the discharge
records would affect the ability of the model to represent the actual condition of the catchment

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 Engineering Hydrology; Lecture Note

and calibrating the model parameters. If a model is calibrated using data that are in error, then
the model parameter values will be affected and the prediction for other periods, which depend
on the calibrated parameter values, will be affected.

Prior to using any data to a model it should be checked for consistency. In data where there is no
information about missing values check for any signs that infilling of missing data has taken
place is important. A common indication of such obvious signs is apparently constant value for
several periods suggesting the data has been filled. Hydrographs with long flat tops also often as
sign of that there has been a problem with the measurement. Outlier data could also indicate the
problem.

Even though there is a danger of rejecting periods of data on the basis on these simple checks, at
least some periods of data with apparently unusual behavior need to be carefully checked or
eliminated from the analysis.

The available stream flow data for this analysis generally has corresponding match with the
precipitation records in the area. The high flows correspond to the rainy seasons. In some of the
years there are remarkably high flow records, for instance in the month of august 2000 and 2001
the flow records are as high as 100 and 89 m 3/s compared to normal rainy season records which
is between 30 and 65 m3/s. These data might be real or erroneous. On the other hand the values
match to the days of the peak rainfall records in the area in both the cases.

Fig 8 Koga stream flow record compared with the precipitation record.

However, the stream flow records of 1995 are exceptionally higher and different from flow
magnitudes that had been records for long period of time at Koga River. It is not only the
magnitude which is different from the normal flow record, but also it contradicts with the
magnitude of the precipitation recorded during the year. These records might be modeled or
transferred flows. Hence, the flow records of this year are excluded from being the part of the
analysis.

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