Well Logging:

Is a technique used for formation evaluation to determine the size

of the reservoir and the amount of oil and gas in place. The
following parameters can be estimated from different types of
logging tools;
1- Borehole hole diameter.
2- reservoir thickness.
3- Porosity.
4- Water saturation.
5- Rock type (Lithology).
Logging tools classification:
Based on the function, logging tools can be classified as follow;
1- Formation Fluid Indicators:
- Induction
- Laterolog
- Microfocused and microresistivity devices
2-Formation property-lithology Indicators:
- Acoustic
- Density and lithologic density
- Neutron
- Gamma ray
Logging tools classification:
3-Layer geometry Indicators:
- Dipmeter
- Borehole gravimeter

4-Auxiliary tools:
- Spontaneous potential
- Caliper

5-Specialty Tools:
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
- Dipole
- Geochemical Tools
Caliper Log:
Borehole geometry is controlled by:
- Lithology
- Mud type
- Formation Properties
- In-situ stresses

Borehole size can be determined from caliper log. Caliper log can be
an indication to one of the following cases:

1- Gauged hole – diameter of hole is about equal to the bit size

Hard well consolidated and impermeable formation.
borehole diameter = drill bit size
2- Increased borehole diameter which means;

a- Washout – general drilling wear, esp. in shaly zones and

dipping beds, both caliper larger than bit size, considerable
vertical extent .
b- Keyseat – asymmetric oval holes, formed by wear against the
drill string at points where the borehole inclination changes
(doglegs) .

c-Breakout – similar to keyseat but not due to doglegs, small

brittle fractures due to existing stress regime of the country
rock.

Unconsolidated formation
borehole diameter > drill bit size
3-Decreased borehole diameter means;
a- Generally due to formation of mud cake
Mud cake thickness = (bit size diameter – caliper diameter
reading)/2
b- mud cake formation indicates permeability and involves loss
of mud filtrate into a permeable formation – invasion.

Permeable formation
borehole diameter < drill bit size
Resistivity Log:
Resistance is the opposition offered by a substance to the passage
of electric current. Resistivity is the resistance measured between
opposite faces of a unit cube of the substance at specified
temperature. Resistivity is measured in ohm-meter2/meter, more
commonly shortened to just ohm-meter.
Resistivity logs do not always measure resistivity directly. Some
resistivity logs (actually induction logs) measures conductivity
instead which is the reciprocal of resistivity. Induction logs are used
in wells drilled with a relatively fresh-water mud (low salinity) to
obtain more accurate value of true resistivity.
 E
The resistivity of a rock (R) is given by:
I
R = r (A / L) r A

Where; L
r = resistance (ohms)
A = Cross sectional area (meters2) r=E/I
L = Length (meters)
R = resistivity (ohm-meters)
E = Voltage (Volt)
I = current (Amp)

Factors that influence Resistivity of Natural Porous Media:

1- Salinity of water 2- Porosity
3- Stress 4- Temperature
5- Pore geometry 6- Rock Composition
7- Wettabilitycsr
2006 9
Formation Water Resistivity (Rw):
Formation water resistivity can vary widely from well to well. It can be
estimated by the following methods;
- Chemical analysis of produced water
- Direct measurement in resistivity cell
- Using Empirical equations
The best method is direct measurement of resistivity.

Chemical analysis:
Resistivity of water is controlled by amount and type of ions present
and temperature. Salinity is a measure of concentration of dissolved
salts in water and is generally expressed as parts per million,
grains/gallon or grams/liter.
1 grain/gallon = 17.118 ppm = .017118 grams/liter
NaCl is the most common dissolved salt in formation water; the
concentration of other dissolved ions is generally converted to
equivalent concentration of sodium chloride;
 n
C   MiCi
i1

Where;
C = equivalent concentration of NaCl.
Mi=weight multiplier (can be estimated from graph)
Ci= concentration of each ion.
Based on equivalent
concentration of NaCl and
temperature, formation water
resistivity can be determined
using graph.
The following equation also can
be used to calculate (Rw).
1
Rw  4
 0.0123
2.74x10 C

Arp’s equation:
T1  6.77
Rw(t 2)  Rw(t1)
T 2  6.77

T1 usually taken as 75 °F
Formation Resistivity (Ro):
The resistivity of the formation saturated 100% with formation
water.

Archie equation: Ro
FR  1 Ro  Rw
Rw
Where;
FR = Formation factor
Formation porosity or the void space in the formation can be
determined from formation factor using the following equation:
1
FR  m

Where;
m = cementation exponent≈2
 =porosity
HW
Q.1
The chemical analysis of formation water as follow;
Ion concentration (ppm)
Na 14,000
Cl 12,000
Mg 10,000
Ca 8,000
SO4 11,000
Room temperature=75°F
Calculate formation water resistivity at 75, 125 and 150 °F.
Q.2
Formation water contains 10,000 ppm of NaCL, 15,000 ppm of
MgSO4 and 8,000 ppm of CaCl2 . Calculate the resistivity at
formation temperature 200 °F.
HW
Q.3
Calculate formation water resistivity at 150 °F if the concentration
of NaCl 50,000, 100,00 1nd 150,000 using graph and equations.
Q.4
If the formation resistivity in the above cases (Q.3) is 2.4 Ω-m at
225 °F and the cementation factor is 2. Calculate the porosity
for each case.
True Resistivity (Rt):
The resistivity of the formation at any saturation of water less than
100% when the hydrocarbon displaces some water from pore
space in the formation. The relationship between formation
resistivity (Ro) and true formation resistivity (Rt) can be represented
by resistivity index:
Rt
IR 
Ro
Where;
I R = resistivity index
Water saturation (Sw) which is defined as the percentage of the
pore volume filled with water can be determined from the
1
following equation:  Ro  n
S w   
Where;  Rt 
n = saturation exponent≈2
HW
Q.5
Calculate porosity and water saturation if the formation factor is
15, true formation resistivity 10 Ω-m and the concentration of the
formation water at 75°F is 60,000 ppm. Use m=n=2 and formation
temperature 200 °F.
Q.6
The resistance cylindrical core having 3 in diameter and 10 in
height saturated 100 % with formation water is 10 Ω. The
resistance of the core is increased to 85 Ω when oil is injected
to it. Calculate water saturation of the core after the injection
of oil.
SP Log:
The spontaneous potential (SP) log is a measurement of the natural
potential difference or self potential between an electrode in the
borehole and a reference electrode at the surface . It represents a
recording of naturally occurring physical phenomenon in in-situ rocks.
The SP curve records the electrical potential (voltage) produced by the
interaction of formation water, drilling mud and shale. Though
relatively simple in concept, the SP curve is quite useful for a number
of things:
1- Differentiates potentially porous and permeable reservoir rocks
from nonpermeable shales
2- Defines bed boundaries and correlation of beds
3- Aids in lithology identification
4- Detection of hydrocarbon from suppression of SP response
5- Permits determination of formation water resistivity, Rw
6- Gives semi-quantitative indication of bed shaliness
SP Log:
Three factors are necessary to produce an SP current:
1. a conductive fluid in the borehole,
2. a porous and permeable bed surrounded by an impermeable
formation, and
3. a difference in salinity (or pressure) between the borehole fluid
and the formation fluid.

Resistivity of drilling mud filtrate (Rmf):

The resistivity of drilling mud filtrate which is normally observed
in the permeable layers.
The SP deflection is a reflection of contrast
between the mud filtrate and connate Rmf<Rw
water resistivity. The deflection is said to
(Reverse)
be normal or -ve when the mud filtrate is
more resistive than the connate water and
is reverse or +ve when the mud filtrate is
less resistive that the connate water.
It is quite common to find fresh water in
shallow sands and increasingly saline water
as depth increases. Such a progression is
Rmf > Rw
shown in the figure, where SP appears
deflecting to left deep in the well but is
reversed near to the surface.
Rmf > Rw

(Normal)

Shale baseline
20
Shale Baseline and SSP:
SP has no absolute values and thus treated quantitatively and
qualitatively in terms of deflection, which is the amount the curve
moves to the left or to the right of a defined zero. The definition of the
SP zero, called shale baseline, is made on thick shale intervals where
the SP curve does not move. All values are related to the shale
baseline.
The theoretical maximum deflection of the SP opposite permeable
beds is called the static SP or SSP. It represents the SP value that would
be measured in an ideal case with the permeable bed isolated
electrically. It is the maximum possible SP opposite a permeable,
water-bearing formation with no shale. The SSP is used to calculate
formation-water resistivity (Rw).
 SP = -K log(Rmfe/Rwe)

SP= SP value: this should be the SSP

(Rmf)e = equivalent mud filtrate resistivity: closely related to Rmf
(Rw)e = equivalent formation water resistivity: closely related to Rw
K = temperature-dependent coefficient
K = 61+ 0.133 * T
T=formation temperature, °F
SP value measured is influenced by:
- Bed thickness
- Bed resistivity (Rmf, Rw, )
- Borehole and invasion
- Shale content
- Ratio of Rmf/Rw (amplitude and sign)
- Temperature
 Rwe or Rmfe, ohm-m

23 Rw or Rmf, ohm-m
 (SP)csand  (SP)ssand
Vsh 
(SP)csand
SSP
= 1- PSP/SSP
PSP
PSP (Pseudo-static SP) – the SP
value in the water–bearing shaly
sand zone read from the SP log.
SSP (Static SP)– the maximum SP
value in a clean sand zone.
Q.7
Calculate water formation resistivity and shale volume if
SSP=40 mv and PSP=15 mv. Reservoir temperature is 250 °F and
Rmf=0.5 Ω-m.
Gamma ray Log:
Shale is usually more radioactive than sand or carbonate, gamma ray
log can be used to calculate volume of shale in porous reservoirs.
The volume of shale expressed as a decimal fraction or percentage is
called Vshales. Calculation of the gamma ray index is the first step
needed to determine the volume of shale from gamma ray log.
The gamma ray log has several nonlinear empirical responses as well
a linear responses. The non linear responses are based on
geographic area or formation age. All non linear relationships are
more optimistic that is they produce a shale volume value lower
than that from the linear equation.
Linear response :
GRLog  GRmin
I GR 
GRmax  GRmin
Where;
I GR  Gamma ray index
 GRLog  gamma ray record from log
GRmin  gama ray for clean sand
GRmax  gamma ray for shale

For very hard compacted formation at depth of 8,000 ft or more,

gamma ray index is considered equal to shale volume:

Vsh  I GR

For tertiary sediment rocks at depth of less than 4,000 ft, the
shale volume is;
Vsh  0.083(23.7 I GR  1)

For older rocks at depth of 4,000-8,000 ft, the shale volume is;

Vsh  0.33(22 I GR  1)
Sonic Log:
1)Determine porosity of reservoir rock
2)Improve correlation and interpretation of seismic records
3)Identify zones with abnormally high pressures
4)Assist in identifying lithology
5)Estimate secondary pore space
6)Indicate mechanical integrity of reservoir rocks and formations
that surround them (in conjunction with density data)
7)Estimate rock permeability
Wyllie’s time average equation can be used to determine porosity:
t  t ma

Where; t f  t ma
t  log reading ( s / ft )
t ma  transi time for the rock type (matrix)
t f  transittim e for the fluid filling pores (usually 189s / ft )
HW
Q.8
From the gamma ray log, the record is 200 API, gamma ray
for shale zone is 120 API and gamma ray for clean sand is 40
API. Calculate the gamma ray index and shale volume if the
rocks at depth 3,500 ft and 7,500 ft.

Q.9
Sonic log reading t  100 s / ft , tma  80 s / ft , t f  190s / ft
Calculate porosity.
Density Log:
The density log belongs to the group of active nuclear tools, which
contains a radioactive source and two detectors. the Gamma Ray
tool, which is a passive nuclear tool, contains no source and can only
measure the natural radiation in the formation. The radioactive
source is applied to the wellbore wall in a shielded sidewall skid and
emits medium gamma rays into the formation. The gamma ray
waves may be thought of as energy particles. As these energy
particles (photons) collide with the electrons in the formation, the
gamma ray loses some of its energy to the electron. This is called
Compton scattering. The denser the formation, the more electrons
are presented, and more energy is lost due to collisions. If the matrix
density is known, then the energy loss is directly related to porosity.
Neutron Log:
Nucleus of all elements except hydrogen have neutrons. Neutrons
have same mass as protons but no charge. Their small size and
electrical neutrality make neutrons ideal projectiles for penetrating
matter. Two categories of neutron sources are found in the logging
industry: chemical and pulsed sources. Chemical sources are
composed of two elements in intimate contact that continuously
emit neutrons, usually plutonium/beryllium or americium/beryllium.
Such sources need to be heavily shielded when not in use.
Pulsed sources incorporate a neutron accelerator and a target, and
can be activated by simply switching on the accelerator. This source
is used for pulsed neutron logging and in tools that measure inelastic
neutron collisions .
The following equation can be used to determine porosity from
density log:
  b
D  ma
 ma   f
Where;
b  bulk density from log
 ma  density of the rock (matrix)
 f  density of the fluid filling pores
D   N

2
Q.10
The bulk density reading from density log is (2.2 gm/cc). The
density of matrix is (2.45 gm/cc) and fluid density is (1.035
gm/cc). The density reading from neutron log is (15%).
Calculate formation density.