AAU DEPARTMENT OF PADM Research Methods for Public Administration

Chapter Four: Research Design (Planning of Research Project)

4.1. Meaning of Research Design
The difficult problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the
design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. Decisions regarding what,
where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a
research design. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.”

In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such, the design
includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in
respect of:
a) What is the study about?
b) Why is the study being made?
c) Where will the study be carried out?
d) What type of data is required?
e) Where can the required data be found?
f) What periods of time will the study include?
g) What techniques of data collection will be used?
h) How will the data be analyzed?
i) In what style will the report be prepared?

In brief, research design must, at least, contain:

1) Sources, types, procedures or techniques to be used for gathering data/information;
2) The population/sample to be studied and the sampling tools to be used;
3) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
4) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.

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4.2. Important Concepts Concerning Research Design

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.
Variables
A characteristic, quantity, or anything of interest that can have different values is known as variable.
Weight, monthly salary, gender and age are examples are variables.
a) Continuous and Non-continuous (Discrete) Variables: The values of variables may be either
continuous or categorical (discrete). Categorical variables called as discrete variables have a
limited number of possible categories. Gender is an example, with just two categories: female
and male. Continuous variables can have an unlimited number of values. Values for continuous
variables can be measured on a continuous scale such as weights in grams or height in
centimeters. They are not restricted to specific, discrete categories or values as in the case of
categorical variables.

b) Dependent, Independent and Intervening Variables: Another category of variables is

dependent and independent. This classification is important in causal research designs. If one
variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent
variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable. An intervening variable lies between an independent and a dependent
variable. A change in the intervening variable must be ‘caused’ by the independent variable.
The following example can be considered. “Workplace stress causes physical illness, which
causes absenteeism”. Workplace stress is independent variable here. Physical illness is the
intervening variable. Absenteeism is the dependent variable.

c) Extraneous Variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but
may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher
wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies
achievement and their self-concepts. In this case, self-concept is an independent variable and
social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social
studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the
researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent
variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’.
A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed
entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.

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Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of
extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study minimizing
the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is
used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.

Confounded Relationship
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an
extraneous variable(s).

Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis-Testing Research

When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing
research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which
the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a
research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research’. For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence
affects reading ability for a group of students and for this purpose, he randomly selects 50 students
and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between
the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because
herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated. But, suppose that the researcher
randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and then
divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies program, and
25 to Group B, the special studies program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each
group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training program on the student’s performance-level.
This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research because in this case the independent
variable, viz., the type of training program, is manipulated.

4.3. Forms of Research Design

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (1) research
design in case of exploratory research studies; (2) research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies, and (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research (causal)
studies.

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We take up each category separately.

1. Research Design in Case of Exploratory Research Studies
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of
developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis
in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such, the research design
appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering
different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed
because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more
precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research
procedure for gathering relevant data.

2. Research Design in Case of Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something occur or its association with something else.
The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic
research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration
of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of
descriptive research studies.

Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of view of the
research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements
and as such, we may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as
well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to
measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition
of ‘population’ s/he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The
research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize
reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research study. The
design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:

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a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being
made?)
b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
e) Processing and analyzing the data.
f) Reporting the findings.
Thus, the research design in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a comparative design
throwing light on all points narrated above and must be prepared keeping in view the
objective(s) of the study and the resources available. However, it must ensure the
minimization of bias and maximization of reliability of the evidence collected.

3. Research Design in Case of Hypothesis - Testing Research (Causal) Studies:

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as causal or experimental studies) are
those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but
will permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement.
Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of
experiments.

CASE STUDY METHOD

The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative research method and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even
the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more
emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations.

Thus, case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The
objective of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour-patterns of the given
unit as an integrated totality.

The case study method is a technique by which individual factor whether it is an institution or just an episode
in the life of an individual or a group is analyzed in its relationship to any other in the group. Thus, a fairly
exhaustive study of a person (as to what he does and has done, what he thinks he does and had done and
what he expects to do and says he ought to do) or group is called a life or case history.

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In brief, we can say that case study method is a form of qualitative analysis where in careful and complete
observation of an individual or a situation or an institution is done; efforts are made to study each and every
aspect of the concerning unit in details and then from case data generalizations and inferences are drawn.

Characteristics Case Study

1. The researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for his study purpose; S/he may
even take a situation to study the same comprehensively.
2. Here, the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details. Generally, the study
extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough
information for drawing correct inferences.
1. In the context of this method, we make complete study of the social unit covering all facets.
3. Through this method, we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social
unit as an integrated totality.
4. Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of life. As such, case
study deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life.
5. In respect of the case study method, an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of causal
factors.
6. Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses along with the data, which may be helpful in testing
them, and thus it enables the generalized knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence,
generalized social science may get handicapped.
7. Case study assumes that there is uniformity in the basic nature of the entity being studied and the
population in general and the assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.

Advantages of Case Study

There are several advantages of the case study method that follow from the various characteristics outlined
above. Mention may be made here of the important advantages:
1. Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method enables us to understand
fully the behaviour pattern of the concerned unit. Case study deepens our perception and
gives us a clearer insight into life.
2. This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit and its
relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding environment.
3. It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data, which may be helpful in
testing them. Case studies, thus, enable the generalized knowledge to get richer and richer.

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4. The method facilitates intensive study of social units, which is generally not possible if we
use either the observation method or the method of collecting information through
schedules.
5. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his
analyzing ability and skill.
Limitations of Case Study
Important limitations of the case study method may as well be highlighted.
1. Case situations are seldom comparable and as such, the information gathered in case studies is often
not comparable. Since the subject under case study tells history in his own words, logical concepts
and units of scientific classification have to be read into it or out of it by the investigator.
2. The danger of false/hasty generalization is always there in view of the fact that no set rules are
followed in collection of the information and only few units are studied.

4.4. Features of a Good Research Design

A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical and so
on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analyzed is considered a good design. The design that gives the smallest experimental error, is supposed to
be the best design in many investigations. Similarly, a design, which yields maximal information and
provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem, is considered most appropriate
and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question of good design is related to the
purpose or objective of the research problem and with the nature of the problem to be studied. A design may
be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some
other research problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:
a) the means of obtaining information;
b) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
c) the objective of the problem to be studied;
d) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
e) the availability of time and money for the research work.

If the research study happens to be an exploratory, wherein the major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and
insights, the research design most appropriate must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many
different aspects of a phenomenon. But, when the purpose of a study is accurate description of a situation or
of an association between variables (or in what are called the descriptive studies), accuracy becomes a major
consideration and a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the evidence

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collected is considered a good design. Studies involving the testing of a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables require a design, which will permit inferences about causality in addition to the
minimization of bias and maximization of reliability. But, in practice it is the most difficult task to put a
particular study in a particular group, for a given research may have in it elements of two or more of the
functions of different studies. It is only on the basis of its primary function that a study can be categorized
either as an exploratory or descriptive or hypothesis-testing study and accordingly the choice of a research
design may be made in case of a particular study. Besides, the availability of time, money, skills of the
research staff and the means of obtaining the information must be given due weightage while working out
the relevant details of the research design such as experimental design, survey design, sample design and the
like.

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