Orr FM Circuits Mlony iterencicuts nave boon devised to produce FM end PM signals ane ccuts tat produce FM lndvecty By phase modulation techniques Direct FM crcuts make use of techniques for varying the frequency ofthe Inoduatrs produce FM va phase shir eter the carer oscllator sage the ongial modulating sige Most FM crcuts today ar inside integrated cicuts, and some are Implemented in software wih gta signal processing methods Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: = Compare and contrast FM using crystal oscillator circuits with FM using varactors. = Explain the general principles of phase modulator circuits and list the basic techniques for achieving phase shift Calculate the total frequency deviation of an FM transmitter given the original oscillator frequency and the frequency multiplication factor. Describe the operation of slope detectors, pulse-averaging discriminators, and quadrature detectors. Draw a block diagram of a phase-locked loop (PLL), state what each component does, explain the operation of the circult, and define the capture range and the lock range of a PLL. Explain the operation of a PLL as a frequency demodulator.6-1 Frequency Modulators A frequency modulator is a citcuit that varies carrier frequency in accordance with the ‘modulating signal. The carrer is generated by either an LC ot a crystal oscillator circuit, and so a Way must be found to change the frequency of oscillation. In an LC oscillator, the caurier frequency is fixed by the values of the inductance and capacitance in a tuned circuit, and the cartier frequency can therefore be changed by varying either inductance fr capacitance, The idea is to find a circuit or component that converts a modulating voltage to a corresponding change in capacitance or inductance. ‘When the carrier is generated by a crystal oscillator, the frequency is fixed by the crystal. However, keep in mind that the equivalent circuit of a erystal is an LCR circuit with both series and parallel resonant points. Connecting an external capacitor to the crystal allows minor variations in operating frequency to be obtained. Again, the objec live is to Gnd a cireuit or component whose capacitance will change in response to the modulating signal, The component most frequently used for this purpose is a varactor Also known as a voltage variable capacitor, variable capacitance diode, or vaticap, this device is basically a semiconductor junction diode operated in a reverse-bias mode. Varactor Operation {A junction diode is created when P- and N-lype semiconductors are formed during the manufacturing process. Some electrons in the N-type material drift over into the P-type material and neutralize the holes there [see Fig. 6-1(a)], forming a thin area called the depletion region, where there are no free carriers, holes, or electrons. Frequency modulator Carrier frequency Varactor Depletion region Figure 6-1 Depletion region in a junction diode. . y * N OO; | 200 o- o-|-0 -0 ©90; | 1©00 Oo ~o 200} | je90 O~ O-|-0 70 a. o> Oo 209} 1209 O- o-|+0 +0 1 1 ‘3 FM Circuits (0) Forwarbas 173GOOD TO KNOW Varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance values, most unis having nominal capacitance In the 1-10 200-9F range. The capacitance variation range can be ashigh as 123. 174 Figure 6-2 Schematic symbols of a varactor diode. This region acts as a thin insulator that prevents current from flowing through the device. If a forward bias is applied to the diode, it will conduct, The external potential forces the holes and electrons toward the junction, where they combine and cause a continuous ‘current inside the diode as well as externally. The depletion layer simply disappears [see Fig. 6-1(b)]. If an extemal reverse bias is applied to the diode, as in Fig. 6-1(c), no cur rent will flow, The bias incxeases the width of the depletion layer, with the amount of increase depending on the amount of the reverse bias. The higher the reverse bias, the ‘wider the depletion layer and the less chance for current flow. ‘A reverse-biased junction diode acts as a small capacitor. The P- and N-type mate- rials act as the two plates of the capacitor, and the depletion region acts as the dielecti. With all the active current carriers (electrons and holes) neutralized in the depletion region, it functions just as an insulating material. The width of the depletion layer deter ‘mines the width of the dielectric and, therefore, the amount of capacitance. Ifthe reverse bias is high, the depletion region will be wide and the dielectric will cause the plates of the capacitor to be widely spaced, producing a low capacitance, Decreasing the amount of reverse bias narrows the depletion region; the plates of the capacitor are effectively closer together, producing a higher capacitance. ‘All junction diodes exhibit variable capacitance as the reverse bias is changed. However, varactors are designed to optimize this particular characteristic, so that the capacitance variations are as wide and linear as possible. The symbols used to represent varactor diodes are shown in Fig. 6-2 Varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance values, most units having a nominal capacitance in the 1- to 200-pF range, The capacitance variation range can be as high as 12:1. Fig. 6-3 shows the curve for a typical diode. A maximum Figure 6-3 Capacitance versus reverse junction voltage for a typical varactor. Jureton eapactanee (pF) seesesas Revers bas (V) Chapter 6Figure 6-4 A directtrequency-modulated cartier oscillator using a varactor diode. Ree (K)s Audio smplier ——-Mereprone raquenay ache! capacitance of 80 pF is obtained at 1 V. With 60 V applied, the capacitance drops to 20 pF a 4:1 range. The operating range is usually restricted to the linear center por- tion of the curve Varactor Modulators Fig. 6-4, a carrier oscillator for a transmitter, shows the basic concept of a varactor frequency modulator, The capacitance of varactor diode D, and L, forms the parallel-tuned circuit of the oscillator. The value of C; is made very large at the operating frequency so that its reactance is very low. As a result, Cy connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator cizeuit, Also C, blocks the de bias on the base of Q; from being shorted to ground through L,, The values of L, and Dy fix the cen- ter carrier frequency, ‘he capacitance of Dy is controlled in two ways, through a fixed de bias and by the modulating signal. In Fig. 6-4, the bias on D, is set by the voltage divider potentiometer Ry. Varying R, allows the center carrier frequency to be adjusted over a narrow range. The modulating signal is applied through C and the radio frequency choke (RFC); C; is a blocking capacitor that keeps the de varactor bias out of the ‘modulating-signal circuits, The reactance of the RFC is high at the carrier frequency {o prevent the carrier signal from getting back into the audio modulating-signal ‘The modulating signal derived from the microphone is amplified and applied to the ‘modulator, As the modulating signal varies, it adds to and subtracts from the fixed-bias voltage, Thus, the effective voltage applied to D, causes its capacitance to vaty. This, in turn, produces the desiced deviation of the carrier frequency. A positive-going signal at point A adds to the reverse bias, decreasing the capacitance and increasing the cartier frequency. A negative-going signal at A subtracts from the bias, increasing the capaci- tance and decreasing the carrier frequency FM Circuits Varactor modulator 175176 Example 6-1 ‘The value of capacitance of a varactor atthe center ofits Iinear range is 40 pF. This varactor will be in parallel with a Gxed 20-pF capacitor. What value of inductance should be used to resonate this combination to 5.5 MHz in an oscillator? Total capacitance Cy = 40 + 20 = 60 pF. 1 fy = 5.5 MHz = Z InvEG, ——————— GaN'G, ~ C2BX SSX IOF XO XI 397 x 10H or 4 lt ‘The main problem with the circuit in Fig. 6-4 is that most LC oscillators are simply not stable enough to provide a carrier signal. Even with high-quality components and ‘optimal design, the frequency of LC oscillators will vary because of temperature changes, variations in circuit voltage, and other factors. Such instabilities cannot be tolerated in ‘most modem electronic communication systems, where a transmitter must stay on fre- quency as precisely as possible, The LC oscillators simply are not stable enough to meet the stringent requirements imposed by the FCC. As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used (0 set carrier frequency. Not only do crystal oscillators provide a highly ‘accurate carrier frequency, but also their frequency stability is superior over a wide temperature range. Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator It is possible to vary the frequency of a crystal oscillator by changing the value of capacitance in series or in parallel with the crystal, Fig. 6-5 shows a typical crystal oscillator, When a small value of capacitance is connected in series with the crystal, the Figure 6-5 Frequency modulation of a crystal oscillator with a VVC. Vee ryt Chapter 6Figure 6-6 How frequency multipliers increase carrler frequency and deviation Frequency mater [Oban crystal frequency can be “pulled” slightly from its natural resonant frequency. By mak- ing the series capacitance a varactor diode, frequency modulation of the erystal oscil- lator can be achieved. The modulating signal is applied to the varactor diode D,, which changes the oscillator frequency. It is important to note that only a very small frequency deviation is possible with frequency-modulated crystal oscillators. Rarely can the frequency of a crystal oscillator be changed more than several hundred hertz from the nominal crystal value. The resulting deviation may be less than the total deviation desired. For example, to achieve a total fre- quency shift of75 kHz, which is necessary in commercial FM broadcasting, other techniques must be used. In NBFM communication systems, the narrower deviations are acceptable ‘Although it is possible to achieve a deviation of only several hundred cycles from the crystal oscillator frequency, the total deviation can be increased by using frequency multiplier circuits after the cartier oscillator. A frequency multiplier circuit is one whose ‘output frequency is some integer multiple of the input frequency. A frequency raultiplier ‘hat muliplies a frequency by 2 is called a doubler a frequency multiplier circuit that ‘multiplies an input frequency by 3 is called a sripler and so on. Frequency multipliers cean also be cascaded, ‘When the FM signal is applied to a frequency multiplier, both the carrer frequency of operation and the amount of deviation are increased, Typical frequency multipliers ccan increase the carrier oscillator frequency by 24 to 32 times. Fig. 6-6 shows how frequency multipliers increase carrer frequency and deviation. The desired oviput fre- guency from the FM transmitter in the figure is 156 MHz, and the desired maximum frequency deviation is 5 kHz, The carrier is generated by a 6.5-MHz crystal oscillator, which is followed by frequency multiplier circuits that increase the frequency by a fac- (or of 24 (6.5 MHz. X 24 = 156 MHz). Frequency modulation of the crystal oscillator by the varactor produces a maximum deviation of only 200 Hz, When multiplied by a factor of 24 in the frequency multiplier circuits, this deviation is increased 10 200 X 24 = 4800 Hz, or 4.8 Kllz, which is close to the desited deviation. Frequency multiplier eixcuits are discussed in greater detail in Chap. 8 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an external input voltage are generally referred to as voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs}, Voltage-controlied crystal oscillators are generally referred to as VXOs, Alihough some VCOs are used primarily in FM, they are also used in other applications where voltage-to-frequency conversion is required. As you will see, their most common application is in phase-locked loops, discussed later in this chapter. ‘Although VCOs for VHF, UHE, and microwaves are still implemented with discrete components, more and more they ate being integrated on a single chip of silicon along with other transmitter or receiver circuits. An example of such a VCO is shown in Fig. 7. This circuit uses silicon-germanium (SiGe) bipolar transistor to achieve an ‘operating frequency centered near 10 GHz. The oscillator uses cross-coupled transistors Q, and Q; in a multivibrator or Aip-flop type of design. The signal is a sine wave whose frequency is set by the collector inductances and varactor capacitances, The modulating FM Circuits Froquency multiplier crcult Doubler Teper Voltage-contoed oscillator (VCO) Vottage-contoled crystal oscar (VXO) 177178 Figure 6-7 A 10.GH2 SiGe integrated VCO modi - “atage cent sues voltage, usually a binary signal to produce FSK, is applied to the junction of Dy and Ds, ‘Two complementary outputs are available from the emitter followers Qs and Q,, In this circuit, the inductors are actually tiny spirals of aluminum (or copper) inside the chip, ‘with inductance in the 500- to 900-pHT range. The varactors are reverse-biased diodes that function as variable capacitors. The tuning range is from 9.953 to 10.66 GHz A CMOS version of the VCO is shown in Fig. 6-8. This ciec coupled LC resonant circuit design and operates in the 2.4- to 2.5-GHz range. Variations of it are used in Bluetooth wansceivers and wireless LAN applications. (See Chap. 20.) There are also many different types of lower-frequency VCOs in common use, including IC VCOs using RC multivibrator-type oscillators whose frequency can be also uses a cross Chapter 6Figure 6-8 A CMOS VCO for a 2.4GHz FSK. EO. on om fy A eget 44 14,-__4 “etage > 2 r seer Figure 6-9 Frequency modulation with an IC VCO. (2) Black iagram with an IC VCO) (6) Baste trequency modulator using the NESB6 VCO. eddaion] = ate EEE odin Sal 2 sty a © controlled over a wide range by an ac or de input voltage, These VCOs typically have ‘an operating range of less than 1 Hz to approximately 1 MHz. The output is either a square or & triangular wave rather than a sine wave. Fig. 6-9(a) is a block diagram of one widely used IC VCO, the popular NES66, NES66 IC VCO External resistor R, at pin 6 sets the value of current produced by the internal current FM Circuits 179Phase modulator GOOD TO KNOW Simple phase shifters do not produce a near response over a large range of phase shit To compensate for this, restrict the total allowable phase shift to ‘maximize linearity Mulipliers ‘must aso be used to achieve the desir deviation, 180 sources, The current sources linearly charge and discharge extemal capacitor C, at pin 7 ‘An external voltage Ve applied at pin 5 is used to vary the amount of current produced by the current sources. The Schmitt trigger circuit is a level detector that controls the ‘current source by switching between charging and discharging when the capacitor charges or discharges to a specific voltage level. A linear sawtooth of voltage is developed across the capacitor by the current source. This is buffered by an amplifier and made available at pin 4. The Schmitt wigger output is a square wave at the same frequency available at pin 3. Ifa sine wave output is desized, the triangular wave is usually Altered with a tuned circuit resonant to the desixed carrier frequency. ‘A.complete frequency modulator circuit using the NES66 is shown in Fig. 6-9(0) The current sources are biased with a voltage divider made up of R; and Ry, The mod- ‘lating signal is applied through C; tothe voltage divider at pin 5. The 0.001-1F capacitor between pins 5 and 6 is used to prevent unwanted oscillations. The center carrier fre- quency of the circuit is set by the values of Ry and C,, Carrier frequencies up to | MH ray be used with this IC, If higher frequencies and deviations ate necessary, the oulpuls can be filiered or used to drive other circuits, such as a frequency mulliplier. The mod- lating signal can vary the carrier frequency over nearly a 10:1 range, making very lar deviations possible, The deviation is linear with respect to the input amplitude over the centite range. 6-2 Phase Modulators ‘Most modem FM transmitters use some form of phase modulation to produce indirect FM, The reason for using PM instead of direct FM is that the cartier oscillator can be ‘optimized for frequency accuracy and stability. Crystal oscillators oF erystal-controlled Frequency synthesizers can be used (o set the cartier frequency accurately and maintain solid stability ‘The output of the carrier oscillator is fed to a phase modulator where the phase shift is made to vary in accordance with the modulating signal, Since phase vatiations produce frequency variations, indirect FM is the result. Some phase modulators are based upon the phase shift produced by an RC or LC tuned circuit, It should be pointed out that simple phase shifters of this type do not produce linear response over a large range of phase shift, The total allowable phase shift rust be restricted to maximize linearity, and multipliers must be used to achieve the desired deviation. The simplest phase shifters are RC networks like those shown in Fig. 6-10(a) and (6). Depending on the values of R and C, the output of the phase shifter cean be set to any phase angle between 0 and 90°, In (a), the output leads the input by some angle between 0 and 90°. For example, when X, equals R, the phase shift is 45°, ‘The phase shift is computed by using the formula -1 Xe oan A low-pass RC filter can also be used, as shown in Fig. 6-10(b). Here the output is taken from across the capacitor, so it lags the input voltage by some angle between 0 and 90°, The phase angle is computed by using the formula ak aa A simple phase-shift circuit can be used as a phase modulator if the resistance ot capacitance can be made to vary with the modulating signal. One way to do this is to replace the capacitor shown in the circuit of Fig. 6-10(b) with a varactor. The resulting phase-shift circuit is shown in Fig. 6-11 In this cizcuit, the modulating signal causes the capacitance of the varactor to change. If the modulating signal amplitude at the output of amplifier A becomes more ort Chapter 6