CHAPTER 5

HEAT TRANSFER THEORY

Heat transfer is an operation that occurs repeatedly in the food industry. Whether it is called
cooking, baking, drying, sterilizing or freezing, heat transfer is part of the processing of almost
every food. An understanding of the principles that govern heat transfer is essential to an
understanding of food processing.

Heat transfer is a dynamic process in which heat is transferred spontaneously from one body to
another cooler body. The rate of heat transfer depends upon the differences in temperature
between the bodies, the greater the difference in temperature, the greater the rate of heat transfer.

Temperature difference between the source of heat and the receiver of heat is therefore the
driving force in heat transfer. An increase in the temperature difference increases the driving
force and therefore increases the rate of heat transfer. The heat passing from one body to another
travels through some medium which in general offers resistance to the heat flow. Both these
factors, the temperature difference and the resistance to heat flow, affect the rate of heat transfer.
As with other rate processes, these factors are connected by the general equation:

rate of transfer = driving force / resistance

For heat transfer:

rate of heat transfer = temperature difference/ heat flow resistance of medium

During processing, temperatures may change and therefore the rate of heat transfer will change.
This is called unsteady-state heat transfer, in contrast to steady-state heat transfer when the
temperatures do not change. An example of unsteady-state heat transfer is the heating and
cooling of cans in a retort to sterilize the contents. Unsteady-state heat transfer is more complex
since an additional variable, time, enters into the rate equations.

Heat can be transferred in three ways: by conduction, by radiation and by convection.

In conduction, the molecular energy is directly exchanged, from the hotter to the cooler regions,
the molecules with greater energy communicating some of this energy to neighbouring
molecules with less energy. An example of conduction is the heat transfer through the solid walls
of a refrigerated store.

Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves, which transfer heat from one
body to another, in the same way as electromagnetic light waves transfer light energy. An
example of radiant heat transfer is when a foodstuff is passed below a bank of electric resistance
heaters that are red-hot.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of groups of molecules in a fluid. The groups
of molecules may be moved by either density changes or by forced motion of the fluid. An
example of convection heating is cooking in a jacketed pan: without a stirrer, density changes
cause heat transfer by natural convection; with a stirrer, the convection is forced.

In general, heat is transferred in solids by conduction, in fluids by conduction and convection.

Heat transfer by radiation occurs through open space, can often be neglected, and is most
significant when temperature differences are substantial. In practice, the three types of heat
transfer may occur together. For calculations it is often best to consider the mechanisms
separately, and then to combine them where necessary.

HEAT CONDUCTION

In the case of heat conduction, the equation, rate = driving force/resistance, can be applied
directly. The driving force is the temperature difference per unit length of heat-transfer path, also
known as the temperature gradient. Instead of resistance to heat flow, its reciprocal called the
conductance is used. This changes the form of the general equation to:

rate of heat transfer = driving force x conductance,

that is:
dQ/dt = k A dT/dx (5.1)

where dQ/dt is the rate of heat transfer, the quantity of heat energy transferred per unit of time, A
is the area of cross-section of the heat flow path, dT/dx is the temperature gradient, that is the rate
of change of temperature per unit length of path, and k is the thermal conductivity of the
medium. Notice the distinction between thermal conductance, which relates to the actual
thickness of a given material (k/x) and thermal conductivity, which relates only to unit thickness.

The units of k, the thermal conductivity, can be found from eqn. (5.1) by transposing the terms

k = dQ/dt x 1/A x 1/(dT/dx)

= Js-1 x m-2 x l/(oC m-1)

= Jm-1s-1 oC-1

Equation (5.1) is known as the Fourier equation for heat conduction.

Note: Heat flows from a hotter to a colder body that is in the direction of the negative
temperature gradient. Thus a minus sign should appear in the Fourier equation. However, in
simple problems the direction of heat flow is obvious and the minus sign is considered to be
confusing rather than helpful, so it has not been used.
 Thermal Conductivity

On the basis of eqn. (5.1) thermal conductivities of materials can be measured. Thermal
conductivity does change slightly with temperature, but in many applications it can be regarded
as a constant for a given material. Thermal conductivities are given in Appendices 3,4,5,6, which
give physical properties of many materials used in the food industry.

In general, metals have a high thermal conductivity, in the region 50-400 Jm-1s–1 oC-1. Most
foodstuffs contain a high proportion of water and as the thermal conductivity of water is about
0.7 Jm-1s-1 oC-1 above 0oC, thermal conductivities of foods are in the range 0.6 – 0.7 Jm-1s–1 oC-1.
Ice has a substantially higher thermal conductivity than water, about 2.3 Jm-1s–1 oC-1. The thermal
conductivity of frozen foods is, therefore, higher than foods at normal temperatures.

Most dense non-metallic materials have thermal conductivities of 0.5-2 Jm-1s-1 oC-1. Insulating
materials, such as those used in walls of cold stores, approximate closely to the conductivity of
gases as they are made from non-metallic materials enclosing small bubbles of gas or air. The
conductivity of air is 0.024 Jm-1s-1 oC-1 at 0oC, and insulating materials such as foamed plastics,
cork and expanded rubber are in the range 0.03 - 0.06 Jm-1s-1 oC-1. Some of the new in foamed
plastic materials have thermal conductivities as low as 0.026 Jm-1s-1 oC-1.

When using published tables of data, the units should be carefully checked. Mixed units, con-
venient for particular applications, are sometimes used and they may need to be converted.

Conduction through a Slab

If a slab of material, as shown in Fig. 5.1, has two faces at different temperatures T1 and T2 heat
will flow from the face at the higher temperature T1 to the other face at the lower temperature T2.

The rate of heat transfer is given by Fourier's equation:

dQ/dt = kA dT/dx

Under steady temperature conditions dQ/dt = constant, which may be called q:

and so q = kA dT/dx

but dT/dx, the rate of change of temperature per unit length of path, is given by (T1 - T2 )/x where
x is the thickness of the slab,
so q = kA(T1 - T2)/x
or q = kA T/x
= (k/x) A T (5.2)

This may be regarded as the basic equation for simple heat conduction. It can be used to
calculate the rate of heat transfer through a uniform wall if the temperature difference across it
and the thermal conductivity of the wall material are known.
 Figure 5.1. Heat conduction through a slab

EXAMPLE 5.1. Rate of heat transfer in cork

A cork slab 10cm thick has one face at – 12oC and the other face at 21oC. If the mean thermal
conductivity of cork in this temperature range is 0.042 Jm-1s-1 oC-1, what is the rate of heat
transfer through 1 m2 of wall?

T1 = 21oC T2 = -12oC T = 33oC

A = 1m2 k = 0.042 Jm-1s-1 oC-1 x = 0.l m

q = 0.042 x 1 x 33
0.1
= 13.9 Js-1

Heat Conductances

In tables of properties of insulating materials, heat conductances are sometimes used instead of
thermal conductivities. The heat conductance is the quantity of heat that will pass in unit time,
through unit area of a specified thickness of material, under unit temperature difference. For a
thickness x of material with a thermal conductivity of k in Jm-1s-1 oC-1, the conductance is k/x = C
and the units of conductance are Jm-2s-1 oC-1.
 Heat conductance = C = k/x.

Heat Conductances in Series

Frequently in heat conduction, heat passes through several consecutive layers of different
materials. For example, in a cold store wall, heat might pass through brick, plaster, wood and
cork.

In this case, eqn. (5.2) can be applied to each layer. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Heat conductances in series

In the steady state, the same quantity of heat per unit time must pass through each layer.

q = A1T1 k1 /x1 = A2T2 k2 /x2 = A3 T3 k3 /x3 = ……..

If the areas are the same,
A1 = A2 = A3 = ….. = A

q = AT1 k1 /x1 = A T2 k2 /x2 = A T3 k3 /x3 = ……..

So AT1 = q(x1/k1) and AT2 = q(x2/k2) and AT3 = q(x3/k3).…..

AT1 + AT2 + AT3 + … = q(x1/k1) + q(x2 /k2) +q(x3/k3) + …

A(T1 + T2 + T3 + ..) = q(x1/k1 + x2/k2 +x3/k3 + …)

The sum of the temperature differences over each layer is equal to the difference in temperature
of the two outside surfaces of the complete system, i.e.

T1 + T2 + T3 + … = T

and since k1/x1 is equal to the conductance of the material in the first layer, C1, and k2/x2 is equal
to the conductance of the material in the second layer C2,

x1/k1 + x2/k2 + x3/k3 + ... = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 ……

= 1/U

where U = the overall conductance for the combined layers, in Jm-2s-1 oC-1.

Therefore A T = q (1/U)

And so q = UA T (5.3)

This is of the same form as eqn (5.2) but extended to cover the composite slab. U is called the
overall heat-transfer coefficient, as it can also include combinations involving the other methods
of heat transfer – convection and radiation.

EXAMPLE 5.2. Heat transfer in cold store wall of brick, concrete and cork
A cold store has a wall comprising 11 cm of brick on the outside, then 7.5 cm of concrete and
then 10cm of cork. The mean temperature within the store is maintained at –18oC and the mean
temperature of the outside surface of the wall is 18oC.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer through 1m2 of wall. The appropriate thermal conductivities
are for brick, concrete and cork, respectively 0.69, 0.76 and 0.043 Jm-1s-1 oC-1.
Determine also the temperature at the interface between the concrete and the cork layers.

For brick x1/k1 = 0.11/0.69 = 0.16.

For concrete x2/k2 = 0.075/0.76 = 0.10.
For cork x3/k3 = 0.10/0.043 = 2.33
.
But 1/U = x1/k1 + x2/k2 + x3/k3
= 0.16 + 0.10 + 2.33
= 2.59

Therefore U = 0.38 Jm-2s-1oC-1

T = 18 - (-18) = 36oC
 A = 1m2

q = UA T
= 0.38 x 1 x 36
= 13.7Js-1

Further, q = A3 T3k3/x3

and for the cork wall A3 = 1 m2, x3/k3 = 2.33 and q = 13.7Js-1

Therefore 13.7 = 1 x T3 x 1/2.33 from rearranging eqn. (5.2)

T3 = 32oC.

But T3 is the difference between the temperature of the cork/concrete surface and the
temperature of the cork surface inside the cold store.

Therefore Tc - (-18) =32

where Tc is the temperature at the cork/concrete surface

and so Tc = 14oC.

If T1 is the difference between the temperature of the brick/concrete surface Tb and the
temperature of the external air

Then 13.7 = 1 x T1 x 1/0.16 = 6.25 T1

Therefore 18 - Tb = T1 = 13.7/6.25 = 2.2

and so Tb = 15.8oC

Working it through shows approximate interface temperatures: air/brick 18oC, brick/concrete

16oC, concrete/cork 14oC, and cork/air -18oC. This shows that almost all of the temperature
difference occurs across the insulation (cork): the actual temperatures can be significant
especially if they lie below the temperature at which the atmospheric air condenses, or freezes.

Heat Conductances in Parallel

Heat conductances in parallel have a sandwich construction at right angles to the direction of the
heat transfer, but with heat conductances in parallel, the material surfaces are parallel to the
direction of heat transfer and to each other. The heat is therefore passing through each material at
the same time, instead of through one material and then the next. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.3.
 Figure 5.3. Heat conductances in parallel

An example is the insulated wall of a refrigerator or an oven, in which the walls are held together
by bolts. The bolts are in parallel with the direction of the heat transfer through the wall: they
carry most of the heat transferred and thus account for most of the losses.

EXAMPLE 5.3. Heat transfer in walls of a bakery oven

The wall of a bakery oven is built of insulating brick 10 cm thick and of thermal conductivity
0.22 Jm-1s-1oC-1. Steel reinforcing members penetrate the brick, and their total area of cross-
section represents 1% of the inside wall area of the oven.
If the thermal conductivity of the steel is 45 Jm-1s-1oC-1, calculate (a) the relative proportions of
the total heat transferred through the wall by the brick and by the steel and (b) the heat loss for
each m2 of oven wall if the inner side of the wall is at 230oC and the outer side is at 25oC.

Applying eqn. (5.1) q = A T k/x, we know that T is the same for the bricks and for the steel.
Also x, the thickness, is the same.

(a) Consider the loss through an area of 1 m2 of wall (0.99m2 of brick, and 0.01 m2 of steel)
For brick qb = Ab T kb/x

= 0.99(230 - 25)0.22
0.10

= 446Js-1
 For steel qs = As T ks/x

= 0.01(230 - 25)45
0.10
= 923Js-1

Therefore qb /qs = 0.48

(b)Total heat loss

q = (qb + qs ) per m2 of wall
= 446 + 923
= 1369Js-1
Therefore percentage of heat carried by steel
= (923/1369) x 100
= 67%

SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER

Newton found, experimentally, that the rate of cooling of the surface of a solid, immersed in a
colder fluid, was proportional to the difference between the temperature of the surface of the
solid and the temperature of the cooling fluid. This is known as Newton's Law of Cooling, and it
can be expressed by the equation, analogous to eqn. (5.2),

q = hsA (Ta – Ts) (5.4)

where hs is called the surface heat-transfer coefficient, Ta is the temperature of the cooling fluid
and Ts is the temperature at the surface of the solid. The surface heat-transfer coefficient can be
regarded as the conductance of a hypothetical surface film of the cooling medium of thickness xf
such that hs = kf /xf , where kf is the thermal conductivity of the cooling medium.

Following on this reasoning, it may be seen that hs can be considered as arising from the
presence of another layer, this time at the surface, added to the case of the composite slab
considered previously. The heat passes through the surface, then through the various elements of
a composite slab and then it may pass through a further surface film. We can at once write the
important equation:

q = AT[(1/hs1) + x1/k1 + x2/k2 +.. + (1/hs2)] (5.5)

= UA T

where 1/U = (1/hs1) + x1/k1 + x2/k2 +.. + (1/hs2)

and hs1, hs1are the surface coefficients on either side of the composite slab, x1, x2...... are the
thicknesses of the layers making up the slab, and k1, k2... are the conductivities of layers of
thickness x1,..... . The coefficient hs is also known as the convection heat-transfer coefficient and
values for it will be discussed in detail under the heading of convection. It is useful at this point,
however, to appreciate the magnitude of hs under various common conditions and these are
shown in Table 5.1.

TABLE 5.1
APPROXIMATE RANGE OF SURFACE HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
h
Jm-2s-1 oC-1
Boiling liquids 2400-24,000
Condensing liquids 1800-18,000
Still air 6
Moving air (3ms-1) 30
Liquids flowing through pipes 1200 - 6000

EXAMPLE 5.4. Heat transfer in jacketed pan

Sugar solution is being heated in a jacketed pan made from stainless steel, 1.6 mm thick. Heat is
supplied by condensing steam at 200kPa gauge in the jacket. The surface transfer coefficients
are, for condensing steam and for the sugar solution, 12,000 and 3000 Jm-2s-1oC-1 respectively,
and the thermal conductivity of stainless steel is 21 Jm-1s-1oC-1.
Calculate the quantity of steam being condensed per minute if the transfer surface is 1.4 m 2 and
the temperature of the sugar solution is 83oC.

From steam tables, Appendix 8, the saturation temperature of steam at 200 kPa gauge(300kPa
absolute) =134oC and the latent heat = 2164kJkg-1.

For stainless steel x/k = 0.0016/21 = 7.6 x 10-5

T = (condensing temperature of steam) - (temperature of sugar solution)

= 134 - 83 = 51oC.
From eqn. (5.5)

1/U = 1/12,000 + 7.6 x 10-5 + 1/3000

U = 2032 Jm-2s-1oC-1

and since A = 1.4m2

q = UA T
= 2032 x 1.4 x 51
= 1.45 x 105 Js-1

Therefore steam required = heat transferred per sec /latent heat from steam
= 1.45 x 105 / (2.164 x 106) kgs-1
 = 0.067kgs-1
= 4 kg min-1

UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

In food-process engineering, heat transfer is very often in the unsteady state, in which
temperatures are changing and materials are warming or cooling. Unfortunately, study of heat
flow under these conditions is complicated. In fact, it is the subject for study in a substantial
branch of applied mathematics, involving finding solutions for the Fourier equation written in
terms of partial differentials in three dimensions. There are some cases that can be simplified and
handled by elementary methods, and also charts have been prepared which can be used to obtain
numerical solutions under some conditions of practical importance.

A simple case of unsteady-state heat transfer arises from the heating or cooling of solid bodies
made from good thermal conductors, for example a long cylinder, such as a meat sausage or a
metal bar, being cooled in air. The rate at which heat is being transferred to the air from the
surface of the cylinder is given by eqn. (5.4)

q = dQ/dt = hsA(Ts - T a)

where Ta is the air temperature and Ts is the surface temperature.

Now, the heat being lost from the surface must be transferred to the surface from the interior of
the cylinder by conduction. This heat transfer from the interior to the surface is difficult to
determine but as an approximation, we can consider that all the heat is being transferred from the
centre of the cylinder. In this instance, we evaluate the temperature drop required to produce the
same rate of heat flow from the centre to the surface as passes from the surface to the air. This
requires a greater temperature drop than the actual case in which much of the heat has in fact a
shorter path.

Assuming that all the heat flows from the centre of the cylinder to the outside, we can write the
conduction equation

dQ/dt = (k/L)A( Tc – Ts )

where Tc is the temperature at the centre of the cylinder, k is the thermal conductivity of the
material of the cylinder and L is the radius of the cylinder.

Equating these rates:

hsA(Ts – T a) = (k/L)A( Tc – Ts )
hs(Ts – T a) = (k/L)( Tc – Ts )
and so hs L/k = ( Tc – Ts )/ (Ts – T a)
To take a practical case of a copper cylinder of 15cm radius cooling in air, kc = 380 Jm-1s-1 oC -1,
hs = 30 Jm-2s-1 oC -1 (from Table 5.1), L = 0.15m,

(Tc – Ts)/ (Ts – T a) = (30 x 0.15)/380

= 0.012

In this case 99% of the temperature drop occurs between the air and the cylinder surface. By
comparison with the temperature drop between the surface of the cylinder and the air, the
temperature drop within the cylinder can be neglected. On the other hand, if the cylinder were
made of a poorer conductor as in the case of the sausage, or if it were very large in diameter, or if
the surface heat-transfer coefficient were very much larger, the internal temperature drops could
not be neglected.

This simple analysis shows the importance of the ratio:

heat transfer coefficient at the surface_ = hs L/k

heat conductance to the centre of the solid

This dimensionless ratio is called the Biot number (Bi) and it is important when considering
unsteady state heat flow. When (Bi) is small, and for practical purposes this may be taken as any
value less than about 0.2, the interior of the solid and its surface may be considered to be all at
one uniform temperature. In the case in which (Bi) is less than 0.2, a simple analysis can be
used, therefore, to predict the rate of cooling of a solid body.

Therefore for a cylinder of a good conductor, being cooled in air,

dQ = hsA(Ts – T a) dt

But this loss of heat cools the cylinder in accordance with the usual specific heat equation:
dQ = cVdT

where c is the specific heat of the material of the cylinder,  is the density of this material and V
is the volume of the cylinder.

Since the heat passing through the surface must equal the heat lost from the cylinder, these two
expressions for dQ can be equated:

cVdT = hsA(Ts – T a) dt

Integrating between Ts = T1 and Ts = T2, the initial and final temperatures of the cylinder during
the cooling period, t , we have:

- hsAt/cV = loge (T2 - T a)/(T1 – Ta)

or (T2 - Ta)/(T1 – Ta) = exp( -hsAt/cV ) (5.6)

For this case, the temperatures for any desired interval can be calculated, if the surface transfer
coefficient and the other physical factors are known. This gives a reasonable approximation so
long as (Bi) is less than about 0.2. Where (Bi) is greater than 0.2 the centre of the solid will cool
more slowly than this equation suggests. The equation is not restricted to cylinders, it applies to
solids of any shape so long as the restriction in (Bi), calculated for the smallest half-dimension, is
obeyed.

Charts have been prepared which give the temperature relationships for solids of simple shapes
under more general conditions of unsteady-state conduction. These charts have been calculated
from solutions of the conduction equation and they are plotted in terms of dimensionless groups
so that their application is more general. The form of the solution is:

f{(T - T0)/( Ti - T0 )} = F{(kt/cL2)(hsL/k)} (5.7)

where f and F indicate functions of the terms following, Ti is the initial temperature of the solid,
T0 is the temperature of the cooling or heating medium, T is the temperature of the solid at time t,
(kt/cL2) is called the Fourier number (Fo) (this includes the factor k/c the thermal conductance
divided by the volumetric heat capacity, which is called the thermal diffusivity) and (hsL/k) is the
Biot number.

A mathematical outcome that is very useful in these calculations connects results for two- and
three-dimensional situations with results from one-dimensional situations. This states that the
two- and three-dimensional values called F(x,y) and F(x,y,z) can be obtained from the individual
one-dimensional results if these are F(x), F(y) and F(z), by simple multiplication:

F(x,y) = F(x)F(y)
and

F(x,y,z) = F(x)F(y)F(z)

Using the above result, the solution for the cooling or heating of a brick is obtained from the
product of three slab solutions. The solution for a cylinder of finite length, such as a can, is
obtained from the product of the solution for an infinite cylinder, accounting for the sides of the
can, and the solution for a slab, accounting for the ends of the can.

Charts giving rates of unsteady-state heat transfer to the centre of a slab, a cylinder, or a sphere,
are given in Fig.5.4. On one axis is plotted the fractional unaccomplished temperature change,
(T - T0)/(Ti - T0). On the other axis is the Fourier number (kt/cL2), which may be thought of in
this connection as a time coordinate. The various curves are for different values of the reciprocal
of the Biot number, k/hr for spheres, k/hL for slabs. More detailed charts, giving surface and
mean temperatures in addition to centre temperatures, may be found in McAdams (1954),
Fishenden and Saunders (1950) and Perry (1997).
 Figure 5.4. Transient heat conduction
Temperatures at the centre of a sphere, slab and cylinder adapted from Henderson and Perry,
Agricultural Process Engineering, 1955

EXAMPLE 5.5. Heat transfer in cooking sausages

A process is under consideration in which large cylindrical meat sausages are to be processed in
an autoclave. The sausage may be taken as thermally equivalent to a cylinder 30cm long and
10cm in diameter. If the sausages are initially at a temperature of 21oC and the temperature in the
autoclave is maintained at 116oC, estimate the temperature of the sausage at its centre 2h after it
has been placed in the autoclave.
Assume that the thermal conductivity of the sausage is 0.48 Jm-1s-1oC -1, that its specific gravity
is 1.07, and its specific heat is 3350 Jkg-1oC-1. The surface heat-transfer coefficient in the
autoclave to the surface of the sausage is l200Jm-2s-1 oC-1.

This problem can be solved by combining the unsteady-state solutions for a cylinder with those
for a slab, working from Fig. 5.4.