AGR 122 Manual 2018-19

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
GKVK, BANGALORE-560 065

College of Sericulture, Chintamani
PRACTICAL MANUAL
On
INTRODUCTORY AGROMETEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE
AGR 122 (1+1)
Prepared By
Dr. Pavankumar Goudar Dr. V. Venkatachalapathi
Dr. Latha H. S. Ms. Roopashree. M
Mrs. Amrutha T. G.
Name : _________________________________ ID. No. :________________
Class: I B.Sc. (Agri.) II Semester: 2017-18
DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
College of Sericulture, Chintamani - 563 125
Manual is prepared under the financial assistance of ICAR grants 2018-19

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. / Miss. _____________________________________
ID.NO._______________ has satisfactorily completed the practical in AGR-
122 (1+1) Introductory Agrometeorology and Climate Change prescribed by
the University of Agricultural Sciences for the I B.Sc.(Seri.), II Semester degree
course offered in the Department of Agronomy, College of Sericulture,
Chintamani during the year 2018-19.
Date:
Marks obtained: _________________
Dr. Pavankumar Goudar

Course Teacher
Lecture outlines of AGR 122 (1+1): Introductory Agrometeorology and Climate Change
Theory
1. Meaning and scope of agricultural meteorology-Definition, scope, branches and

importance of agrometeorology
2. Earth atmosphere- Its composition, extent and structure
3. Atmospheric weather variables- Definition, types of variable and their importance
4. Atmospheric pressure and its variation with height - Diurnal and seasonal variation,
causes of variation in pressure
5. Wind, types of wind, daily and seasonal variation of wind speed, cyclone, anticyclone,
land breeze and sea breeze
6. Nature and properties of solar radiation, solar constant, depletion of solar radiation,
short wave, long wave and thermal radiation, net radiation and albedo
7. Atmospheric temperature - Definition, temperature inversion, lapse rate, daily and
seasonal variations of temperature, vertical profile of temperature, Energy balance of
earth
8. Atmospheric humidity - Concept of saturation, vapour pressure, process of
condensation, formation of dew, fog, mist, frost, cloud.
9. Precipitation-Process of precipitation, types of precipitation such as rain, snow, sleet,
and hail
10. Cloud formation and classification of clouds
11. Artificial rainmaking - Definition, types of artificial rain making
12. Monsoon- mechanism and importance in Indian agriculture
13. Weather hazards - Drought, floods, frost, tropical cyclones and extreme weather
conditions such as heat-wave and cold-wave.
14. Agriculture and weather relations - Modifications of crop microclimate,
15. Climatic normals for crop and livestock production - Definition of climatic normals
and their importance
16. Weather forecasting - Types of weather forecast and their uses
17. Climate change - Climatic variability, global warming and causes of climate change
18 Impact of climate change on regional and national Agriculture and mitigation
strategies
Mode of Evaluation:
1. Midterm Examination 30
2. Practical Examination 10
3. Practical Record 05
4. Attendance 05
5. Final theory Examination (External) 50
LIST OF PRACTICALS
Prct. Page Remarks
No. Date Particulars No.
1. Visit to the Agrometeorological Observatory
2. Selection of Site for Agrometeorological Observatory
3. Measurement of Total, Shortwave and Long wave Radiation
4. Measurement of Shortwave Radiation in a Crop Canopy
5. Estimation of solar radiation using Planck’s Intensity law
6. Measurement of Albedo and Sunshine Duration
7. Computation of Radiation Intensity using Bonnel Sphere
Spectrometer
8. Measurement of Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures
9. Tabulation, Trend and Variation Analysis in Maximum and
Minimum Temperature
10. Measurement of Soil Temperature and Computation of Soil
Heat Flux
11. Determination of Vapor Pressure and Relative Humidity
12. Determination of Dew Point Temperature
13. Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure and Analysis of
Atmospheric Conditions
14. Measurement of Wind Speed and Wind Direction
15 Measurement and Analysis of Rainfall
16. Measurement of Open Pan Evaporation and
Evapotranspiration
17. Computation of Potential and Actual Evapotranspiration
Practical No. 1 Date:
Visit to the Agrometeorological Observatory
Agrometerological observatory is a place where all the necessary instruments are

maintained to observe and record weather elements/parameters at stipulated time interval.
When the observations are recorded for a sufficiently long time and analyzed statistically,
reliable crop-weather relations can be obtained. Hence agrometeorological observatory is
essential to record the weather phenomena for understanding crop weather relationships
leading to improvement in crop productivity.
Depending on the availability of the instruments and number of weather elements
observed, agrometerological observatories are classified into 3 major types are A,B and C
and 2 minor types are D and E classes
A type observatory
The A-type or Principal agrometeorological observatory is located in IMD at Pune
(Maharashtra) and A type observatory activities include.
 Recording large number of meteorological parameters of required for agriculture
 Experimental work at principle meteorological observatory
 Coordinating All India Coordinated Crop Weather Projects on different weather
service to farmers and issue of monthly crop outlook
 Rendering technical assistance to state department of agriculture
 Preparation of agro climatic atlases of India and measurement of evaporation
 Publishing crop-weather data and crop-weather diagrams
 Collaborates with WMO in the field of agro meteorology and allied disciplines
 Self recording instruments record most of the data on continuous basis. These are
supported and supplemented by spot observations at 7.00 and 14.00 hrs local mean
time (LMT) and by synoptic hours of 8.30 and 17.30 hrs IST
B type observatories
The B type observatories or Ordinary agro meteorological observatories provide
routine basis, meteorological and biological information. The meteorological elements
observations include Solar radiation. rainfall, air and soil temperature, humidity, wind, pan
evaporation, occurrence of weather phenomena (storms, frost, hail wind), etc.
The observations are recorded at 7.00 and 14.00 hrs LMT. However, rainfall and
evaporation observations are recorded at 8.30 hrs IST and 14.00 LMT. There are two types of
observatories in this category
1. Crop weather observatories: Which record side-by-side meteorological data on
growth and yield of one or more of the major crops (rice, sorghum, wheat, cottons,
and sugarcane) according to the standard plan. The data are sent to Agro met division.
Pune, where as these are compiled and weather relationships will be drawn.
2. Non crop weather observatories: Includes the observatories located at soil

conservation research and demonstration centers, agricultural schools and universities,
allied farms and allied centers for meeting their requirements.
C type observatories
The C-type or auxiliary agro-meteorological observatories send qualitative data on
phonology of crop, pests and diseases. These observatories are usually recorded in
agricultural farms. Functions of such observatories are general type and major functions are
as follows-
 Training of observer
 Advising agricultural department on specifications of standard meteorological
equipment, testing and repairing such equipments
 Periodical inspection of observatories for advise and corrections
 Pre operational and issue of technical circulars and standard forms for recording
observations
 Instructions to observatories for proper collection and tabulation of data in standard
farms.
D type or Piolet Ballon cum micro meter stations
Started under desert locusts meteorology scheme. They provide low level winds to
assist in the issue of anticipated wind for anti locust observations
The IMD handles E type or evapotranspiration stations for measuring
evapotranspirations by using lysimeter.
Co-ordinates: Latitude, longitude and altitude of a place are called as co-ordinates.

Latitude: Latitudes are imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator running from west to
east. Latitude of a place is the distance North or South of the equator
which is measured as an angle whose apex is at the center of the Earth.
One degree of latitude is approximately equal to 111 kilometers. There
are 180 latitudes in total and 90 are running in the Northern hemisphere
and 90 are in southern hemisphere. Some of the important latitudes are
0° (equator), 23½oN (Tropic of Cancer), 23½° S (Tropic of Capricorn), 66½oN (Arctic circle),
66½°S (Antarctic circle), 90°N (North pole) and 90°S (South pole).
Longitude: Longitudes are imaginary lines drawn across the equator connecting North and
South Pole. The distance of a place east or west of the meridian of Greenwich or the Prime
Meridian as an angle is known as longitude of a place. A meridian is a line joining places,
which has their noon at the same time. There are 360 longitudes in total and 180 are eastern
longitudes and 180 are western longitudes. Some of the important longitudes are 0° (UTC -
Universal Time Coordinate), 180° (IDL - International Date Line). Longitudes are important
for time calculation.
Altitude: Elevation of a place above mean sea level.
Study questions:
1. Mention the co-ordinates of Chintamani?
2. Mention the co-ordinates of COS Chintmani?
3. COS Chintamani located in which Agro-Climatic Zone?
Selection of Site for Agro-Meteorological Observatory
The Indian Meteorological Department which is the principal govern agency in all matters
pertaining to meteorology. Indian Meteorological Department suggested following procedure
in the selection of site for meteorological observatory.
1. The site should be well exposed, bare, leveled plot and situated at representative area.
2. It should be away from trees, buildings, mountains to facilitate free movement of air.
Under unavoidable circumstances, it is essential to maintain a minimum distance of
10 times the height of these structures.
3. Observatory site should be away from the main irrigation channel, tanks, lakes, rivers
and water-logging areas.
4. Observatory must be fenced profusely to protect the instruments from the theft and
stray animals.
5. Avoid layout of any path or roads inside the observatory.

6. It is essential to know the latitude, longitude and the height of the (Altitude) station
above M.S.L. for the purpose of utilization of meteorological data.
7. Site selected should be a permanent one and allows for further expansion
8. The size of the observatory has to be decided depending upon the number of
instruments to be installed. The minimum size of the observatory may be 10 m X 10
m (FAO). However, IMD. Pune recommends 55 X 36 m.
9. A suitable fencing should be provided.

N
Finding out true North by Shadow-Tip Method
Step 1. Place a stick or branch, into the ground at a leveled spot
where a distinctive shadow will be cast. Mark the shadow tip with a
stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is always the
west direction when the procedure is done in the early morning
hours
Step 2. Wait for 10 to15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few inches. Mark the new
position of the shadow tip in the same way as the first
Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate East-West line
Step 4. Standing with the first mark (west) to your left, the other directions are simple, north
is to the front, east is to the right, and south is behind you
Step 5. A line drawn perpendicular to the East-West line at any point is the approximate
North-South line. If you are uncertain which direction is East and which is West, observe this
simple rule -the first shadow-tip mark is always in the west direction, everywhere on earth.
Finding out true North by using magnetic campus

The magnetic campus available can be used to identify the true north which is important for
layout of observatory. All the instruments which requires direction in an observatory is to be
adjusted to the true north direction.
The magnetic campus has to be adjusted in such a way that the needle and the marking are
one over the other. The true north is three degrees towards Eastern side of the magnetic north.
Instruments required for ordinary observatory
Essential instruments Optional instruments
1. Dry bulb thermometer 1. Sunshine recorder
2. Wet bulb thermometer 2. Dew gauge
3. Maximum thermometer 3. Self recording rain guage
4. Minimum thermometer 4. Thermograph
5. Single Steven screen 5. Hair hygrograph
6. Rain gauge (non recording) 6. Double Stevenson screen
7. Soil thermometers (5, 10, 15 cm)
8. Wind vane
9. Anemometer
10. Class A open evaporimeter
11. Assmann’s psychrometer
12. Soil moisture equipment
Height of the instruments from the ground level

Instruments Height from ground surface
Microclimatic post (MC post) 3.68 m
Sunshine recorder 3.08 m
Anemometer 3.08 m
Wind vane 3.08 m
Stevenson screen 1.22 m
Automatic rainguage 75 cm
Ordinary rain guage 30 cm
Evaporation pan 30 cm
Diameter of the instruments

Instruments Diameter
Glass globe sunshine recorder 10.0 cm
Funnel rim self recording rain guage 20.3 cm
Funnel rim ordinary rainguage 12.7 cm
Class A open pan evaporimeter 120.7 cm
Instruments for measuring different weather parameters
Instruments Weather parameters
Maximum thermometer Highest temperature attained during a day
Minimum thermometer Lowest temperature attained during a day
Thermograph Air temperature continuously
Thermocouples Soil temperature
Soil thermometers Soil temperature
Aneroid barometer Atmospheric pressure
Barograph Atmospheric pressure continuously
Ordinary rain gauge Amount of rainfall
Self recording rain gauge Amount of rainfall/Intensity of rainfall
Psychrometer/hygrometer Relative humidity
Assmann’s psychrometer Relative humidity in crop canopy
Hair hygrometer Relative humidity inside the room
Hygrograph Relative humidity continuously
Wind vane Wind direction
Anemometer Wind velocity
USWB class A open pan Evaporation
Heliograph Duration of bright sunshine hours
Bellani pyranometer Total incoming radiation
Pyrgeometer Long wave radiation
Spector radiometer Solar radiation in narrow wave length
Kipp radiometer Diffused radiation
Eppley Spectiral pyranometer Photo synthetically active radiation (PAR)
Pyradiometer Both long and short wave radiation
Net radiometer Net radiation
Quantom sensor Quantam content in radiation
Spectrophotometer Wave length of light
Isobars Atmospheric parameter

Isohels Sunshine duration
Isohytes Raifall
Isotechs Wind velocity
Isotherms Temperature
Isonephs Cloud cover
Isonormals Thermal anomalies
Isoallobars Pressure distribution
Thermoisopleths Soil temperature
The lines joining all points of same key time elements, such as
Isochornes
time of start of precipitation
‘Isos’ is a Greek word meaning equal or ‘Iso’ is prefix denoting equal. Isopheths the lines
with uniform values of given scalar quantities. The isopheths for different weather parameters
are given below:
Units of measurement
Weather elements Units
0
Temperature C
Vapour pressure mm of Hg
Relative humidity Percentage (%)
Wind direction Degree (o to 3600) directions
Wind speed km per hour
Rainfall and evaporation mm per day
Bright sunshine duration Hrs
Cloud cover Okta (0 to 8)
Atmospheric pressure Millibars/mm of Hg/ Pascals
Study questions:
1. What is an agro-meteorological observatory and what are the basic requirements
for its site?
2. What are the weather elements observed and recorded at an ordinary agro-
meteorological observatory?
3. Draw the layout of different observatories (A, B and C Type) showing the
dimension and locations for different instruments.
Measurement of Total, Shortwave and Long wave Radiation
Solar radiation affects micro climate to a large extent, their by crop growth and yield.
Sunshine is the basic energy that drives almost all the physical and biological processes on
earth. Therefore, the knowledge of the duration of bright sunshine hours is necessary for
understanding these processes in biosphere.
CAMPBELL-STOKES SUNSHINE RECORDER:

Principle: Sun rays are concentrated on a chemically sensitized card
by a spherical lens. This card produces a trace as the Sun rays fall
during the hours of bright sunshine. As the card is graduated in hours
and tenths, the daily duration of sunshine can be easily determined.
1. It consists of a glass sphere fixed centrally to a frame. Just below

the glass sphere, a hemispherical bowl is rigidly fixed to the frame.
The bowl has three slots or grooves through which the chemically
treated cards are inserted. The frame is mounted on a base provided with three leveling
screws.
2. The glass sphere acts as a converging lens. The different points on chemically treated cards
represent the principle foci for the different positions of the Sun, during the apparent
movement or Earth, from East to West. The bright sun rays leave a charred or burnt line on
the chemically treated card. The cards are graduated in hours for accurate measurement of
bright sunshine.
3. The sunshine recorder is kept on a platform at a height of 10 feet from the ground surface.
It is kept on a perfectly horizontal plant. To achieve this, the leveling screws are adjusted
and if needed a spirit level can also be used to bring the instrument in a perfectly horizontal
position.
4. There are three types of cards available for measuring bright sunshine.
a) Long curved cards: Also called 'summer cards' and these are used from 13th April to 31st
August. These cards are introduced through the bottom slot in the concave plate.
b) Short curved cards: Also called 'Winter cards' and are used from 13 th October to the
end of February. These are introduced at the top slot.
c) Straight cards: When day and night lengths are equal, these cards are used i.e., from 1st
March to 12th April and 1st September to 12th October. These are introduced through the
middle slat.
Precaution: Care should be taken to use the appropriate cards according to the season. The
12 hour line in the card should coincide with the noon mark engraved on the bowl.
The glass ball should be regularly cleaned, the recorder should be examined each morning
and any deposit, such as snow, frost, dew, bird droppings, should be immediately removed.
Measurement of solar radiation: Agriculture is an exploitation of solar energy, made

possible by an adequate supply of water and nutrients to maintain plant growth. Solar
radiation is radiant energy from the sun, measured as a total amount (direct beam of solar
radiation plus sky radiation) expressed in calories per cm2 per hour (cal/cm2/hour).
The instrument used for measuring solar radiation (insolation) is called pyrheliometer and is
based on thermoelectric effect. Bellani’spyronometer and net radiometers are used to
measure total solar radiation.
Bellani’s pyranometer: Is used to measure the total global radiation. This involves both
short wave radiation received from the sun and other celestial bodies and long wave radiation
given out from the earth.
This instrument has two globes that is the outer and the inner globe. Outer globe
protects the inner globe. From the inner globe, a long graduated tube extends downward.
Inside the inner globe alcohol is filled and the inner globe is coated with a mixture of 4
metals viz., Nickel, Copper, Platinum and Chromium. The Inner globe is grayish in colour.
The radiation received makes the alcohol in the inner tube to vaporize and the vapour alcohol
when it comes down to the graduated tube gets condensed and collected. Based on the
amount of alcohol collected we multiply with factor and the total radiation is expressed in cal
cm-2 day-1. For different months different factors are used. They are:
January: 17.7 February: 16.4 March: 15.4 April: 14.9

May: 14.9 June: 15.3 July: 15.2 August: 14.9
September: 15.0 October: 15.4 November: 17.2 December:18.0
Normally the total radiation depends upon the day length and latitude.
Pyrheliometers: The pyrheliometer is designed to measure the direct beam of solar radiation
at normal incidence, usually called solar intensity. Pyrheliometers are most accurate of all
radiation measurement instruments and are commonly used as calibration standards. They are
expensive and usually found only at special research calibration and observing stations.
Solarimeter: The total amount of solar radiation absorbed by crop canopy is often measured
by using Tube solarimeters. Tube solarimeter is a radiometric instrument to measure the light
intensity. It is a radiometric instrument and often measure about 1-1.5 meters in length so that
it can cover at least two inter row spaces of the crop canopy. The leads of the tube
solarimeter (thermocouples) are connected to a multi-voltmeter and the multi-volt current
produced is directly proportionate to the light intensity and these are connected with a
standard photometer or the light meters. Solarimeters which measure the radiation across 1 to
1.5 meters long area, the mean radiation reaching the soil surface could be accurately
measured. The total amount of solar radiation absorbed by crop canopy can be determined by
the formula;
T – (S + R)
Amount of solar radiation (%) = X 100
T
Where, T = Total radiation received
S = Radiation on the soil surface in the canopy
R = Reflected radiation from the canopy
Radiometer: Is instrument for detecting or measuring radiant energy.

The term is applied in particular to devices used to measure
infrared radiation. Radiometers are of various types that differ in their
method of measurement or detection.
Radiometer
Lux meter: is a digital meter which senses the intensity of
solar radiation with the help of a sensor and read out the
intensity in foot candles / lux.
Lux meter
Radiometer
Plants responses vary based on the wavelength of the available radiation.
Wavelength(nm) Specific effect on plant
Radiation within No specific effect on plant activity. Radiation absorbed by plants is
1000 and more transformed into heat. This radiation does not interfere with bio-
chemical processes.
1000-720 Radiation in this band helps in plant elongation, can be accepted as an
adequate measure of plant elongation activity. The far red region
(700-920 nm) has important role on photo periodism, germination of
seeds, flowering and colouration of fruits.
720-510 In this spectral region light is strongly absorbed by chlorophylls. It
generates strong photosynthetic and photo-periodic activity.
610-510 This is green-yellow region. Absorption in this spectral region has low
photosynthetic effectiveness and weak formative activity.
510-400 It is the strongest chlorophyll and yellow pigment absorption region.
In the blue-violet range, photosynthetic activity becomes very strong.
This region has very strong effect on formation of tissues.
400-315 Radiation in this band produces formative effects. It has dwarfing
effect on plants and thickening effect on plant leaf.
315-280 Radiation in this band has detrimental effect on most plants
Less than 280 Lethal effect most of the plants get killed due to radiation in this band
UV ranges have germicidal action.
Study Question:
1. Draw a neat sketch of Bellani's pyranometer and label.

2. What all are the practical utilities of lux meter.
Measurement of Shortwave Radiation in a Crop Canopy
Net shortwave radiation is a measure of the difference between incoming solar

shortwave radiation and outgoing shortwave radiation from the earth surface. Net shortwave
radiation can be expressed by the amount of incident solar shortwave radiation absorbed on
the earth surface per unit of area. As solar radiation passes through the earth’s atmosphere,
some of it is absorbed or scattered by air molecules, water vapour, aerosols, and clouds. The
solar radiation that passes through directly to the earth’s surface is called Direct Normal
Irradiance (DNI). The radiation that has been scattered out of the direct beam is called
Diffuse Irradiance. The direct component of sunlight and the diffuse component of skylight
falling together on a horizontal surface make up Global Irradiance. The three components
have a geometrical relationship.
Direct radiation is best measured by use of a pyrheliometer, which measures radiation
at normal incidence. The normal incidence pyrheliometer consists of a wire wound
thermopile at the base of a tube with a viewing angle of approximately 5˚ which limits the
radiation that the thermopile receives to direct solar radiation only. The pyrheliometer is
mounted on a Solar Tracker or an Automatic Solar Tracker for continuous readings.
Diffuse radiation can either be derived from the direct radiation and the global
radiation or measured by shading a pyranometer from the direct radiation so that the
thermopile is only receiving the diffuse radiation. Eppley has developed Shade Disk
Adaption Kit that mounts on the SMT which allows you to measure the diffuse and direct at
the same time. We also manufacture the Shadow Band Stand for diffuse measurements in
sites where there is no power available to operate an Automatic Tracker.
Global radiation is measured by a pyranometer. The modern pyranometer
manufactured by the Eppley Laboratory, using wire wound plated thermopiles, can be one of
three models. The Standard Precision Pyranometer, the Global Precision Pyranometer and
the Black and White Pyranometer. The SPP has a black sensor protected by two precision
ground, polished hemispheres and is the preferred instruments for Global measurements.
Based on the SPP, the GPP is specifically designed as a lower cost alternative for the PV/CSP
industry. The 8-48 has a black and white sensor that is protected by a single polished
hemisphere and is the preferred instrument for diffuse measurements.
Pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar irradiance.
Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a thermopile which
converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded. The signal voltage is converted via a
formula to measure watts per square metre. It is used with a solar tracking system to keep the
instrument aimed at the sun. A pyrheliometer is often used in the same setup with a
pyranometer.
Pyrheliometer measurement specifications are subject

to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) standards. Comparisons
between pyrheliometers for intercalibration are carried out
regularly to measure the amount of solar energy received. The aim
of the International Pyrheliometer Comparisons, which take place Radiometer
every 5 years at the World Radiation Centre. in davos, is to ensure the world-wide transfer of
the World Radiometric Reference. During this event, all participants bring their instruments,
solar-tracking and data acquisition systems to Davos to conduct simultaneous solar radiation
measurements with the World Standard Group.Typical pyrheliometer measurement
applications include scientific meteorological and climate observations, material testing
research, and assessment of the efficiency of solar collectors and photovoltaic devices.By
using the layer technique, the relative radiation intensity in the crop canopies can be
measured.
Principle: The relative radiation intensity decreases exponentially with increasing leaf area
The formulae are
R. (S)z R (s)t.exp -KF
Where,
R(s)z Short-wave radiation available at level 'z' in the crop canopy (50cm from ground).
(Langley per minute).
R(s)t Short-wave radiation available at one metre above the crop canopy (Langley per
minute).
e Neparian base (0-70) which is always constant.
K Extinction coefficient.
F Leaf area index.
Study Question:
1. Draw a neat sketch of Pyranometer & Pyrheliometer and label.

2. Specify the agricultural uses of these instruments.
Estimation of Solar Radiation using Planck’s Intensity Law
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun, particularly

electromagnetic energy. About half of the radiation is in the visible short-wave part
of the electromagnetic spectrum. The other half is mostly in the near-infrared part,
with some in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum.
Planck’s radiation law: Mathematical relationship formulated in 1900 by

German physicist Max Planck to explain the spectral energy distribution
of radiation emitted by a blackbody (a hypothetical body that completely absorbs all
radiant energy falling upon it, reaches some equilibrium temperature, and then reemits
that energy as quickly as it absorbs it). Planck assumed that the sources of radiation
are atoms in a state of oscillation and that the vibrational energy of each oscillator
may have any of a series of discrete values but never any value between. Planck
further assumed that when an oscillator changes from a state of energy E1 to a state of
lower energy E2, the discrete amount of energy E1 − E2, or quantum of radiation, is
equal to the product of the frequency of the radiation, symbolized by the Greek letter ν
and a constant h, now called Planks constant, that he determined from blackbody
radiation data; i.e., E1 − E2 = hν.
Planck’s law for the energy Eλ radiated per unit volume by a cavity of a blackbody in
the wavelength interval λ to λ + Δλ (Δλ denotes an increment of wavelength) can be
written in terms of Planck’s constant (h), the speed of light (c), the Boltzmann
constant (k), and the absolute temperature (T):
The wavelength of the emitted radiation is inversely

proportional to its frequency, or λ = c/ν. The value of Planck’s constant is found to be
6.62606957 × 10−34 joule/second, with a standard uncertainty of
0.00000029 × 10−34 joule/second.
For a blackbody at temperatures up to several hundred degrees, the majority of the radiation
is in the infrared radiation region of the electromagnetic spectrum. At higher temperatures,
the total radiated energy increases and the intensity peak of the emitted spectrum shifts to
shorter wavelengths so that a significant portion is radiated as visible light.
Study Question:
1. State Planck’s radiation law?

2. Uses of Planck’s radiation law?
3. Example of perfect black body?
Measurement of Albedo and Sunshine Duration
The albedo of a surface is the ratio of radiation reflected from the surface to the
incident radiation. It is dimensionless nature and expressed as a percentage and is measured
on a scale from zero (no reflection) of a perfectly black surface to 1 for perfect reflection of a
white surface. Because albedo is the ratio of all reflected radiation to incident radiation, it
will include both the diffuse and specular radiation reflected from an object. It is, however,
common to assume a surface reflects in either a totally specular manner or a totally diffuse
manner, as this can simplify calculations.
Albedometer is an instrument that measures global and reflected solar radiation and

the solar albedo or solar reflectance. It is composed of two identical second class
pyranometers with thermopile sensors, the up facing one measuring global solar radiation, the
down facing one measuring reflected solar radiation.
Procedure:
1. Connect the pyrano-albedometer property to the milli voltmeter.
2. Keep the instrument ready for taking observations by setting the
knob at 'ON', in the milli voltmeter.
3. Level the instrument, if needed, using a small spirit level.

4. Total incident radiation, diffuse radiation and reflected part of the
radiation shall be recorded simultaneously, as per the Instructions Albedometer
given
for the instrument, on the selected surfaces.
5. Normally, a bare soil, a dry turf, a wet turf and a crop canopy may give values of real
worth comparison.
6. Repeat the process at 15 minute intervals for at least 6 times on the same surfaces and
record the observations
7. Calculate albedo and direct radiation as per the formulae in point no.
8. Observe the trends in albedo and absorbed radiation with variation in time.
Formulae: a) Direct radiation = Incoming radiation - Diffuse radiation
b) Albedo = Reflected radiation/Total Incoming radiation x 100
Sunshine duration:
The World Meteorological Organization has defined sunshine duration as the time
interval when direct solar radiation exceeds 120W/m2. There are many ways to measure or
calculate sunshine duration from direct or global radiation data.
1. The most accurate method to measure sunshine duration is to use the MS-56
pyrheliometer in combination with a sun tracker STR-21G/22G.
2. The second alternative is the MS-093 Sunshine duration sensor which is only
sensitive to the direct radiation component and provides a pulse output when the
irradiance exceeds 120 W/m2.
3. Using a Pyranometer measuring global radiation. The direct radiation component can
be estimated when the solar position is known.
Campbell Stokes Sunshine Recorder
Campbell Strokes sunshine recorder is kind of recorder was invented by John Francis
Campbell in 1853 and modified in 1879 by Sri Georjeil Stokes. The original design by
Campbell consists of glass sphere set into wooden bowl with the trace the bowl. Stoke’s
refinement was to make the housing out of metal and to have a card holder behind the sphere.
The unit was designed to record the hours of bright sunshine which will burn the card by
making hole on the card.
Old Sunshine Recorder New Sunshine Recorder
Principle: Sun rays are concentrated on a chemically sensitized card by a spherical lens. This
card produces a trace as the Sun rays fall during the hours of bright sunshine. As the card is
graduated in hours and tenths, the daily duration of sunshine can be easily determined.
Sunshine recorder consists of a glass sphere fixed centrally to a frame. Just below the
glass sphere, a hemispherical bowl is rigidly fixed to the frame. The bowl has three slots or
grooves through which the chemically treated cards are inserted. The frame is mounted on a base
provided with three leveling screws. The glass sphere acts as a converging lens. The chemically
treated cards represent the principle foci for the different positions of the Sun, during the
apparent movement or Earth, from East to West.
The bright sun rays leave a charred or burnt line on the chemically treated card. The
cards are graduated in hours for accurate measurement of bright sunshine. The sunshine
recorder is kept on a platform at a height of 10 feet from the ground surface. It is kept on a
perfectly horizontal plane by leveling screws to be adjusted and if needed a spirit level can also
be used to bring the instrument in a perfectly horizontal position.
Although the design and operation of sunshine recorder are quite simple, it requires manual
observations of burnt marks on record cards as well as manual change of cards
There are three types of cards available for measuring bright sunshine.
a) Long curved cards: Also called 'summer cards' and these are used from 13 th April to
31st August. These cards are introduced through the bottom slot in the concave plate.
b) Short curved cards: Also called 'Winter cards' and are used from 13th October to the
end of February. These are introduced at the top slot.
c) Straight cards: When day and night lengths are equal, these cards are used i.e., from 1 st
March to 12th April and 1st September to 12th October. These are introduced through the
middle slot.
The sunshine duration meter consist of three sensors,
when the sunlight is detected by the sensor, it will be
transformed into electricity. Solar radiation can be
calculated based on the generated voltage. The sensors at
the front, which is used for global solar radiation is not
shaded and receives sunlight from all around. The sensors
in the middle and to the rear are partly shaded. The
purpose for the shading is to avoid direct sunshine for
Sunshine duration meter
measurement of diffused solar radiation. By using the values
of global and diffused solar radiation, the direct solar radiation can be computed and the
sunshine duration can be determined according to the WTO definition
EKO Sunshine Duration Meter MS-093 has a specially designed and rotating mirror, which
reflects the direct solar radiation onto an especially flat spectral response pyroelectric sensor
and measures the sunshine duration by pulse signals.
MS-093 precisely measures the direct solar irradiance that
exceeds the threshold of 120w/m2, which is defined in the
sunshine duration measurement method by WMO (World
Meteorological Organization), making it possible to measure
highly accurate sunshine duration. EKO Sunshine Duration
Meter MS-093 is a one-of-a-kind high performance Sunshine duration meter

instrument,
Which is used worldwide in many applications such as ASOS (Automated Surface

Observing System) by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)?
Burn marks on the record card

Sunshine duration during a given period (e.g. within one day) is defined as the sum of the
time for which the direct solar irradiance exceeds 120 W/m2.
Study Question:
1. Draw neat diagrams of Sun shine recorder?

2. Explain the working principle of Sun shine recorder?
3. Define sunny day?
4. What all are the agricultural utilities from measuring sun shine duration?
Computation of Radiation Intensity using Bonnel Sphere Spectrometer
The intensity of radiation is defined as the rate of emitted energy from unit surface

area through unit solid angle. A pyranometer is a type of actino meter used for measuring
solar irradiance on a planar surface and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux
density (W/m2) from the hemisphere above within a wavelength range 0.3 μm to 3 μm.
Pyrheliometer is a broadband device which is used to measure direct radiation which reaches
the earth’s surface. The instrument has a continuous tracking system which enables it to be
aimed at sun all the time. It is sensitive to radiation of wavelengths between 280 nm-3000
nm.
Pyrheliometer:
Principle: The radiation enters the device through a sealed single crystal quartz window
which is followed by a thermopile which converts the heat produced to electric
signal which is recorded and converted to equivalent energy
using a calibration factor. The device has two blackened strips of
manganin arranged such that one strip is exposed to sun
and the other is shaded. Each strip has a connected thermopile
and can be electrically heated. The shaded strip is heated by an electrical signal
Pyrheliometer
so that the temperature between the strips remains the same, so that the electrical energy to
shaded strip is equal to solar radiation absorbed by the exposed strip. Then the product of
incident solar radiation, strip area and absorptance is equated to the supplied electrical energy
to de-termine solar radiation. A second value can be determined by interchanging the strip
functions using a movable shutter. This allows the measurements to be more accurate by
eliminating edge effects and lack of uniformity in electrical heating.
Pyranometer:
Pyranometer is another common device used for
measuring solar radiation. Pyranometer is an actino meter
which can measure broadband of solar radiation on a
planar surface. The device also consists of sensors to
measure solar radiation flux density in a 180 o field view.
The working principle is almost similar to that of
pyrheliometer but the sensitive surface here is exposed to
solar radiation which is also reflected from surface and other surrounding Pyrheliometer
structures. A multi
junction, circular thermopile is used as a sensor in pyranometers.The cold junction is
electrically insulated and the temperature variation between hot and cold junction is used as a
function of solar radiation absorbed. The sensitive surface is covered by two glass domes to
protect it from wind and rain. When a pyranometer is
supplemented by a shading ring it can be used to measure the
diffuse radiation.
Pyranometers measure solar radiation on a horizontal surface and thus any tilt in the
angle can cause an error in the reading. The voltage reading from the sensors is converted to
energy units by using appropriate calibration factor. Radiation data is usually into grated over
a period of time like hours to days. Solar cell pyranometer is another type of pyranometer
used for radiation measurements. The main drawback of this device is that the spectral
response is not linear, thus making system calibration as a function of spectral distribution. A
typical pyranometer is a passive device which does not require any input power. ISO 9060
standardization is used to standardize pyranometer and this sys-tem is also adopted by World
Meteorological Organization (WMO). Calibration of pyranometers is done relative to World
Radiometric Reference (WRR) which is maintained by World Radiation Center (WRC) in
Switzerland.
Study question:
1. Write a short note about WMO?

2. Write a short note about IMD?
3. Write a short note about Observatory?
Measurement of Maximum and Minimum air Temperatures
Air Temperature: Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is the most
commonly measured weather parameter. More specifically temperature describes the kinetic
energy or energy of motion. The temperature is usually expressed in centigrade (oC),
fahrenheit (oF) and kelvin (oK).
Relationship between o C, o F and o K is as follows
o
F = 32 + 9/5 oC
°C = 5/9 (oF-32)
˚K = 0C + 273
Stevenson's Screen: Stevenson screen (also known as an instrument shelter) is a
meteorological screen to protect instruments against precipitation and direct heat radiation
from outside sources, while still allowing air to circulate freely around them. It forms part of
a standard weather station. It is designed by a British scientist Stevenson.
1. It is made of small pieces of wood (panes) which are fitted obliquely to prevent direct entry
of air inside.
2. It is provided with double roofing with air in between the two roofs. Air is a poor
conductor of heat and serves as an insulator.
3. The upper roof has a mild slope to drain off the rain water.
4. It has one or two doors or windows which opens only either towards' North' or 'South' to
avoid the rays of Sun falling directly on the thermometers.
5. This box is kept on a wooden stand at a height of about 4 feet above the ground surface.
The box and the stand are painted white throughout.
6. The Stevenson screen is meant for keeping the instruments like minimum and maximum
thermometers, self recording instruments namely thermograph, barograph, and hygrograph
etc.
7. This is available in two different sizes and the inside dimensions are as follows:
Instrument Length (cm) Width (cm) Panes Height (cm)

S.S.S 45.5 27 38
D.S.S 91.0 27 38
8. The Minimum and Maximum thermometers are kept horizontally whereas, wet and dry
bulb thermometers are kept vertically on either side of minimum and maximum
thermometers.
9. In all types of observatories these are fixed for recording weather data.
1
1. Roof
2 2. Wooden box
3. Wooden panes
3 4. Door
5.Dry bulb thermometer
4
6.Wet bulb thermometer
Fig: Stevenson’s Screen 7.Minimum thermometer
8. Maximum thermometer
Maximum Thermometer: records the highest temperature recorded in a particular day.

Principle: Expansion of mercury occurs due to change in air temperature which
is measured by observing the height of mercury column in the bore (capillary) of
the thermometer.
Operation and Measurement:
1. The simplest maximum thermometer is mercury in glass thermometer.
2. The bore in the stem of this thermometer is made extremely tine near the neck
of the bulb which is called as 'constriction'.
3. The presence of this constriction, where the capillary joins the bulb,
differentiates this thermometer from other ordinary mercurial thermometers.
4. The constriction is of such a size that, it only allows the expanding mercury to
pass into the capillary tube as the temperature rises. But when the
temperature drops, the constriction does not allow the back flow of mercury
into the bulb. Thus the maximum temperature levels are maintained in the capillary tube.
5. This thermometer is mounted on a special support so that it can be released and turned to a
vertical position.
6. This can be reset by whirling it rapidly in the horizontal direction so that the mercury is
again brought back to the bulb. Repeat the swinging till the thermometer reads the same
value as that of the dry bulb temperature.
Minimum Thermometer: Minimum temperature is the lowest air
temperature recorded during a day. This may be obtained from thermograph
readings also. However, minimum thermometer provides a record of the
lowest temperature occurring at a place of exposure from the time of setting
until its recorded, where thermograph facility is not available.
Principle: Expansion and contraction of alcohol in the bore (capillary) of the

thermometer which occur due to changes in air temperature as recorded by an
index.
Working and measurement:
1. This has a large bore and its fluid is colourless ethyl alcohol or alcohol.
Within the liquid in the bore of the tube, a tiny dark dumbbell shaped
index made of a metal is present. This thermometer is graduated from -45
to +55oC.
4. When the temperature decreases, the liquid contracts with the decreasing temperature. The
meniscus of the liquid pulls the index down due to surface tension. When the temperature
raises again the alcohol flows around the index, the meniscus moves up in the bore.
However, it leaves the index behind at the lowest point to which the liquid surface
descends to register the lowest temperature reached during a day.
5. The position of the end of the dumbbell shaped index, farthest from the bulb (the upper
surface of the index) marks the lowest temperature.
6. At the same time the alcohol surface always indicate the current air temperature.
7. The minimum thermometer should always be kept in horizontal position. Otherwise, the
metallic index will fall through the liquid to the bottom of the tube.
8. After the readings are taken, a magnet is used to reset the thermometer and is restored to
the horizontal position. Resetting can also be accomplished by inverting the stem until the
index slides down the stem.
9. This should also be read to the nearest tenth of a degree, like maximum thermometer.
10. After setting the thermometer for next reading, the meniscus of the alcohol should read
the same temperature as dry bulb thermometer.
Grass Minimum Thermometer: Grass minimum thermometer is also a minimum
thermometer but the stem is completely sheathed. It is also called as terrestrial thermometer.
It is kept 5 cm above the ground level in the grassy vegetation and used for measuring the
minimum temperature during night. It gives an indication of occurrence of dew, fog etc. Care
should be taken to see that the thermometer is placed after the sunset and removed before
sunrise. If the grass minimum thermometer is left in the ground, after sunrise the alcohol will
expand very fast and break the thermometer.
Clip
Iron Stand
30 cm
Study Questions
1. Convert a) 312 oK into oF
b) -40oF to oC
c) 25oC into oF and oK.
Practical No.9 Date:
Tabulation, trend and variation analysis in maximum and minimum temperature

Tabulating is a way of processing information or data by putting it in a table. It refers to a
table, or chart, with rows and columns or the process of placing classified data into tabular
form is known as tabulation.
A table is symmetric arrangement of stastical data in rows and columns. Rows are
horizontal arrangements whereas columns are vertical arrangements. It may be simple,
double or complex upon the type of classification.
1. Simple tabulation or one way: When data are tabulated on only one characteristic, it
is said to be simple tabulation or one way tabulation.
For example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by one characteristic like
religion is example of simple or one ways tabulation.
2. Double tabulation or two ways: When the data are tabulated according to two
characteristics at a time, it is said to be double tabulation or two ways tabulation.
For example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by two characteristics

like religion and sex is example of double tabulation or two ways tabulation.
3. Complex tabulation: When the data are tabulated according to many characteristics
is said to be complex tabulation.
For example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by two characteristics like
religion, sex and literacy, etc., is example complex.
Trend: A pattern of gradual change in condition, output or process or average or general

tendency of series of data points to move in certain direction over time, represented by a line
or curve on a graph.
Variation: Inevitable change in the output or result of a system (process) because all systems
vary over time. Two major types of variables are (1) Common-which inherent in the system
and (2) Special-which is caused by changes in the circumstances or environment.
Average temperatures table for Bengaluru for different months during 2016
Particulars January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual
Average 21.3 23.6 26.1 28 27.4 24.6 23.9 23.5 23.9 23.7 22.2 21.1 24.1
temperature oC
Average 27.3 30.1 32.7 34.2 33.2 29.2 28.1 27.4 28.2 28 27 26.2 29.3
maximum
temperature oC
Average 15.1 17 19.5 21.8 21.4 20.1 19.7 19.5 19.6 19.3 17.5 16.00 18.9
minimum
temperature oC
The mean annual temperature in Bengaluru, India is fairly hot at 24.o C

The average monthly temperature vary by 6.9o C which is a very low
The range/variation of daily average temperature is 10.4o C
April is the hottest month (very hot) with an average temperature of 28o C
The coolest month (December) is warm with a mean temperature of 21-1o C
The monthly mean minimum and maximum temperatures over the year in Bangalore, India
Average, maximum and minimum temperature over 17 years
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year
Temperature 30.1 29.5 29.4 29.6 30.4 29.5 29.9 29.8 29.5 29.8 29.7 30.1 30.9 30.4 30.6 30.3 30.7
(Max)
Temperature 20.0 19.0 19.1 19.5 19.6 19.0 19.2 19.3 19.2 19.5 20.0 19.1 19.5 19.6 19.8 19.6 19.9
(Mini)
Temperature 24.3 23.6 23.4 23.8 24.2 23.4 23.8 23.8 23.5 24.0 24.1 23.5 24.2 23.9 24.2 23.9 24.4
( Average)
Bengaluru average temperature chart

Measurement of Soil Temperature and Computation of Soil Heat Flux
Soil temperature is an important micro-meteorological parameter influencing crop

growth starting from seed germination till harvesting, soil microbial activity, mineralization,
nutrient uptake also influenced by soil temperature.
Measurement of soil temperature: The instruments generally used to measure the

soil temperature are
a). Mercury Thermometer
b). Resistance Thermometer
c). Thermocouple Thermometer
For most of agricultural purposes, the soil

temperature is to be measured at least at two depths.
The depth at which the soil temperature shall be
measured is depending on availability of instrument
and the crop. World meteorological committee
recommended 10, 20, 50 & 100 cm as standard Soil thermometer
depths. In India, IMD is measuring the soil
temperature at 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, 100 & 150 cm depths. The thermometers used to measure
temperature beyond 30 cm depth are called
Earth Thermometers:
Principle: It works on the similar principle as Mercury in glass thermometer. A
vessel is an extra part and this is arranged in the corresponding depth whereas its
scale is situated above the Earth’s surface in order to facilitate the reading. A metal
support is used to give strength in mounting.
Installation: Soil thermometers are installed in a site in the observatory which are
sufficiently away from obstructions and free from water logging during the rainy season.
Care should be taken to remove the soil layer and replace the soil in the same order during
installation. The thermometers are placed in the pit dug in such a way that the mercury bulb
of the thermometers should be exactly horizontal to the earth’s surface. Then fill the soil till
the neck. Then the depths of thermometer are marked on stands for convenience.
Operation and measurement

1. Soil thermometers consist of glass vessel (stem) filled with mercury and the glass capillary
fused to it for taking measurement.
2. It has a bend of 120° in the stem just above the bulb and the rest of the bulb is straight
3. When the bulb rests horizontally on the soil at correct depth the stem is inclined at 120 o to
facilitate reading of the scale
4. An iron stand with an angle of 60° is used to provide support for the thermometers
5. The immersion depth is calculated from the lower end of the thermometer bulb up to the
middle of the bulge situated in the upper part of the stem.
6. The graduation begins at a distance of 6.5, 17.5 and 35 cm from the bulb in the 5, 15 and
30 cm depth of the soil thermometers.
7. The thermometer has a range of -5°C to 65 °C and can be read with an accuracy of 0.1oC
8. It is desirable to keep each thermometer 45 cm apart, and the scale portion of each
thermometer shall be inclined towards the North.
9. The soil thermometer should be read at the two usual prescribed timings (07.00 and 14.00
hrs LMT).
Study questions
1. Enumerate the importance of soil temperature on soil nutrient dynamics and crop
uptake.
2. Soil temperature is more at surface layer during summer and at deeper layer in winter.
Justify
Determination of Vapor Pressure and Relative Humidity

Humidity is an, important agro climatic factor in crop production since it is a major
determinant of potential evapotranspiration. This is not an independent variable but is closely
related to the rainfall and temperature. The atmospheric humidity is measured by a wide
range of instruments. These are grouped into a number of classes, for, convenience. However,
strict classification has not been possible as on date. Because these instruments are
manufactured based on various principles. Among the multitude of methods. Some common
principles based on which the hygrometers working are mentioned below.
Method Principle
S. Method Principle
No
.
1 Mechanical Contraction or expansion of absorbing material with changes -in moisture
content.
2 Psychrometric Difference between wet and dry bulb readings which work on unventilated
and forced ventilations.
3 Dew. point Deposition of moisture from gas by cooling in Which a mirror is used, to
observe the formation of dew
5 Chemical Changes In chemical reactions due to absorption of water from volume of
air
6 Electrical Measurement of electrical resistance of a thin film of hygroscopic material
when exposed to air.
7 Gravimetric Known volume of air is drawn through a weighed drying agent which will
absorb moisture from it and the increase in the weight of the agent
measured directly
8 Spectroscopic Variation in the intensity of selected absorbing spectral lines with change
in humidity of air.
9 Microwave Absorption of microwaves by Water vapour.
The most commonly used instruments to measure the relative humidity are:
I. Wet and Dry bulb Hygrometer:
Principle: Difference between wet and dry bulb readings, because of change of rate of
evaporation from the underlying wet surface.
Operating mechanism:
There are two identical thermometers fixed in Stevenson screen. One is dry thermometer
another one wet bulb thermometer which is constantly kept wet by means of muslin cloth and
thread wick which is immersed in distilled water. As the water gets evaporated from the
muslin cloth, coolness is created around the bulb region and thereby the temperature of the
wet bulb drops dawn and this is known as Wet bulb depression. The wet bulb depression is
directly proportional to the dryness of the air. The temperatures of dry and wet bulb
thermometers are compared in hygrometric table to find out the relative humidity, vapour
pressure and dew point temperature.
Whirling psychrometer:
The temperature and relative humidity of the air in open and in the crop canopy at different
heights can be measured with whirling psychometor. The dry and wet bulb thermometers are
attached horizontally to a rectangular wooden frame and it can be rotated with handle. Four
rotations per second should be given for obtaining desired wind speed around 5 meters per
second. With dry and wet bulb temperatures, dew point temperature, vapour pressure and
relative humidity at different heights can be obtained.
Principle: The difference between Wet and dry bulb readings were recorded when
unsaturated air passes over the bulbs of thermometers on forced ventilation.
1. In this instrument two thermometers are fitted in a
wooden frame with a rotating handle
2. One is dry bulb and the other one is covered with
thin muslin cloth and moistened with distilled water
3. To ensure adequate opportunity of evaporation from
the wick of the wet bulb the psychomotor is rotated for Injector
a definite number of times, so the air passes through the
bulbs of the thermometers.
4. The depression of wet bulb temperature below the
dry bulb temperature in an unsaturated air is due to the
evaporation of water from the muslin cloth around the
wet bulb and the consequent cooling due to evaporation
phenomenon
5. Readings of Wet and dry bulb thermometers are
compared in a standard hygrometric table to get the Wet Bulb Dry Bulb
RH.
Hair Hygrometer:
It is used to measure humidity by using human hair. Humidity can be recorded directly. It is
ideal instrument for laboratory purpose to measure humidity at given air temperature.
Principle: The property of human hair to increase the length with increase in humidity and
decrease with decrease in humidity is used in the instrument.
This instrument measures relative humidity directly and is easy to carry to distant places.
1. A bunch of human hair or horse hair is used in a socket.
2. On absorption of moisture, any slight increase in the volume of hair is magnified by a
delicate set of lever mechanism.
3. To this lever mechanism a pointer is fixed which can move over a scale graduated from 0
to 100 per cent.
4. When the humidity changes, corresponding change occurs in the length of hair. So the
pointer moves because of the movement of lever mechanism.
5. The pointer which moves across a scale indicates the relative humidity directly.
Hair hygrograph:
Continuous record of humidity can be obtained with hair hygrograph.
Principle: It consists of a bundle of de coiled human air tied at both ends and kept tight in
the middle by means of a hook attached to one arm of the lever and second arm is
associated with pen arrangement which can make markings on graph paper attached on the
clock driven revolving drum. Variation in length of human hair caused displacement of the
hook, which is communicated by second arm of the lever to record the changes on graph
paper.
1. A bundle of de oiled human hair is tied at both ends and kept tight of
levers and any slight increase in the volume is transmitted to the pen arm.
2. The pen arm is self-inked and works on levers.
3. A change in the length of hair is proportional to the log change of
relative humidity.
4. A calibrated chart is wrapped around a rotating drum. This
completes one rotation in 24 hours, and works on clock mechanism.
5. The X-axis represents time and Y-axis the relative humidity.
6. The chart has to be replaced every day if it is a daily type or once in week, if it is of
weekly type.
7. The dust on the hair should be cleaned and washed regularly. The hair should not be
touched with hand.
8. This instrument should be kept in double Stevenson screen. The screen should be located
in a place where the air is not polluted with smoke, dust, oil and ammonia releasing
industries in the immediate surroundings.
Depression of wet bulb Dry bulb

temperature (0C)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
05 91 92 9 93 94 94 95 95 95 95 96 96 96 96 98 96
3
1. 81 84 8 86 87 88 89 90 90 91 91 92 92 92 93 93
0 5
1. 73 76 7 80 81 82 83 85 85 86 87 87 88 88 89 89
5 8
2. 64 68 7 73 75 77 78 79 81 82 83 83 84 85 85 86
0 1
2. 55 61 6 66 69 71 73 75 76 77 78 80 80 81 82 83
5 4
3. 46 52 5 60 63 66 68 70 71 73 74 76 77 78 78 76
0 7
3. 38 45 4 54 57 60 63 65 67 69 70 72 73 74 75
5 9
4. 29 37 4 48 51 55 58 60 63 65 66 68 64 71 72
0 3
4. 21 29 3 41 46 50 53 56 58 61 63 64 66 67 69
5 6
5. 13 22 2 35 40 44 48 51 54 57 59 61 62 34 65
0 9
5. 5 14 2 29 35 39 43 47 50 53 55 57 59 61 62
5 2
6. - 7 1 24 29 34 39 42 46 4+ 51 54 56 58 59
0 6
6. - - 9 17 24 29 34 38 42 45 48 50 53 54 56
5
7. - - - 11 19 24 29 34 38 41 44 47 49 51 53
0
7. - - - 5 14 20 25 30 34 38 41 44 46 49 51
5
8. - - - - 8 15 21 26 30 34 37 40 43 46 48
0
8. - - - - - 10 16 22 26 30 34 37 40 43 45
5
9. - - - - - 6 12 18 23 27 31 34 37 40 42
0
9. - - - - - - 8 14 19 23 28 31 34 37 40 42
5
10 - - - - - - - 10 15 20 24 28 31 34 37 39
.
Note: The relative humidity is measured from the readings of dry and wet bulb temperatures
recorded in the Stevenson screen using psychometric charts. A wet and dry bulb thermometer
differs from thermometers mounted in Stevenson screen. In Stevenson screen the
thermometers are mounted separately, apart from each other, where as in wet and dry bulb
thermometers, they are mounted side by side on a frame, being protected from exposure to
direct solar radiation.
II. Assmann’s psychrometer:

Principle: The difference between wet and dry bulb readings when unsaturated air passes
over the bulbs of thermometers on forced ventilation.
Operation and measurement: This is the best available psychrometer for humidity
measurement in micro-meteorological research of crop plants. This is portable and also called
as 'Aspiration psychrometer.
1. In this instrument two sensitive, calibrated mercury in glass thermometers are enclosed
in a double walled radiation screen.
2. Usually, nickel plated coaxial tubes which are thermally insulated from rest of the
apparatus are used to minimize the radiation effects.
3. Of the two thermometers, one is dry bulb and the other one is covered with thin muslin
cap which is moistened with distilled water every time the instrument is used.
4. To ensure adequate opportunity of evaporation from the wick of the wet bulb the
psychrometer is aspired by a clock work motor housed in the casing. In the recent
commercial versions, a small direct current motor is also being used.
5. The wet bulb must be on the downstream side of the dry bulb i.e. nearer the fan. This
should be done to prevent the cold air from the wet bulb impinging on the dry bulb.
6. The depression of wet bulb temperature below the dry bulb temperature in an
unsaturated air is due to the evaporation of water from the muslin around the wet bulb
and the consequent cooling due to evaporation phenomenon.
7. The relative humidity can be computed from the tables, given in the annexure (1).
8. In recent commercial makes thermometers are replaced by differential thermocouples.
Study questions
1. Explain how saturation vapour pressure changes with temperature.
2. Differentiate between heat of vapourization and latent heat of fusion.
Determination of Dew Point Temperature
Dew point temperature is the temperature at which airborne water vapour

will condense to form liquid dew. Higher dew point means there will be more moisture in the
air. Dew point is sometimes called "frost point" when the temperature is below freezing. The
measurement of dew point is related to humidity. Given that all the other factors influencing
humidity remain constant, at ground level the relative humidity rises as the temperature falls.
This is because more water vapour condenses as the temperature falls further beneath the dew
point.
This graph shows the maximum percentage by mass of water vapour that air at sea level
pressure across a range of temperatures can contain. For a lower ambient pressure, a curve
has to be drawn above the current curve. A higher ambient pressure yields a curve under the
current curve.
Measurement of dew point temperature
Dew point hygrometers are used to measure dew point over a wide range of
temperatures. Dew point temperature at which a sample of moist air (or any other water
vapour) at constant pressure reaches water vapour saturation. At this saturation temperature,
further cooling results in condensation of water. Cooled mirror dew point hygrometer is the
most precise instruments available to measure humidity. They use a chilled mirror and
optoelectrical mechanism to detect condensation on the mirror surface. Temperature of the
mirro is controlled by electric feedback to maintain a dynamic equilibrium between
evaporation and condensation on the mirror, thus closely measuring the dew point
temperature.
Dew point temperature hygrometer

Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure and Analysis of Atmospheric Conditions

The weight exerted by a column of air on unit surface of the Earth is known as
atmospheric pressure. This can be measured by an instrument called Barometer. There are
two types of barometers namely
1. Mercury barometers and
2. Aneroid barometers
Of these two, the most accurate instrument is the mercurial barometer. This is used as
standard for calibrating the others. The following instruments are used to measure the
atmospheric pressure.
Mercurial Barometers: Two types of mercurial barometers. A) Fortin’s
B) Kew pattern
Fortin's Barometer:
Principle: Balancing of column of air against a column of mercury in a sealed glass tube.
The height of the mercury column is proportional to the pressure.
Operation and measurement:
1) It consists of a glass tube of uniform cross section and length, which is closed at one end.
2) It is about one metre in length, filled with mercury and then inverted with
its lower end open into a movable cistern of mercury.
3) The cistern vessel contains mercury with a flexible leather bag and screw
at its bottom.
4) There are two scales on two sides of the tube, one in centimetres and the
other in inches.
5) For accurate readings Vernier calipers is also attached.
6) The mercury column in the tube is supported by the pressure of the air on
the surface of the mercury in the cistern.
7) To take the pressure reading, the height of mercury column is measured on main scale and
then Vernier scale is read.
1. Read the attached thermometer to the nearest degree before the time specified for
barometer observation.
2. Gently tap the Cistern and tube of the instrument 2 to 3 times with the fingers.
3. Raise the surface of the mercury in the cistern by screwing up the plunger at the base
until the tip of the ivory point just touches its image in the clear mercury surface.
4. Set the lower edge of the Vernier tangent to the top of the meniscus.
5. Read the scale and the Vernier
6. Check the reading by making a fresh setting.
Aneroid Barometers:
Principle: Aneroid means without liquid. Use of sylphon cell
which is a partially evacuated metal diaphragm, expands or
collapses depending upon the outside pressure.
1. This is constructed with one or more (upto 14) bellows that have been partially
evacuated.
2. Each' bellow' may contain an internal spring or may be constructed from tempered steel
which acts as a spring.
3. The spring forces the bellows apart against force exerted by the atmospheric pressure.
4. If the atmospheric pressure decreases the springs expand and vice-versa if the pressure
increases.
5. 5. The variation of the bellows with pressure changes is mechanically linked to an
indicator on calibrated dial.
6. Aneroid barometers are suitable for out door measurements and are also used in ships.
Aneroid Barograph: This is an instrument used to record the atmospheric pressure

continuously.
1. The characteristics of the sensitive element of a barograph are a) Thin walled b)
corrugated c) Silver plated, and d) Aneroid.
2. The movement of aneroid box corresponding to pressure changes depends upon a) The
dimensions of the aneroid box and the thickness of the corrugated
diaphragm, and b) The kind of material used in making the
diaphragm.
3. The cumulative effect of pressure fluctuations will be recorded
by a spindle running centrally through the boxes.
4. One end of the spindle is fixed and the other end touches a lever
mechanism.
5. This mechanism operates a pen arm. The tip of which is self-inked and touches a chart
wrapped around a rotating drum.
6. This works with a clock mechanism and completes one rotation in 24 hours.
7. The graph chart is calibrated vertically in pressure units and horizontally in time units.
8. The pressure is recorded to the precision of one mili bar.
9. The chart of barograph has to be replaced every day in daily type.
10. Any defect due to temperature can be corrected by leaving certain quantity of dry air.
11. To reduce the friction error, a clean pen with proper point should be used.
Altimeter: Altimeter works on the principle of Aneroid Barometer. Here the principle that
the pressure decreases with altitude is used. In Altimeter the dial is calibrated in terms of
Altitude. It is used to know the elevation of a particular place.
Units of measurements:
I. Height of mercury column is measured in inch, cm or mm.
2. Bar is equal to 106 dynes per sq. cm.
3. The S.I. unit for pressure is Pascal and this is equal to force of one Newton per square
meter.
One atmospheric pressure = 29.92 inches or 76 cm or 760 mm of Hg, = 1013.25 milli
bar = 1013.25 hectapascal (hPa) = 14.7 Ibs / Sqinca = 1.014 X 106 dynes / cm2
Study questions:
1. What are the differences between normal pressure, station pressure and sea level
pressure?
2. What causes horizontal variation in atmospheric pressure?
3. Explain cyclones and anticyclones.
Measurement of Wind Speed and Wind Direction
Wind is the air in horizontal motion caused by pressure difference. It plays an

important role in transporting heat and moisture from one place to another. It influences
plant life both mechanically and physiologically. The wind affects plants directly by
increasing transpiration, the intake of CO2 etc. Wind affects crop production through its
direction and velocity.
The wind direction is defined as the direction of the wind from which it blows (coming). The
direction to which the wind blows is termed as leeward side and the direction from which it
comes is the windward side. A wind blowing from North-South is a North wind. If the wind
blows more frequently from one direction than any other at a place is called the prevailing
wind. In west wind or westerly wind, west is the windward side and east is the lee ward side.
The direction of wind helps in determining the diseases of pests attack from the direction they
emerge or spread.
Wind direction is denoted by two methods. a) In points of compass and
b) Degrees of Azimuth,
a) Points of compass: In this system the four main directions are sub-divided into 8 to 16
and it is called 8 or 16 point system.
b) Degrees of azimuth: As measured from true North. The zero point
is true North. The other points East, South and West are 90, 180 and
270 degrees, respectively. In common practice, the wind directions are
referred to compass points as N, NNW, NW etc.
The zero of the circular scale indicates geographical North, count the
degrees while moving in clock-wise direction and it indicates the wind direction.
Instruments to record wind direction:
a) Anemoscope: This records the direction of wind continuously.
b) Aero vane: This measures the velocity and direction of the wind instantaneously.
c) Wind vane: This is used in observatories to find the wind direction.
Wind Vane:
Principle: From the pointer or arrow head of the balancing arm, the indications of the
direction are transmitted directly to a cam inside a ring of electrical contacts. By means of
contacts corresponding to the cardinal and inter-cardinal points of compass 16 directions can
be indicated. Another important means to transmit wind direction (indications) is by means of
self synchronous transmitting motor connected directly to the wind vane.
Working and measurement:

1. This consists of balancing arm which is made up of a very light weight metal or alloy
which turns freely about a vertical axis.
2. Bearings are provided to minimize frictional losses. The bearings should be good enough
to give free turn with light winds.
3. 1n most common type of wind vanes, one end of the balancing arm exposes a broad
surface to the wind. This is bifurcated and is known as 'Fang'. While the other end is
narrow and points to the direction from which the wind blows. This is known as pointer
or arrow head.
4. Under this movable system Four to Sixteen rods are fixed as rigid cross.
5. The arms of this cross are said to be the four cardinal directions i.e., North, East, South and
West. Some other commercial types are provided with Eight to Sixteen cardinal direction
indicators.
6. The wind vane is installed over a wooden plank which is fixed over the wooden pole at
about 10 ft from the ground surface. The north indicator should be set to true North and
not to the magnetic North.
7. The observer should stand nearer to the pole and record the mean position of the arrow
which oscillates over the cardinal direction.
8. The wind direction should always be recorded as the point from which the wind comes.
9. The wind vane should be watched for few minutes before recording the direction to get the
mean observation. The direction of wind is given by the direction of arrow.
10. The observer should make sure that the wind vane moves freely on the axis.
11. All parts should be washed with kerosene and lubricated once in every 3 month.
Wind Velocity or Speed: To measure the wind velocity or the wind speed four principal
type of anemometers are used in general meteorological work are
a. Rotating Cups
b. Pressure plates
c. Bridled or torque type
d. Pressure tube anemometer
In micro-meteorological studies of crop plant, the knowledge of wind speed with
height is necessary for its profile description and to estimate the effectiveness of vertical
exchange processes. With the knowledge of wind speed at a fixed or reference level, it is also
possible to estimate wind speed at other levels for various application. From the view point of
a micro meteorologist of crop plants, the anemometer may be classified as detailed below
depending upon principle used in its manufacturing.
a. Pressure b. Mechanical c. Thermoelectric
In the crop micro-meteorological research works, the following are used
a) Pressure tube anemometers
b) Thermoelectric anemometers
c) Cup anemometers
d) Sonic anemometers
The Robinson's Cup anemometer is commonly used in most of the
observatories is described below.
Robinson's Cup Anemometer: This is a rotating cup anemometer, developed in 1846. Each
rotation of the cup wheel corresponds to a definite distance traveled by the wind. Therefore,
the number of turns the cup wheel makes in a given time interval corresponds to the distance
the wind traveled in that interval. The wind speed can be determined by dividing the distance
traveled with time taken.
Principle: Three or four cups are extended over a vertical axis so that the plane of the cup is
in a vertical position. The wind pressure on the concave side of the cup is greater than the
convex side. These causes the cups to spin around the vertical axis by means of proper gear
reductions the rotation of the cups is calibrated in terms of wind speed.

1. This consists of 3 to 4 balancing arms which are made up of a very light metal or alloy.
2. Hemispherical or conical cups are attached to the ends of the arms to provide necessary
pressure gradient which is caused by the convex and concave surfaces of the cup.
3. As the force of the wind on the concave side of the cups is greater than that of the convex
side, the cups rotate due to kinetic energy.
4. The balancing arm rotates freely over the vertical axis and at the point of articulation; high
grade ball bearing is provided to minimize frictional losses.
5. The cups are extended on the vertical axis so that the plane of the cup is in a vertical
position. The force of the wind causes rotation. .
6. The rotating movement of balancing arms is transmitted to the spindle provided in the
vertical axis.
7. The spindle is provided with the grooves .which operates gauge and this is transmitted to a
fine digital meter. .
8. Friction is minimized by lubrication and ball bearings. The gauge is calibrated to real units,
tenths, hundreds or thousands.
9. The rate of rotation of the cups increases with the wind speed.
10. The box contains a mechanism which establishes a contact when the cups have rotated a
certain number of times. .
11. The anemometer is kept on a platform at a height of 10 feet from the ground surface and
the range of the meter is 0 to 9999.9.
12. An ideal cup anemometer should have no mechanical inertia and starting speed low.
13. In a good cup anemometer there is a linear relationship between wind speed and cup
rotation per unit time.
14. The wind speed is obtained by measuring the run of the wind in kilometers for a period of
3 minutes at the hour of observation and multiplying it by 20 to obtain the wind speed in
kilometers per hour. The mean wind speed in knots is obtained by multiplying the wind in
kilo meters per hour by 0.54.
15. The wind speed increases with height in accordance with logarithmic law in neutral
conditions. Hence, whenever wind speeds recorded at different places are to be compared,
the height of the anemometer should be taken into account.
16. The height of the anemometer means the height of the cups above the ground. There is no
standard height of exposure for anemometers. . However, the anemometers at agro met
observatories are exposed to 3 meters above the ground.
17. The bearing and gear should be cleaned and lubricated at regular intervals.
Measurement of Wind speed at the hour of observation:

To determine the wind speed at a particular time two successive readings are taken at
an interval of three minutes. The difference of the readings is multiplied by 20.
For example: First anemometer reading = 2090.00
Second anemometer reading = 2093.01
Wind speed at that particular hour is 2093.01-2090.00 = 3.01X20= 60.20 kmph.
To determine the average wind speed during the past 24 hours, the readings of yesterday and
today are required and the yesterday’s reading is subtracted from today's reading. The
difference is divided by 24, which gives the average wind velocity for the past 24 hours.
For example: Today's anemometer reading at 08.00 hr = 9563.6
Yesterday's anemometer reading at 08.00 hr = 9371.6
The difference Average wind speed =9563.6-9371.6= 192.0 / 24 = 8 kmph
Measurement of wind velocity: The common units of measuring wind velocity is

1. Knot
2. Meter per second (m sec-1)
3. Kilo metre per hr (kmph)
4. Miles per hr (mph)
5. Feet per second (f sec-1)
1 knot = 1 Nautical mile = 1.15 miles hr-1 = 0.5148 m sec-1 = 1.853 kmph
1 mph = 0.8684 knot = 0.447 m sec-1 = 1.609 kmph = 1.467 f sec-1
1 m sec-1 = 1.94 knots = 2.24 mph = 3.6 kmph
Study question:
1. Detail Beaufort scale of wind speed.
2. Wind affects crops in several ways. Justify the statement.
3. Collect the normal wind speed for different months at GKVK during 2015-16.
Measurement and Analysis of Rainfall
Indian agriculture gambles with monsoon. Success or failure of rainfall during

monsoon period decides Indian economy. Rainfall is received through hydrological cycle.
Measurement of rainfall: To measure the rainfall of an area, sampling has to be done at
number of places. In most of the observatories, two types of instruments are used to measure
the rainfall. They are; a) Symon's rain gauge and b) Natural Syphon recording rain gauge. Of
late, tipping bucket rain gauges are used in high technology automatic weather stations.
A. Symon's Rain Gauge or Ordinary raingauge: It is made up of galvanized iron sheet of
12 gauge thickness or fiber glass and plastic. This consists of four parts; a) Base b) Body c)
Receiver and d) funnel.
Principle: Rain water entering the gauge from the top of the rim of the funnel is lead via a
funnel to the receiver. The rain water thus collected is measured with the help of a measuring
cylinder.
1. The diameter of the funnel is 15.9 cm. The outer peripheral ring is
made up of copper or brass and it is called a 'rim'. It is designed in
such away that the rain water doesn't splash out.
2. The rain water received by the funnel is emptied into a collecting jar
which is kept in an outer jacket or receiver.
3. The outer jacket is a cylindrical vessel closed at one end.
4. Besides housing the collecting jar, the outer jacket also receives the
overflow of rain water from it.
5. The funnel, the collecting jar, and the outer jacket are fitted into a
base which has a locking arrangement
6. The amount of rain water is measured with the help of a calibrated glass measuring jar
corrected up to 0.1 mm.
7. The rain gauge should be kept on a hard compact leveled platform partially buried in the
ground in such a way that the rim buried is at a height of 1foot (30 cm) above the ground
surface.
8. The rim should be positioned on a perfectly horizontal plane. This can be done by using a
sprit level.
9. Rain gauge should be checked for leaks and dust particles. Leaves should be removed from
the collector.
10. The measuring cylinder should be kept clean and a spare measuring cylinder should be
available in the observatory.
B. Natural syphoning self recording rain gauge: This is designed to give a continuous
recording of the rainfall. This instrument not only records the total amount of rainfall but also
the rate / intensity of rainfall.
Principle: Rain water entering the gauge from the top of the cover is lead via a funnel to the
receiver consisting of a float chamber and a syphon chamber. A pen is mounted on the stem
of the float and as the level of water rises in the receiver, the float rises and the pen records
the level of the water in the chamber. Syphoning occurs automatically, when the pen reaches
the top of the chart.
1. This is also made up of galvanized iron sheet of 12
gauge thickness. Now a days fiber glass reinforced
polyester material is extensively used.
2. This also has a funnel with a glass 'rim' of 203
millimeters. This acts as a lid and is provided with
a slit or window. The rim of the funnel should be
horizontal to the ground and exactly at a height of
75 centimeters above the ground.
3. The rain water received by the funnel is poured into
a chamber through a connecting tube.
4. The chamber has a float and it is connected to a pen
arm, through a lever mechanism.
5. The tip of the pen arm is sell-inked and touches a calibrated chart which is wrapped around
a rotating drum.
6. The drum works with a clock mechanism and completes one rotation in 24 hours. .
7. The X-axis of the chart represents rainfall with a precision of 0.1 mm, and Y-axis
represents time.
8. The chart has to be replaced only at the end of a rainy day.
9. This instrument has a syphoning mechanism and when the water reaches the maximum
level, it gets emptied automatically, the pen arm comes down to zero and rises again if
there is further rainfall.
10. The chart has to be changed every day between 0830 and 0900 1ST, and there should be
sufficient ink in the pen.
11. The instrument should always be kept clean and no leaves should enter the funnel.
12. A spirit level may be used to keep the instrument exactly as detailed above.
13. The slope of the trace of the pen at any point gives approximately the intensity of rain.
14. The rate of rainfall is obtained by dividing the total amount of rainfall with the total hours
of rainfall during a day.
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge:
These rain gauges are generally attached to the automatic weather
stations.
1. This is an automated device and accumulates a certain volume of water
in a reservoir or bucket
2. Normally the reservoir or bucket is so small that it houses only 5

millimeters of rain water.
3. When the exact volume has been collected, the bucket automatically
tips and the water is emptied.
4. This tipping mechanism also provides a method of recording on a moving chart or a

counter, attached to the tape recorder in the weather station.
5. Sensitivity up to 0.10 or 0.25 mm of rain is possible with this instrument.

6. The rim of rain gauge collector should be sharp and durable.
7. The main source of error is the exposure of the gauge.
8. Depending upon the maximum intensity of rainfall for a given location, the tipping bucket
rain gauge with suitable sensitivity has to be selected.
Units of measurements: millimeters (mm) or centimeters (cm).
Rainfall analysis: Indian continent receives its annual rainfall by the peculiar phenomena
known as monsoon. Rainfall pattern is the characteristics of seasonal rainfall distribution
from month to month throughout the year. Based on the monsoon behaviour, the rainfall
seasons in India can be classified into four main groups.
Types of monsoon Period
1) Winter season (Cold weather period) January – February
2) Summer season (Hot weather season) March – May
3) South West monsoon (kharif) June – September
4) North East monsoon (Rabi) October – December
Of these four rainy seasons, South west monsoon is the most important as it
contributes 80 – 95 per cent of the total rainfall of the country.
Mean rainfall: It denotes the average rainfall during the particular period. The deviation of
actual rainfall from the normal is termed as departure. Rainfall pattern can be broadly
grouped into 4 groups based on the quantity of rainfall as follows
Rainfall % departure
1) Excess +20.0 % and above the normal
2) Normal +19.0 to -19.9% of the normal
3) Deficit -20.0 to -59.9% of the normal
4) Scarcity -60.0 to -99.0% of the normal
Intensity of the rainfall: It is the amount of rainfall received on unit area per unit time
expressed in mm day-1 or mm hr-1. Rainfall cane grouped based on the rainfall intensity as
below.
Rainfall in 24 hours
Rain
(mm day-1)
Light rain 4.5 to 7.5
Moderate rain 7.6 to 35.5
Rather heavy rain 35.6 to 64.9
Heavy rain 65.0 to 84.9
Very heavy rain 85.0 to 250.0
Exceptionally heavy rain 250.0 & above
Spatial distribution of rainfall:

Rainfall Wide spread Fairly wide Scattered Isolated
spread
% of area > 75 50 to 75 25 to 50 < 25
covered
Dependability of rainfall: It refers to the possible deviation from the average that is the
variation from the normal. Variability of rainfall for a given period is worked out based on
co-efficient of variation (CV) in percentage which will be useful to assess the dependability
of rainfall. Generally, if the CV is less for a particular period the rainfall is more dependable.
There is definite relationship between the CV and dependability of rainfall. The greater the
CV the lesser is the dependability of getting rainfall. For analysis, rainfall data from long
term records are collected at least for 25 years.
Standard deviation
Coefficient of Variation (%) = X 100
Arithmetic mean
Based on the experience the rainfall amount is dependable and the CV is in the range given
below.
Yearly rainfall less than 25%
Seasonal rainfall less than 50%
Monthly rainfall less than 100%
Weekly rainfall less than 150%
Daily rainfall less than 250%
Isohytes: In order to show the aerial distribution of precipitation, the rainfall may be plotted
on a map using line called isohyets. The lines are drawn through places with same annual
average rainfall.
SATNDARD WEEKS: Indian Meteorological Department has defined the standard weeks
as follows
Week Month Date Week Month Date Week Month Date
1 January 1-7 19 May 7-13 37 Sept. 10-16
2 8-14 20 14-20 38 17-23
3 15-21 21 21-27 39 24-30
4 22-28 22 May/Jun. 28-3 40 October 1-7
5 Jan./Feb. 29-4 23 June 4-10 41 8-14
6 February 5-11 24 11-17 42 15-21
7 12-18 25 18-24 43 22-28
8 19-25 26 Jun./Jul. 25-1 44 Oct./Nov. 29-4
9 Feb./Mar. 26-4 27 July 2-6 45 Novembe 5-12
* r
10 March 5-11 28 9-15 46 12-18
11 12-18 29 16-22 47 19-25
12 19-25 30 23-29 48 Nov./Dec 26-2
.
13 Mar./Apr. 26-1 31 Jul./Aug. 30-5 49 Decembe 3-9
r
14 2-8 32 August 6-12 50 10-16
15 9-15 33 13-19 51 21-28
16 16-22 34 20-26 52 Dec. 29-31
17 23-29 35 Aug./Sept 27-2 **
18 Apr./May 30-6 36 September 3-9
* In leap years last week of February (Feb. 26th to Mar. 4th ) will have 8 days instead of 7.
* * Last week December will have 8 days that is from December 24 to 31 December.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the intensity of rainfall from the following data.
Date of record Time Interval Amount of Rainfall (mm)
01.01.2016 10.30 - 11.45 hrs 52
Measurement of Open Pan Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
Evaporation is a physical process by which water from liquid sate is converted to

gaseous state. Evaporation is an important aspect of hydrological cycle, influencing
agriculture through its effect on soil condition, plant growth and water storage. The rate of
evaporation is defined as the amount of water vapourized from unit surface area in unit time
and expressed as mm day-1, mm hr-1.USWB Class ‘A’ open Pan and Sunken screen
Evaporimeter is commonly used.
There are four main types of evaporimeters or pans used for measuring evaporation. They are
1. Floating pans:
1. These are made to float in water bodies with special devices.
2. The loss of water from these pans is equal to the loss of water from the water bodies
in which the same are floating.
3. These are costly and under windy weather the accuracy is reduced.
2. USWB class A pan evaporimeter
1. These are installed on the ground.
2. The major drawback in these instruments is the influence of sensible heat flux on the
sides and bottom of the pans.
3. Increased rates of evaporation is a common feature.
3. Sunken pans: ln spite of problems like cleaning and heat leakage, these are most
commonly used by micro-meteorologists in crop studies (further details are given in the later
part of this exercise).
4. Lysimeter:
1. These are very expensive and cannot be moved from one place to another in the same
field laboratory.
2. These are used to measure not only evaporation but also evapotranspiration.
U.S.W.B. Class 'A' open pan evaporimeter

Principle: The amount of water lost by evaporation from the free water surface in the pan at
any given interval of time is measured by adding known quantities of water to the pan and
bringing height to the original level.
Operation and Measurement: This is an instrument used to measure the amount of water
lost by evaporation per unit area at a given interval of time. The values of evaporation give a
measure of evaporative power of the air layers near the ground.
1. This is made up of galvanized iron / or copper sheet of 20 gauge thickness. 10mm
thick copper is the latest recommended standard.
2. The pan of the evaporimeter is 122 centimeters in diameter and 25.5 centimeters in
deep. It is painted white and is covered with a lid of hexagonal mesh to protect the
water from birds and squirrels.
3. This is used to measure the rate of evaporation in mm/day with a precision of 0.1 mm.
4. Water level in this appliance should be maintained upto 20 centimeters.
5. In order to provide undisturbed water surface, a still-well is used. It is kept in the pan
at the base and is provided with 3 small openings (120 degrees apart) at its bottom so
that the water level of the pan corresponds to that of still-well.
6. The reference point is provided by the brass rod, fixed at the centre of the Stillwell
and is tampered to end at a point exactly 190 mm above the base of the pan.
7. Measured quantities of water is added or removed to bring back the level of water to
its original position.
8. The rate of evaporation is determined by using the equation Volume = Area X Depth.
9. A hook gauge is used for measuring rate of evaporation. It works on the principle of
screw gauge and the least count is 0.1 mm.
10. The pan rests on a wooden platform which is painted white and placed about 3 to 4
inches above the ground surface. This allows free circulation of air and also to detect
leakages, if any.
A thermometer to measure the temperature of the water is fixed with a clamp to the
side of the pan so that the bulb dips 5 centimetre below the water surface.
11. If rain is there, the water level in the pan increases. So, water has to be removed to
bring back its level to original position.
12. After knowing the depth of water it is easy to find evaporation (if any) as the depth of
the rainfall is already known from the rain gauge.
13. The measuring cylinder is a brass container with scale ranging from 0 - 20 cm.
a) The diameter is exactly one tenth that of the pan (122 mm), which means the
cross sectional area of the cylinder is exactly one hundredth that of the pan.
b) 200 mm of water from the cylinder added to the pan will raise the level of
water in the pan by 2 mm.
14. The amount of water lost by evaporation from the pan divided by the time interval
gives the rate of evaporation.
15. Since the capacity of cylinder is only 20 cm, the cylinder has to be filled more than
once for over 2 mm of water is lost by evaporation. Calibrated charts are also
available to enable the semi-skilled workers to observe the corresponding
evaporation.
16. Observations with evaporimeter should be taken twice a day at 08:30 and 14:30 hours
IST.
17. The observations are to be taken as detailed below.
a) Read the thermometer just immersed in the water.
b) When water level is below the reference point, add water to the evaporimeter using
the measuring cylinder.
c) Add water until the tip of the fixed point equals the surface of the water in the still
well. For example, one full cylinder and 10 cm. i.e., 30 cm of the water is added to
the pan. This divided by 100 i.e. 3.0 mi-n is the amount of water lost by
evaporation from the pan, it no rainfall occurred since the last observation.
d) On a rainy day, if the amount of water "ded to bring the level equal to point is 38
cm, the difference as per the above calibration in the description is 3.8 mm. If the
rainfall is 5.7 mm during the day, then the evaporation is 5.7 - 3.8 = 1.9 mm.
e) When there is light rain, and the water level may not rise then the procedure to be
followed is like this. If 20 cm of water is added to the pan (i.e. 2.0 mm after
calibration) and rainfall is 1.2 mm, then the actual evaporation is 2.0 + 1.2 =
3.2mm.
18. Precautions to be taken include:
a) Repairs for any leaks must be attended as and when noticed.
b) Clean the pan and stilling well regularly.
c) Paint the evaporimeter with white enamel paint every year.
d) Use lemon juice to remove white deposits on the bulb of the thermometer.
II. Sunken screen evaporimeter:

Principle: A still-well is attached to the evaporimeter through a connecting tube. The whole
instrument is buried into the ground. Measured quantities of water is either added or removed
to indicate the evaporation.
Operation and Measurement: This instrument comes under the category of sunken pans.
1. This is developed by Dr. Sharma and Dastane, in the year 1966 at Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi.
2. This is very useful in Agro meteorology observatories and Is more dependable than
other instruments.
3. The pan of this evaporimeter is made up of galvanized iron sheet of 20 gauge thickness.
4. It has a diameter of 60 centim6tres and depth of 45 centimeters.
5. A still-well with 15 centimeters diameter and 45 centimeters depth is attached to the
pan through a connecting tube.
6. This evaporimeter is painted white throughout.
7. Both the pan and still-well are covered with a lid of hexagonal mesh.
8. Water level in this evaporimeter is maintained upto 35 centimeters from the bottom of
the pan.
9. A pointer, attached to the wall of still-well and bent upwards at right angles to the well,
is used to maintain the water level.
10. The tip of the pointer is at a height of 35 centimeters from the bottom. The whole
instrument is buried into the ground upto a depth of 35 centimeters.
11. Measured quantities of water is either added or removed to bring back the level of water
to its original position.
12. The rate of evaporation is determined by using the same equation, volume = Area X
depth.
13. Calibrated charts are also available for ready reference.
14. This evaporimeter is preferred over the U.S.W.D-. class 'A' open pan evaporimeter,
because the crop co-efficient range is very small i.e., 0.95 to 1.05.
15. With the help of this crop factor, water requirement of the crop can be worked out and
scheduling of irrigation is done.
The differences between U.S.W.B. class 'A' open pan evaporimeter and Sunken screen
evaporimeter are given below.
Character Character U.S.W.B. Class ‘A’ Sunken screen evaporimeter
open pan evaporimeter
Place of instrument Above the ground surface Below the ground
Diameter of the pen 122 cm 60 cm
Height of the pan 25 cm 45 cm
Place of stilling well Inside the pan Outside the pan
Crop co-efficient factor 0.5 to 1.3 0.95 to 1.05
Rate of evaporation At free surface In the cropped field
measured
Study Question:
1. Why the pan is painted with white colour.
2. Which soil and crop management practices influence the ET?
3. Give the four important methods along with formulae recommended for
estimating evapotranspiration.
Computation of Potential Evapotranspiration and Actual Evapotranspiration
Owing to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field measurements, ET is commonly

computed from weather data. A large number of empirical or semi empirical equations have
been developed for assessing crop or reference crop evapotranspiration from meteorological
data. Numerous researchers have analysed the performance of the various calculation
methods for different locations. As a result of an Expert Consultation held in May 1990, the
FAO Penman-Monteith method is now recommended as the standard method for the
definition and computation of the reference evapotranspiration, ETo. Some of the methods
which are only valid under specific climatic and agronomic conditions and cannot be applied
under conditions different from those under which they were originally developed were also
discussed below.
The evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of green grass of uniform height
(0.12m), actively growing, completely shading the ground with an albedo of 0.23 and not
short of water is called reference crop evapotranspiration or potential evapotranspiration and
is denoted by ETo.
Estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration
The concept of the reference evapotranspiration was introduced to study the

evaporative demand of the atmosphere independently of crop type, crop development and
management practices. As water is abundantly available at the reference evapotranspiring
surface, soil factors do not affect ET. Relating ET to a specific surface provides a reference to
which ET from other surfaces can be related. It obviates the need to define a separate ET
level for each crop and stage of growth. ETo values measured or calculated at different
locations or in different seasons are comparable as they refer to the ET from the same
reference surface. The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo
is a climatic parameter and can be computed from weather data.
ETo expresses the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a specific location and
time of the year and does not consider the crop characteristics and soil factors. Typical ranges
for ETo values for different agroclimatic regions are given below.
Mean daily temperature (°C)

Regions
Cool (10 °C) Moderate (20 °C) Warm (>30 °C)
Tropics and subtropics
Humid and Sub-
2-3 3-5 5-7
humid
Arid and Semi-arid 2-4 4-6 6-8
Temperate region
Humid and Sub-
1-2 2-4 4-7
humid
Arid and Semi-arid 1-3 4-7 6-9
Measurement of ETo by empherical methods

1. Blaney Criddle Method
The relationship is expressed as follows:
ETo (mm/day) =C[P(0.46T+8)]
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the month considered
T = Mean daily temperature on oC over the month considered
P = Mean daily percentage of total annual daytime hours obtained for a given month
and latitude
C = Adjustment factor which depend on minimum relative humidity, sunshinehours
and day time wind estimates
Application and limitations

a) This method is suggested for areas where available climatic data cover air temperature data
only.
1. Not recommended for equatorial regions, small islands and coastal areas at high
altitudes and in climates with a wide variability.
2. Thornthwaite method
The relationship is expressed as:
E = 1.6 (10T/I)a
Where:
E = Monthly potential evapotranspiration (cm) or reference crop ET (i.e., ETo)
T= Mean monthly temperature (°C)
I = A heat index for a given area which is the sum of 12 monthly index values i
is derived from mean monthly temperatures using the following formula.
i= (T/5)1.514
a = an empirically derived exponent which is a function of I
a = 6.75 X 10-7 I3-7.71X 10-5 I2+1.79X10-2 I + 0.49

a) This method is suggested for areas where available climatic data cover air temperature data
only.
b) Not recommended for equatorial regions, small islands and coastal areas at high
altitudes and in climates with a wide variability
3. Radiation method
ETo (mm/day) = C (W. Rs)
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the period considered
Rs = Solar radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day
W = Weighting factor which depends on temperature and altitude
C = Adjustment factor which depends on mean relative humidity and day time wind
conditions
a) Recommended for areas where measured climatic data include air temperature and
sunshine, cloudiness or radiation, but not measured wind and humidity
b) Knowledge of general levels of humidity and wind is required
c) It is reliable than Blaney - Criddle method for equatorial regions, on small islands and at
high altitudes.
4.Modified Penman method

ETo (mm/day) = C [W. Rn+(1-W). f(U). (ea-ed)]
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day
W = Temperature related weighing factor
Rn = Net radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day
f(u) = Wind related function
(ea – ed) = Difference between the saturation vapour pressure at T mean
and the mean actual vapour pressure of the air both in mbar
C = Adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather conditions

a) Suitable only where measured data is available on all weather parameters
b) Wide applicability in arid, semi-arid, humid, sub-humid conditions
c) Gives a very satisfactory estimate of ETo since it accounts for all the weather factors
affecting the crop evapotranspiration
5. Pan evaporation method

The relationship is expressed by:
ETo (mm/day) =Epan x Kpan
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the period considered
Kpan = Pan evaporation in mm/day and represents the mean daily value of the period
considered
Epan= Pan coefficient

a) The method requires measured data only pan evaporation
b) Wide applicability in arid, semi-arid, humid, sub-humid conditions
c) Gives a very satisfactory estimate of ETo since it integrates the effect of all weather factors
affecting the crop evapotranspiration in to a single entity.
Study question:
1. Why modified Penman method is most accurate in measuring PET compare to other
methods?
2. What are the difference between Actual evapotranspitation and Potential
evapotranspiration?

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UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

GKVK, BANGALORE-560 065

INTRODUCTORY AGROMETEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

AGR 122 (1+1)

Name : _________________________________ ID. No. :________________

Class: I B.Sc. (Agri.) II Semester: 2017-18

Manual is prepared under the financial assistance of ICAR grants 2018-19

This is to certify that Mr. / Miss. _____________________________________

ID.NO._______________ has satisfactorily completed the practical in AGR-

122 (1+1) Introductory Agrometeorology and Climate Change prescribed by

the University of Agricultural Sciences for the I B.Sc.(Seri.), II Semester degree

course offered in the Department of Agronomy, College of Sericulture,

Chintamani during the year 2018-19.

Marks obtained: _________________

Dr. Pavankumar Goudar

1. Meaning and scope of agricultural meteorology-Definition, scope, branches and

Visit to the Agrometeorological Observatory

Agrometerological observatory is a place where all the necessary instruments are

2. Non crop weather observatories: Includes the observatories located at soil

Co-ordinates: Latitude, longitude and altitude of a place are called as co-ordinates.

5. Avoid layout of any path or roads inside the observatory.

9. A suitable fencing should be provided.

Finding out true North by using magnetic campus

Height of the instruments from the ground level

Diameter of the instruments

Isobars Atmospheric parameter

Measurement of Total, Shortwave and Long wave Radiation

CAMPBELL-STOKES SUNSHINE RECORDER:

1. It consists of a glass sphere fixed centrally to a frame. Just below

Measurement of solar radiation: Agriculture is an exploitation of solar energy, made

January: 17.7 February: 16.4 March: 15.4 April: 14.9

Radiometer: Is instrument for detecting or measuring radiant energy.

1. Draw a neat sketch of Bellani's pyranometer and label.

Net shortwave radiation is a measure of the difference between incoming solar

Pyrheliometer measurement specifications are subject

1. Draw a neat sketch of Pyranometer & Pyrheliometer and label.

Estimation of Solar Radiation using Planck’s Intensity Law

Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun, particularly

Planck’s radiation law: Mathematical relationship formulated in 1900 by

The wavelength of the emitted radiation is inversely

1. State Planck’s radiation law?

Measurement of Albedo and Sunshine Duration

Albedometer is an instrument that measures global and reflected solar radiation and

3. Level the instrument, if needed, using a small spirit level.

Campbell Stokes Sunshine Recorder

Old Sunshine Recorder New Sunshine Recorder

Meter MS-093 is a one-of-a-kind high performance Sunshine duration meter

Which is used worldwide in many applications such as ASOS (Automated Surface

Burn marks on the record card

1. Draw neat diagrams of Sun shine recorder?

Computation of Radiation Intensity using Bonnel Sphere Spectrometer

The intensity of radiation is defined as the rate of emitted energy from unit surface

1. Write a short note about WMO?

Measurement of Maximum and Minimum air Temperatures

Instrument Length (cm) Width (cm) Panes Height (cm)

Maximum Thermometer: records the highest temperature recorded in a particular day.

Principle: Expansion and contraction of alcohol in the bore (capillary) of the

Tabulation, trend and variation analysis in maximum and minimum temperature

For example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by two characteristics

Name : _________________ ID. No. :