Short Question-Answers on Antennas and Wave propagation

Class- ECE III A

Unit 1
1. Define an antenna and what is meant by radiation pattern?
- Antenna is a transducer between a guided wave and a free space wave or vice versa.
Antenna is also said to be an impedance transforming device.Antenna converts
electrons to photons and vice versa.
Radiation pattern is the relative distribution of radiated power as a function of
distance in space .It is a graph which shows the variation in actual field strength of
the EM wave at all points which are at equal distance from the antenna. The energy
radiated in a particular direction by an antenna is measured in terms of FIELD
STRENGTH.(EVolts/m).
2. Explain Radiation intensity?
The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation
intensity U (watts per
steradian or per square degree). The radiation intensity is independent of
distance.Radiation Intensity
“Radiation intensity is defined as the power per unit solid angle”Radiation emitted
from an antenna which is more intense in a particular direction, indicates the
maximum intensity of that antenna. The emission of radiation to a maximum possible
extent is nothing but the radiation intensity.
Mathematically radiation Intensity is obtained by multiplying the power radiated with
the square of the radial distance.Thus,Radiation intensity of an antenna is closely
related to the direction of the beam focused and the efficiency of the beam towards
that direction.
Units
The unit of radiation intensity is Watts/steradian or Watts/radian2.
3.Explain Beam efficiency?
According to the standard definition, “The beam efficiency states the ratio of the
beam area of the main beam to the total beam area radiated.”
The energy when radiated from an antenna, is projected according to the antenna’s
directivity. The direction in which an antenna radiates more power has maximum
efficiency, while some of the energy is lost in side lobes. The maximum energy
radiated by the beam, with minimum losses can be termed as beam efficiency.
Mathematical Expression
The mathematical expression for beam efficiency is −
ηB=ΩMB/ΩAηB
Where,
ηB- is the beam efficiency.

Prepared By- Mr. Prashant Kulkarni

ΩMB- is beam area of the main beam.
ΩA-is total solid beam angle (beam area).
4.Define Directivity?

-The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power density
P(θ,φ)max to its average value over a sphere as observed in the far field of an
antenna.The directivity can be calculated from Pattern by following formula,
D = P(θ,φ)max / P(θ,φ)av.
Directivity is also calculated from beam area as
D = 4π / ΩA.
Where ΩA-beam area.

5.Define Effective aperture(Ae) and Aperture efficiency?

Effective aperture(Ae)-
It is the area over which the power is extrated from the incident wave and delivered
to the load is called effective aperture.
Aperture efficiency
The ratio of the effective aperture to the physical aperture is the aperture efficiency.
Aperture efficiency = ηap = Ae / Ap

6.What is meant by effective height of an antenna?

The effective height h of an antenna is the parameter related to the aperture.It may be
defined as
the ratio of the induced voltage to the incident field.
Mathematically,
H= V / E.
7.What are the field zone?and What is meant by Polarization.?
The fields around an antenna ay be divided into two principal regions.
i. Near field zone (Fresnel zone)
ii. Far field zone (Fraunhofer zone)

The polarization of the radio wave can be defined by direction in which the electric
vector E is aligned duringthe passage of atleast one full cycle.Also polarization can
also be defined the physical orientation of the radiated electromagnetic waves in
space.
The polarization are of three types. They are Elliptical polarization,circular
polarization and linear polarization.

8.What is meant by front to back ratio.?

It is defined as the ratio of the power radiated in desired direction to the power
radiated in the opposite direction. i.e

FBR = Power radiated in desired direction / power radiated in the opposite direction.

Prepared By- Mr. Prashant Kulkarni

9. Define and explain aperature efficiency.
According to the standard definition, “Aperture efficiency of an antenna, is the ratio
of the effective radiating area (or effective area) to the physical area of the aperture.”
An antenna has an aperture through which the power is radiated. This radiation
should be effective with minimum losses. The physical area of the aperture should
also be taken into consideration, as the effectiveness of the radiation depends upon
the area of the aperture, physically on the antenna.
Mathematical Expression
The mathematical expression for aperture efficiency is as follows −

εA=Aeff/Ap
where
εA -is Aperture Efficiency.
Aeff -is effective area.
Ap -is physical area.

10. Define and explain antenna efficiency.

Antenna Efficiency
According to the standard definition, “Antenna Efficiency is the ratio of the radiated
power of the antenna to the input power accepted by the antenna.”
Simply, an Antenna is meant to radiate power given at its input, with minimum losses.
The efficiency of an antenna explains how much an antenna is able to deliver its
output effectively with minimum losses in the transmission line.
Antenna efficiency = Power radiated / Total input power
Mathematical Expression
The mathematical expression for antenna efficiency is given below −
ηe=Prad /Pinput
ηe=PradPinput
Where
ηe-is the antenna efficiency.
Prad- is the power radiated.
Pinput- is the input power for the antenna.
This is also called as Radiation Efficiency Factor of the antenna.

11. Define and gain of an antenna.

Gain
According to the standard definition, “Gain of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation
intensity in a given direction to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the
power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically.”
Simply, gain of an antenna takes the directivity of antenna into account along with its
effective performance. If the power accepted by the antenna was radiated
isotropically (that means in all directions), then the radiation intensity we get can be
taken as a referential.The term antenna gain describes how much power is transmitted
in the direction of peak radiation to that of an isotropic source.Gain is usually
measured in dB.Unlike directivity, antenna gain takes the losses that occur also into
account and hence focuses on the efficiency.
Mathematical Expression
The equation of gain, G is as shown below.
G=ηeD
Where

Prepared By- Mr. Prashant Kulkarni

G -is gain of the antenna.
Η-eis the antenna’s efficiency.
D is the directivity of the antenna.

12. What is radiation resistance ?

The antenna is a radiating device in which power is radiated into space in the form of
electromagnetic wave.The radiation resistance of an antenna is defined as the
equivalent resistance that would dissipate the same amount of power as is radiated by
the antenna.It is a fictitious resistance which when substituted in series with the
antenna will consume the same power as is actually radiated.

13. What is meant by HPBW ?

Antenna beamwidth is a measure of directivity of an antenna. Antenna beam width is
an angular width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern (major lobe) between
points where the radiated power has fallen to half its maximum value .This is called
as “beam width” between half power points or half power beam width.(HPBW).
Indication of HPBW
When a line is drawn between radiation pattern’s origin and the half power points on
the major lobe, on both the sides, the angle between those two vectors is termed
as HPBW, half power beam width. This can be well understood with the help of the
following diagram.

14.What is meant by FNBW ?

First Null Beam Width
According to the standard definition, “The angular span between the first pattern
nulls adjacent to the main lobe, is called as the First Null Beam Width.”
Simply, FNBW is the angular separation, quoted away from the main beam, which is
drawn between the null points of radiation pattern, on its major lobe.
Indication of FNBW
Draw tangents on both sides starting from the origin of the radiation pattern,
tangential to the main beam. The angle between those two tangents is known as First
Null Beam Width (FNBW).
This can be better understood with the help of the following diagram.

Prepared By- Mr. Prashant Kulkarni

15.What is meant by reciprocity Theorem and What is meant by isotropic radiator?
If an e.m.f is applied to the terminals of an antenna no.1 and the current measured at
the terminals of the another antenna no.2, then an equal current both in amplitude and
phase will be obtained at the terminal of the antenna no.1 if the same emf is applied
to the terminals of antenna no.2. A isotropic radiator is a fictitious radiator and is
defined as a radiator which radiates fields uniformly in all directions. It is also called
as isotropic source or omnidirectional radiator or simply unipole.

UNIT -2

16. What is meant by Beam Area.?

The beam area or beam solid angle or ΩA of an antenna is given by the normalized
power pattern over a

sphere.

ΩA = ∫ ∫4π Pn ( θ,φ ) dΩ

Where dΩ = Sin θ d θ .dφ

17. What is duality of antenna.?

It is defined as an antenna is a circuit device with a resistance and temperature on the

one hand and the
space device on the other with radiation patterns, beam angle ,directivity gain and
aperture.

18.State Poynting theorem.

intensity vector E and the magnetic filed intensity vector H at any point is a measure
of the rate of energy flow per

unit area at that point.The direction of power flow is perpendicular to both the
electric field and magnetic field

components.
Mathematical Expression

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The quantity that is used to describe the power associated with the electromagnetic
waves is the instantaneous Poynting vector, which is defined as
S^=E^×H^S^=E^×H^
Where

S^- is the instantaneous Poynting vector (W/m2).

E^- is the instantaneous electric field intensity (V/m).

H^- is the instantaneous magnetic field intensity (A/m).

The important point to be noted here is that the magnitude of E is greater than H
within an EM wave. However, both of them contribute the same amount of energy. Ŝ
is the vector, which has both direction and magnitude. The direction of Ŝ is same as
the velocity of the wave. Its magnitude depends upon the E and H.

19.Explain advantages disadvantages and applications of dipole.

Advantages
The following are the advantages of half-wave dipole antenna −
Input impedance is not sensitive.
Matches well with transmission line impedance.
Has reasonable length.
Length of the antenna matches with size and directivity.
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of half-wave dipole antenna −
Not much effective due to single element.
It can work better only with a combination.
Applications
The following are the applications of half-wave dipole antenna
Used in radio receivers.
Used in television receivers.
When employed with others, used for wide variety of applications.
20.Draw and explain brief about folded dipole radiation pattern.
Radiation Pattern
The radiation pattern of half-wave folded dipoles is the same as that of the half-wave
dipole antennas. The following figure shows the radiation pattern of half-wave folded
dipole antenna,which is Omni-directional pattern.Half-wave folded dipole antennas
are used where optimum power transfer is needed and where large impedances are
needed.This folded dipole is the main element in Yagi-Uda antenna.

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21.Explain types of loop antennas.
A loop antenna is a coil carrying radio frequency current. It may be in any shape
such as circular, rectangular, triangular, square or hexagonal according to the
designer’s convenience.
Loop antennas are of two types.
Large loop antennas
Small loop antennas

Large loop antennas

Large loop antennas are also called as resonant antennas. They have high radiation
efficiency. These antennas have length nearly equal to the intended wavelength.L=λ

Where,
L is the length of the antenna
λ is the wavelength
The main parameter of this antenna is its perimeter length, which is about a
wavelength and should be an enclosed loop. It is not a good idea to meander the loop
so as to reduce the size, as that increases capacitive effects and results in low
efficiency.

Small loop antennas

Small loop antennas are also called as magnetic loop antennas. These are less
resonant. These are mostly used as receivers.
These antennas are of the size of one-tenth of the wavelength.

L=λ/10

Where,

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L is the length of the antenn
λ is the wavelength
The features of small loop antennas are −
A small loop antenna has low radiation resistance. If multi-turn ferrite core
constructions are used, then high radiation resistance can be achieved.
It has low radiation efficiency due to high losses.
Its construction is simple with small size and weight.
Due to its high reactance, its impedance is difficult to match with the transmitter. If
loop antenna have to act as transmitting antenna, then this impedance mis-match
would definitely be a problem. Hence, these loop antennas are better operated
as receiver antennas.
22.Explain features of helical antennas.
Advantages
The following are the advantages of Helical antenna −
Simple design
Highest directivity
Wider bandwidth
Can achieve circular polarization
Can be used at HF & VHF bands also
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Helical antenna −
Antenna is larger and requires more space
Efficiency decreases with number of turns
Applications
The following are the applications of Helical antenna −
A single helical antenna or its array is used to transmit and receive VHF signals
Frequently used for satellite and space probe communications
Used for telemetry links with ballastic missiles and satellites at Earth stations
Used to establish communications between the moon and the Earth
Applications in radio astronomy
23.What is normal mode of helical antennas?
Normal mode
In normal mode of radiation, the radiation field is normal to the helix axis. The
radiated waves are circularly polarized. This mode of radiation is obtained if the
dimensions of helix are small compared to the wavelength. The radiation pattern of
this helical antenna is a combination of short dipole and loop antenna.

Prepared By- Mr. Prashant Kulkarni

The above figure shows the radiation pattern for normal mode of radiation in helical
antenna.
It depends upon the values of diameter of helix, D and its turn spacing, S.
Drawbacks of this mode of operation are low radiation efficiency and narrow
bandwidth. Hence, it is hardly used.
23.What is normal mode of helical antennas?
Axial mode
In axial mode of radiation, the radiation is in the end-fire direction along the helical
axis and the waves are circularly or nearly circularly polarized. This mode of
operation is obtained by raising the circumference to the order of one
wavelength (λ) and spacing of approximately λ/4. The radiation pattern is broad and
directional along the axial beam producing minor lobes at oblique angles.

The figure shows the radiation pattern for axial mode of radiation in helical
antenna.If this antenna is designed for right-handed circularly polarized waves, then
it will not receive left-handed circularly polarized waves and vice versa. This mode
of operation is generated with great ease and is more practically used.
24.What are types of horn antennas antennas?
Construction & Working of Horn Antenna
The energy of the beam when slowly transform into radiation, the losses are reduced
and the focussing of the beam improves. A Horn antenna may be considered as
a flared out wave guide, by which the directivity is improved and the diffraction is
reduced.Sectoral horn
This type of horn antenna, flares out in only one direction. Flaring in the direction of
Electric vector produces the sectorial E-plane horn. Similarly, flaring in the direction
of Magnetic vector, produces the sectorial H-plane horn.
Pyramidal horn
This type of horn antenna has flaring on both sides. If flaring is done on both the E &
H walls of a rectangular waveguide, then pyramidal horn antenna is produced. This
antenna has the shape of a truncated pyramid.
Conical horn
When the walls of a circular wave guide are flared, it is known as a conical horn.
This is a logical termination of a circular wave guide.

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25.What are design equations for Yagi- Uda antennas antennas?
They are −

ELEMENT SPECIFICATION

Length of the Driven 0.458λ to 0.5λ

Element

Length of the Reflector 0.55λ to 0.58λ

Length of the Director 1 0.45λ

Length of the Director 2 0.40λ

Length of the Director 3 0.35λ

Spacing between Directors 0.2λ

Reflector to dipole spacing 0.35λ

Dipole to Director spacing 0.125λ

If the specifications given above are followed, one can design an Yagi-Uda antenna.

Prepared By- Mr. Prashant Kulkarni

 UNIT 3

26.What is Microstrip Patch Antenna?

The microstrip line consists of pattern on one side of the dielectric substrate and
ground plane on the other side of it. The microstrip patch antenna has radiating patch
on one side and ground on the other. This is shown in the figure.

Thick size dielectric material with lower dielectric constant will provide good
antenna performance. It provides better efficiency and better radiation and large
operating bandwidth. Microstrip antennas are smaller in size and operates at
microwave frequencies.
27.What are features of Microstrip Patch Antenna?
Following are the benefits of Microstrip Antenna:
➨They operate at microwave frequencies where traditional antennas are not feasible
to be designed.
➨This antenna type has smaller size and hence will provide small size end devices.
➨The microstrip based antennas are easily etched on any PCB and will also provide
easy access for troubleshooting during design and development. This is due to the
fact that microstrip pattern is visible and accessible from top. Hence they are easy to
fabricate and comfortable on curved parts of the device. Hence it is easy to integrate
them with MICs or MMICs.
➨As the patch antennas are fed along centerline to symmetry, it minimizes
excitation of other undesired modes.
➨The microstrip patches of various shapes e.g. rectangular, square, triangular etc.
are easily etched.
➨They have lower fabrication cost and hence they can be mass manufactured.
➨They are capable of supporting multiple frequency bands (dual, triple).
➨They support dual polarization types viz. linear and circular both.
➨They are light in weight.
➨They are robust when mounted on rigid surfaces of the devices.
Drawbacks of Microstrip Antenna

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Following are the disadvantages of Microstrip Antenna:
➨The spurious radiation exists in various microstrip based antennas such as
microstrip patch antenna, microstrip slot antenna and printed dipole antenna.
➨It offers low efficiency due to dielectric losses and conductor losses.
➨It offers lower gain.
➨It has higher level of cross polarization radiation.
➨It has lower power handling capability.
➨It has inherently lower impedance bandwidth.
➨The microstrip antenna structure radiates from feeds and other junction points.
28.Explain working principle of parabolic reflectors .with cassegrain fed.
-Parabolic Reflectors are Microwave antennas used for the application above 1MHz.
These antennas are widely used for radio and wireless applications.

Principle of Operation
The standard definition of a parabola is a locus of a point, which moves in such a
way that its distance from the fixed point (called focus) plus its distance from a
straight line (called directrix) is constant.The following figure shows the geometry of
parabolic reflector. The point F is the focus (feed is given) and V is the vertex. The
line joining F and V is the axis of symmetry. PQ are the reflected rays where L
represents the line directrix on which the reflected points lie (to say that they are
being collinear). Hence, as per the above definition, the distance between F and L lie
constant with respect to the waves being focussed.

The reflected wave forms a colllimated wave front, out of the parabolic shape. The
ratio of focal length to aperture size (ie., f/D) known as “f over D ratio” is an
important parameter of parabolic reflector. Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.50.The law
of reflection states that the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal.
This law when used along with a parabola, helps the beam focus. The shape of the
parabola when used for the purpose of reflection of waves, exhibits some properties
of the parabola, which are helpful for building an antenna, using the waves reflected.
29.Explain working principle of parabolic reflector with cassegrain fed.
-Cassegrain is another type of feed given to the reflector antenna. In this type, the
feed is located at the vertex of the paraboloid, unlike in the parabolic reflector. A
convex shaped reflector, which acts as a hyperboloid is placed opposite to the feed of
the antenna. It is also known as secondary hyperboloid reflector or sub-reflector. It is
placed such that its one of the foci coincides with the focus of the paraboloid. Thus,
the wave gets reflected twice.

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Working of a Cassegrain Antenna
When the antenna acts as a transmitting antenna, the energy from the feed radiates
through a horn antenna onto the hyperboloid concave reflector, which again reflects
back on to the parabolic reflector. The signal gets reflected into the space from there.
Hence, wastage of power is controlled and the directivity gets improved.
When the same antenna is used for reception, the electromagnetic waves strike the
reflector, gets reflected on to the concave hyperboloid and from there, it reaches to
the feed. A wave guide horn antenna presents there to receive this signal and sends
to the receiver circuitry for amplification.
30.What are corner reflectors ?
-The corner reflector is a passive device used to directly reflect radio waves back
toward the emission source. Therefore, the corner reflector is a useful device for
radar system.
Plane Reflector Antenna

The figure depicts plane reflector antenna type. It consists of primary antenna and
reflecting surface. With this arrangement, it is useful to radiate EM energy in the
desired direction but not possible to collimate energy in forward direction.
Following parameters depend on position of primary antenna and its polarization in
the plane reflector antenna:
• Radiation Pattern
• Impedance

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• Gain
• Directivity
Corner Reflector Antenna

The figure depicts corner reflector antenna type. It consists of two or three
mutually intersecting conducting flat surfaces. In this type, feed element can be
either dipole or array of collinear dipoles.

Prepared By- Mr. Prashant Kulkarni