PH 8151 - Engineering Physics: Part A
PH 8151 - Engineering Physics: Part A
PH 8151 - Engineering Physics: Part A
Part A
1. Define torsional rigidity of a wire.
The applied torque needed to produce a unit angle of twist in a circular elastic material. It is a
measure of a body's resistance to torsion.
The stress – strain curve obtained from a tensile test is used to determine elastic properties as
follows
• Proportional Limit: Proportionality limit is the stress at which the stress – strain curve
deviates from linearity.
• Modulus of Elasticity: The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress – strain curve in
the elastic region.
• Elastic Limit: The elastic limit is defined as the minimum stress at which permanent
deformation start to occur or point at which elastic nature lost.
• Yield Point: As the load in the specimen is increased beyond the elastic limit, a stress is
reached at which the material continues to deform without an increase of load. At this point
the stress is less than the strain caused due to load. This deformation is of a permanent type
• Yield Strength: Yield strength is the strength which the materials yield without increase
in stress. This is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation from
the proportionality of stress to strain.
• Ultimate Strength: Ultimate strength is the maximum load after which necking begins. It
is the maximum load reached before fracture.
• Breaking Strength: This is the stress after the ultimate strength at which failure of the
specimen occurs.
• For a ductile material up to the ultimate strength, the deformation is uniform and during
necking, elongation is a non-uniform deformation and occurs rapidly to the point of failure.
• The breaking strength, which is determined by dividing the breaking load by the original
cross sectional area.
• For brittle material, the ultimate strength and breaking strength coincide.
• Ductility: The ductility of a material is indicated by the amount of deformation.
11 a) ii) Illustrate the working of torsion pendulum and write its uses.
A pendulum that rotates back and forth than swings is called a torsional pendulum. Thus, a torsional
pendulum is an oscillator for which the restoring force is torsion.
1 I
𝑇 = 2𝜋√(𝐶/𝐼) = 2𝜋√
c
1 𝜋𝑛𝑎 4
Twisting couple per unit twist (C) is given by C = 2 𝑙
Here, l = length of the suspension wire; a = radius of the wire; n= rigidity modulus of the suspension
wire.
USES:
16𝜋𝑚𝑙 ( d2 2 − d1 2 )
Rigidity modulus 𝑛= 𝑎4 (T2 2 − T1 2 )
Experimental Method:
• One end of a long uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined is clamped by a
vertical chuck. To the lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc is attached by another
chuck.
• The length of the suspension wire ‘l’ (from top portion of chuck to the point of suspension) is
fixed to a particular value (say 60 or 70 cm).
• The suspended disc is slightly twisted so that it executes Torsional Oscillations. Care is taken
to see that the disc oscillates without wobbling. The first few oscillations are omitted.
• By using the pointer (a mark made on the disc) the time taken for 10 oscillations is noted. Two
trials are taken and the mean time period T (time for one oscillation) is found.
• Two equal masses are placed on the disc symmetrically on either side, close to the suspension
wire (at the minimum distance). The closest distance ‘d1’ from the centre of the cylindrical mass
and the centre of the suspension wire is noted. The disc with masses at distance d1 is made to
execute torsional oscillations by twisting the disc. The time taken for 10 oscillations is noted.
Two trials are taken and the mean time period ‘T1’ is determined.
• Two equal masses are now moved to the extreme ends, so that the edges of the masses coincide
with the edge of the disc and the centres are equi-distant. The distance ‘d2’ from the centre of
the cylindrical mass and the centre of the suspension wire is noted. The disc with masses at
distance ‘d2’ is allowed to execute torsional oscillations by twisting the disc. The time taken for
10 oscillations is noted and the mean time period ‘T2 ’ is calculated.
• The mass of one of the cylinders placed on the disc is found.
• The diameter of the wire is accurately measured at various points along its length with screw
gauge. From this, the radius of the wire is calculated.
Tabulation:
Time for 10 oscillations
S. No Position of the two equal masses Mean (sec) Time period
Trial 1(Sec) Trial 2(Sec)
1 Without mass T =
The moment of inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the wire are calculated using the formulae,
T2
I = 2𝑚( d2 2 − d1 2 )
T2 2 − T1 2
8𝜋𝐼𝑙
𝑛= 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑎4 𝑇 2
Here, n- rigidity modulus of the wire, I – Moment of inertia of the disc, l- length f the wire used,
a- radius of the wire and T is the time period of oscillation without mass.
12. b) i) Derive Einstein’s A and B coefficients and list its significance.
When light is absorbed by the atoms or molecules, it goes from the lower energy level E1 to
higher energy level E2 and during the transition from higher energy level E2 to lower energy level
E1, the light or heat is emitted from the atoms or molecules.
Let us consider an atom exposed to (light) photons of energy E= E2 – E1= hν, three distinct processes
takes place.
Process I - Absorption
If there are many numbers of atoms in the ground state then each atom will absorb the energy
from the incident photon and goes to the excited state then, the rate of absorption (R12) is proportional
to the energy density of incident radiation (ρν) and the number of atoms in the ground state (N1).
i.e. R12 α ρν N1
R12 = B12ρν N1 ------[1]
Where B12 is a constant which gives the probability of absorption transition per unit time.
Such an emission is random. If N1 and N2 are the numbers of atoms in ground state E1 and excited state
E2 respectively, Then, the rate of spontaneous emission is
R21 (SP) α N2
i.e., R21 (SP) = A21 N2 -------- [2]
Where A21 is a constant which gives the probability of spontaneous emission transitions per unit time.
Process III – Stimulated emission
The atoms in the excited state can also return to the ground state by external triggering or
inducement of photon thereby emitting a photon of energy equal to the energy of the incident photon,
known as stimulated emission.
This results in two photons of same energy, phase difference and of same directionality.
The rate of stimulated of stimulated emission is given by
R21 (St) α ρν N2
R21 (St)= B21ρν N2 --------[3]
Where B21 is a constant which gives the probability of stimulated emission transitions per unit time.
EINSTEIN’S A AND B COEFFICIENTS [EINSTEIN’S THEORY]
Einstein theory of absorption and emission of light by an atom is based on the plank’s theory of
radiation.
Under thermal equilibrium, the population of energy levels obeys the Boltzmann’s distribution law.
i.e., Under thermal equilibrium,
The Rate of absorption = The Rate of emission
Eqn. (1) = Eqn. (2) + Eqn. (3)
𝐵12 ρ𝛎 𝑁1 = 𝐴21 N2 + 𝐵21 ρ𝛎 𝑁2
[𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ]ρ𝛎 = 𝐴21 N2
𝐴21 N2
ρ𝛎 =
[𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ]
𝑨𝟐𝟏
𝛒𝛎 = [𝑩 - ------------ (4)
𝟏𝟐 [𝑵𝟏 /𝐍𝟐 ]−𝑩𝟐𝟏 ]
These equations have a very good agreement with plank’s energy distribution radiation law.
8𝜋hν3 1
ρ𝛎 = c3
. hν
… (7)
[exp[ ]−1]
𝐾 T𝐵
Comparing eqns.(6) &(7) We get, B12 = B21 =B
𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝟖𝝅𝐡𝛎𝟑
= … (8)
𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝐜𝟑
Taking A21 = A
The constants A and B are called as Einstein Coefficients, which accounts for spontaneous and
stimulated emission probabilities.
To increase the number of coherent photons stimulated emission should dominate over spontaneous
emission. To achieve this, an artificial condition called population inversion is necessary.
12.b. ii) The refractive indices of core and cladding materials of an optical fiber are 1.6 and 1.5
Given:
Core refractive index n1 = 1.6
Core refractive index n2 = 1.5
Solution:
𝑛 1.5
a) Critical angle = Ic = sin-1( 2 ) = sin-1( )
𝑛1 1.6
= 69.63o
c) Numerical aperture (N A) = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 √(1.6)2 − (1.5)2
= 0.55
= 33.36o
= 66.72o
13. b) i) Illustrate Lee’s disc method to determine the thermal conductivity of a poor
conductor.
With poor conductor the rate of flow of heat will be small and so a thin specimen with a large cross
sectional area has to be used. Lee’s disc apparatus shown in Fig. is designed to meet these requirements.
• The thin specimen of poor conductor having the same cross sectional area rests on the base
plate and a steam chest is placed on the top.
• Steam is passed through the chest and the temperature of base plate and steam chest are
measured.
• When steady state is reached, heat conduction rate by poor conductor to the base plate is equal
to the heat lost by the base plate to the surrounding by the radiation.
If θ1 and θ2 are the temperatures of steam chest and base plate respectively under steady state,‘t’ the
thickness of poor conductor, r is the radius then rate of heat conduction by poor conductor is
𝑘𝐴 ( 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑄1 =
𝑡
𝑘𝜋𝑟2 ( 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) …… [1]
𝑄1 =
𝑡
• To measure the cooling rate of base plate at steady temperature𝜃2 , the temperature of the base
plate is raised above (𝜃2 + 5)o C by keeping the steam chamber directly over the base plate
removing the card board.
• Now steam is removed and the base plate is allowed to cook. For every 30 seconds the
temperature of the plate is noted for the cooling range (𝜃2 + 5)o C to(𝜃2 − 5)o C.
𝑑𝜃
• A graph as shown in Fig. for Time Vs Temperature. From the curve ( ) is noted at 𝜃2 oC.
𝑑𝑡
Hence
𝑘𝜋𝑟 2 ( 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
= (𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑑 )𝐸
𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝑘𝜋𝑟 2 ( 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) 𝑀𝑠 ( )
= (𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑑 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 (2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑑)
𝒅𝜽
𝑴𝒔 ( ) 𝒕 (𝒓 + 𝟐𝒅 )
𝒌= 𝒅𝒕
𝝅𝒓𝟐 ( 𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 ) (𝟐𝒓 + 𝟐𝒅)
Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer (the transfer of thermal energy between
objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence.
Materials that slow down the rate of heat transfer are called as thermal insulators.
Importance:
Thermal insulation minimizes the transfer of heat energy from one material to another by reducing the
conduction, convection and radiation effects.
Applications of thermal insulation in buildings:
Maintaining acceptable temperatures in buildings (by heating and cooling) uses a large proportion of
global energy consumption. Building insulations also commonly use the principle of small trapped air-
cells by using the materials such as fiberglass (specifically glass wool), cellulose, rock wool,
polystyrene foam, urethane foam, vermiculite, perlite, cork, etc.
14. a) i) Discuss the Planck’s theory of blackbody radiation and arrive at Planck’s
radiation formula.
Planck derived an expression for the energy distribution using the following assumptions
• The black body chamber is made up of a large number of oscillating atoms called as atomic
oscillators or Planck’s oscillators.
• The oscillators can vibrate with the frequency of its own. The frequency of radiation emitted
by the atom oscillator is same as the frequency of its vibration.
• The energy of an atomic oscillator is quantized. They emit energy in the form of discrete packets
of energy (i.e.,) quanta or photon. The energy of the photon is proportional to the frequency of
radiation
• i.e., E 𝛼𝜈 i.e., E = nℎ𝜈
• Where h is the Planck’s constant and 𝜈 is the frequency of radiation.
• The values of the energy of the oscillators are like 0, ℎ𝜈, 2ℎ𝜈, 3h𝜈….𝑛ℎ𝜈 (i.e., 0, E , 2E , ….
nE )
DERIVATION:
Let us say a black body consisting of N number of atomic oscillators. The total energy radiated from
black body is 𝐸𝑇 .
Thus the average energy of an oscillator is given by
𝑬𝑻
̅ =
𝑬 ……(1)
𝑵
𝑵𝒏 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝒏𝑬⁄𝒌𝑻 ……(4)
𝐸𝑒 −𝐸⁄𝑘𝑇
= 1−𝑒 −𝐸⁄𝑘𝑇
𝐸
𝐸̅ = ……(8)
𝑒 𝐸⁄𝑘𝑇 −1
𝐡𝝂
̅=
Put E = h𝜈 in equation (8), Average energy 𝑬 ……(9)
𝒆𝐡𝝂⁄𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
This is the average energy of an oscillator.
If 𝜆and 𝜆 + d𝜆 is the wavelength range, then the number of oscillators per unit volume can be written
as
8𝜋𝑑𝜆
𝑁𝜆 = 𝜆4
…… (10)
Therefore,
Total energy per unit volume = Number of oscillators per unit volume × Average energy
8𝜋𝑑𝜆 h𝜈
𝐸𝜆 d𝜆 = 𝜆4
× 𝑒 h𝜈⁄𝑘𝑇 −1
8𝜋𝑑𝜆 h𝑐 𝑐
= 𝜆4
x 𝜆𝑒 h𝑐⁄𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1
∵𝜈=𝜆
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 𝑑𝜆
𝐸𝜆 d𝜆 =
𝜆5 𝑒 h𝑐⁄𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
𝑬𝝀 = 𝝀𝟓
× 𝒆𝐡𝒄⁄𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟏 ……(11)
This expression is called as Planck’s law for black body radiation in terms of wavelength.
Planck’s law of black body radiation can be written in terms of frequency as follows
The number of oscillators per unit volume within the range of frequency𝜈 and 𝜈 + 𝑑𝜈 is given by
𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐
𝑵𝜈 = 𝒄𝟑
𝑑𝜈
8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
𝐸𝜈 = 3 h𝜈 ⁄𝑘𝑇
𝑐 𝑒 −1
This expression is called as Planck’s law for black body radiation in terms of frequency.
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
𝐸𝜆 = 𝝀𝟓
. 𝒆𝐡𝝂⁄𝒌𝑻 …… (12)
𝑒 h 𝜈⁄𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 h 𝑐⁄𝜆𝑘𝑇 ≪ 1
𝑥2
We know, 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2
+ …….
h𝜈 1 h𝜈 2
𝑒 h 𝜈⁄𝑘𝑇 = 1 + + ( ) + ……
𝑘𝑇 2 𝑘𝑇
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 8𝜋ℎ𝑐
= h𝜈 = h𝑐
𝜆5 ( ) 𝜆5 ( )
𝑘𝑇 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝟖𝝅𝒌𝑻
𝑬𝝀 = 𝝀𝟒
…… (13)
𝑐 6.63×10−34
γ0 = = 9.1×10−31
(1-cos 60)
λ0
γo = 2.47x 1020 Hz
15. a) i) Copper has FCC crystal structure with lattice parameter 0.361nm. Calculate the
interplanar spacing for the following planes : (111), (220), (100).
Lattice parameter= 0.361nm
Solution:
𝑎
Inter planar spacing d =
√h2 +k2 +l2
3.61 x 10−10
For (111) plane d111 = = 2.08 Å
√12 +12 +12
3.61 x 10−10
For (220) plane d220 = = 1.61 Å
√2+22 +02
3.61 x 10−10
For (100) plane d100 = = 3.61 Å
√12 +02 +02
15.a. ii) Sketch the structure of sc, bcc and fcc crystals and evaluate the packing factors.
Simple cubic(SC)
Packing factor
Number of atoms per unit cell =1
4 4 𝒂3
Volume of one atom v = 𝛑𝑟 3 = 𝛑[ ]
3
3 𝟐
Volume of a unit cell (V) = a3
We know that,
Number of atoms per unit cell X Volume of one atom
Atomic packing factor (𝑨𝑷𝑭) =
Volume of the unit cell
4 4 𝑎
1 × 𝛑𝑟 3 1× 𝛑( )3
3 3 2
= =
𝑎3 𝑎3
4 𝑎3
𝜋 𝜋
3 8
APF = = = 0. 52 = 52%
𝑎3 6
Packing factor:
Number of atoms per unit cell =2
4
Volume of one atom, v = 3 𝛑𝑟 3 (where r is the atomic radius)
APF = 0. 68 =68%
Therefore, 68% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 32% volume is vacant.
FACE CENTERED CUBIC (FCC):
Packing factor:
Number of atoms per unit cell =4
4
Volume of one atom, v = 3 𝛑𝑟 3
4𝑋 43𝛑𝑟3
=
𝑎3
3 16 2√2
16 𝒂√𝟐 𝜋 𝑎3 ×
3
𝛑( 𝟒 ) 3 64
= =
𝑎3 𝒂𝟑
𝜋√𝟐
= = 0.74
6
APF = 0.74 =74%
Therefore, 74% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 26% volume is vacant.