Chapter four

Memory
Memory is a collection of storage cells together with the necessary circuits to transfer
information to and from them. In other words, Computer memory is the storage space in
computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

4.1 RAM
RAM is Random Access Memory which loses its contents when the computer is switched
off (it is volatile). This memory can be written to, plus instructions and data can be loaded into
it. The kind of memory used for holding programs and data being executed is called RAM. RAM
differs from ROM in that it can be both read and written; it is considered volatile storage
because unlike ROM, the components of RAM are lost when the power is turned off. Common
RAM sizes are such as 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 6GB, & more (in multiples of 2).

4.2 Physical memory packaging

 Memory is added in the form of modules (Packages). Common memory modules include
SIMM & DIMM.
 The Signal Inline Memory Module or SIMM appears with a 30 pin and 72 pin variants.
SIMMs are considered legacy components and can be found in older machines.
 The Dual Inline Memory Module or DIMM is becoming the defector standard for new PCs
and are 168 pins in size.
The gold or tin pins on the lower edge of the front and back of a SIMM are connected,
providing a single line of communication paths between the module and system. But the pins
in DIMM are not connected, providing two line of connection paths between the module and
the system one in the front and on in the back.

4.3 Types of memory

Memory is primarily of three types
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
 We will be seeing more on cache memory later on this chapter…

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of primary Memory
 These are semiconductor memories
 Usually volatile memory or data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Functions of Primary Memory:

1. It holds the OS instructions while the computer is booting.
2. It temporarily holds the input instructions from the input devices while the data is being
input and processed.
3. It stores the results temporarily until it is transferred to the respective output devices.

Types of Primary Memory

1. RAM – Random Access Memory
a. Static RAM (SRAM) b. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
2. ROM – Read Only Memory
a. PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory
b. EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
c. EEPROM – Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

 Relatively simple and inexpensive to produce.
 Needs only one transistor and capacitor to hold a bit
 Consumes the least power & Least in performance.
 Must be refreshed every few minutes. This makes it slower.

SRAM (Static RAM)

 Doesn’t require regular refreshment
 Have speed of much higher than DRAM,
 Uses 6 or more transistors to hold a single bit.
 Costly than DRAM
  High power consumption than DRAM. Cache memory is SRAM.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than
main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does
not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For
example: Hard disk, flash drive, CD-ROM, DVD etc. We will see them in detail in chapter six.

4.4 ROM and cache memory

ROM (Read Only Memory)
ROM or Read Only Memory is non-volatile and is used to store programs permanently
(the start-up or "boot" instructions, for example), the computer cannot store anything in this
type of memory. When the programs and data files (known as the software) are not in RAM,
they are stored on backing store such as tapes or discs. The tape or disc drives and any input
and output devices connected to the CPU are known collectively as peripherals. Rom is typically
a read only memory that is most commonly used to store system – level programs that we want
to have available to the PC at all times. The most common being the BIOS program which is
stored in a ROM. The two main reasons that read only memory is used are for performance and
security. ROM can be of different types:
1) Programmable ROM (PROM)
Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is read-only memory that can be modified
once by a user. PROM is a way of allowing a user to tailor a microcode program using a special
machine called a PROM programmer. This machine supplies an electrical current to specific
cells in the ROM that effectively blows a fuse in them. The process is known as burning the
PROM.

2) Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)

As its name implies, it is a semiconductor memory device that can be programmed with
data which can only be read, but not altered, by the application circuit. As such, programming
an EPROM generally takes place prior to its attachment to the application circuit. One of the
most common applications for an EPROM is as a BIOS chip of a personal computer, which stores
information about the computer's basic input/output system.
An EPROM is a non-volatile memory device, i.e., it can retain its stored data even if it is
powered off. Reprogramming an EPROM with new data is possible, but it has to undergo a
special data erasure process that employs ultraviolet (UV) light before it can be done. There are
some EPROMs though, known as one-time programmable (OTP) EPROMs, that are designed to
be non-reprogrammable as a cheaper alternative for storing specific bug-free data that never
require any change.

3) Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

EEPROM is user-modifiable read-only memory that can be erased and reprogrammed
(written to) repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage. Unlike
EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be removed from the computer to be modified.
However, an EEPROM chip has to be erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not selectively. It
also has a limited life - that is, the number of times it can be reprogrammed is limited to tens or
hundreds of thousands of times. In an EEPROM that is frequently reprogrammed while the
computer is in use, the life of the EEPROM can be an important design consideration. A special
form of EEPROM is flash memory, which uses normal PC voltages for erasure and
reprogramming.

Cache Memory
It is a special high-speed storage mechanism. It can be either a reserved section of main
memory or an independent high-speed storage device. Two types of caching are commonly
used in personal computers: memory caching and disk caching. A memory cache, sometimes
called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of memory made of high-speed static RAM
(SRAM) instead of the slower and cheaper dynamic RAM (DRAM) used for main memory.
Memory caching is effective because most programs access the same data or instructions over
and over. By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids
accessing the slower DRAM.
Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors. The Intel 80486
microprocessor, for example, contains an 8K memory cache, and the Pentium has a 16K cache.
Such internal caches are often called Level 1 (L1) caches. Most modern PCs also come with
external cache memory, which is located on the motherboard, called Level 2 (L2) caches. These
caches sit between the CPU and the DRAM. Like L1 caches, L2 caches are composed of SRAM
but they are much larger. Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but
instead of using high-speed SRAM, a disk cache uses conventional main memory. The most
recently accessed data from the disk (as well as adjacent sectors) is stored in a memory buffer.
When a program needs to access data from the disk, it first checks the disk cache to see if the
data is there. Disk caching can dramatically improve the performance of applications, because
accessing a byte of data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte on a
hard disk.
 When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the effectiveness of a cache
is judged by its hit rate. Many cache systems use a technique known as smart caching, in which
the system can recognize certain types of frequently used data.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

4.5 Identify memory problems and upgrading

Upgrading System Memory

System memory provides the working memory of the CPU. Insufficient quantities of
RAM can cause a system to slow down and run such more poorly than it otherwise could.
Conversely, upgrading the quantity and quality of RAM can make a sluggish system in to faster,
robust machine. Further applications and operating systems require varying quantities of RAM
in which to load, with the basic rule being that newer programs always need more RAM than
older versions of the same program, windows 2000 runs poorly on less than 128 MB of RAM for
example whereas windows 95 runs fine with that amount.
Upgrading RAM modules is one of the most common system upgrades you can perform,
but requires you to consider at least the following issues.

 How much RAM does the system currently have?

 How much RAM can the system use?
 Which type and speed of RAM does the system have? The most common types of RAM
are FPM (Fast Page Mode) and EDO (Extended Data Out), SIMMs, and EDO and SDRAM,
DIMMs FPM
 Which type and speed of RAM can you put in the system? Check mother board Manual.
  Can you mix types in different banks? Many Pentium mother boards with two banks of 72-
pin SIMM slots for example could handle FPM SIMMs in one bank and EDO SIMMs in the
other. Some Pentium and Pentium II systems came with both SIMM and 168pin DIMM
SLOTS.

Steps in the upgrading/replacing Memory

 Open the computer case and locate the SIMM or DIMM slots on the system board.
 Determine how many RAM modules you need to fill a bank. Remember you should fill an
entire bank or memory errors may occur.
 Remove the RAM from the antistatic
 SIMM modules must be inserted in to SIMM slots on an angle and snapped upright in to
position so they are perpendicular to the mother board.
 DIMM modules must be inserted in to the slot