Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research

University of Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering

" Grounding of Power System Networks and

Buildings "

A project
Submitted to the Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering in the University of Technology in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical
Engineering

By
Jalal Mohsin & Ameer Basel

Supervised By
Dr. Aws Habeeb Mohammed

2020/2021

1
 Supervisor Certification

I certify that this project entitled “Grounding of Power System

Networks and Buildings” was prepared under my supervision as partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of B.Sc. in Electrical
Engineering from the Department of Electrical Engineering at the
University of Technology.

Signature:

Name: Aws Habeeb Mohammed Al-Taie

Date: 1 / 7 / 2021

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to my supervisor Dr. Aws Habeeb Mohammed for his

guidance, encouragement and fruitful suggestions through the period of
this research.

We also would like to direct our many thanks to the staff members of the
Department of Electrical Engineering for the help and support during
our study.

3
 ABSTRACT
The project defines the earthing (grounding) concept, introduces the aspects
of earthing, shows the advantage of earthing in general, and how earthing is being
very useful for maintaining the safety of persons and electrical devices at the same
time.
The project explains the methods of earthing the power system equipment,
earthing types, techniques & locations for buildings and the power system.
Furthermore, a study case of a power system model has been investigated to
calculate the fault currents for grounded and ungrounded power system equipment
to study the effect of grounding on them. Accordingly, the effects of these currents
on the protection system is cleared, and that reflects on the protection relays to
recognize the fault and respond quickly for the purpose of persons and equipment
protection.
To demonstrate the usefulness of earthing, the power system has been
implemented using MATLAB/Simulink, and the simulation had been applied on it.
The fault location has been chosen on the middle distance of the transmission line,
with and without earthing the generators, transformers and load to investigate the
earthing impact on the system.

4
 Contents
1
.Introduction.....................................................................................................................................7
1.1 Preface...................................................................................................................................7
1.2 System Grounding.................................................................................................................8
2. Grounding of Homes and Buildings..........................................................................................11
2.1 The importance of grounding in homes and buildings........................................................11
2.2 How to work grounding in homes.......................................................................................13
2.3 Measuring the Grounding Electrode Resistance..................................................................14
2.3.1 Fall of the potential method..........................................................................................14
2.3.2 Soil Resistivity Measurement...........................................................................................16
2.4 Neutral Grounding...............................................................................................................20
2.4.1 Ungrounded Neutral System.........................................................................................21
2.4.2 Grounded System..........................................................................................................21
Method of Neutral Grounding:..............................................................................................22
International standard terminology for grounding:................................................................23
2.5 Types of Grounding Systems...............................................................................................23
2.5.1 TN Earthing..................................................................................................................23
2.5.2 TT Earthing System......................................................................................................26
2.5.3 IT System Earthing.......................................................................................................27
3. Power System Grounding..........................................................................................................28
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................28
3.2 Definitions...........................................................................................................................33
(C) System Neutral Ground:......................................................................................................34
(D) Grounded System:...............................................................................................................34
(E) Ungrounded:........................................................................................................................34
(F) Solidly Grounded (Directly Grounded):..............................................................................34
(G) Resistance Grounded:..........................................................................................................34
(H) Reactance Grounded:..........................................................................................................34
(I) Resonant Grounded (Tuned Grounded):..............................................................................35
(K) Grounding Transformer:.....................................................................................................35
3.3 Characteristics of ungrounded system.................................................................................35
3.4 Advantages of system neutral grounding............................................................................37
1: Reduced operating and maintenance expense.......................................................................37
2: Improve Service Reliability...................................................................................................37
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 3: Greater safety for personnel and equipment..........................................................................37
Table (3-2): Summary of advantages of the grounded-neutral..................................................39
(2.4 to 15kv)...............................................................................................................................39
4. Implementations & Results........................................................................................................40
4.1 Case1....................................................................................................................................41
4.2 case2....................................................................................................................................43
4.3 case 3...................................................................................................................................45
5. Conclusions and Future Work...................................................................................................46
5-1 Conclusions:........................................................................................................................46
5-2 Future Work:.......................................................................................................................46

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 Chapter One
Introduction

1.1 Preface

For several technical & safety reasons, electrical power installations must be
grounded. Grounding of power systems is achieved by embedding metallic
structures (conductors) into earth & electrically connecting these conductors to the
neutral of the power system. In this way a low impedance is provided between the
power system neutral & the vast conducting soil, which guarantees that the voltage
of the neutral, with respect to earth, will be low under all conditions.

Grounding is necessary for several reasons:

1- To assure correct operation of electrical devices.

2- To provide safety during normal or fault conditions.

3- To voltage during transient conditions.

4- To dissipate the lightning strokes.

The importance of grounding has long been recognized in power engineering.

Today there are several standards that deal with various aspects of grounding on
the performance of a power system. For example, ANSI / IEEE standard 80 [1]
addresses the impact of grounding system design on the safety of personnel in a

power substation. ANSI / IEEE standard 487 [2] addresses the topic of
communication circuit protection serving power substations, which is primarily
dependent on grounding [3].

7
1.2 System Grounding

Before discussing the various aspects of neutral grounding it is desirable to

give two examples to appreciate the need of system grounding.

(ii) Fig. (1-1-i) shows the primary winding of a distribution transformer

connected between the line and neutral of an 11 LV line. If the secondary
conductors are ungrounded, it would appear that a person could touch either
secondary conductor without harm because there is no ground return.
However, this is not true. Referring to Fig. (1-1-i) there is capacitance C1
between primary and secondary and capacitance C2 between secondary
and ground. This capacitance coupling can produce a high voltage between
the secondary lines and the ground. Depending upon the relative
magnitudes of C1 and C2, it may be as high a. 2O% to 4O% of the primary
voltage. If a person touches either one of the secondary wires, the resulting
capacitive current Ic flowing through the body could be dangerous even in
case of small transformers. See Fig. (1-1-ii). For example if Ic is only 20 mA
the person may get a fatal electric shuck.

Fig(1-1)

8
If one of the secondary conductors is grounded, the capacitive coupling
almost reduces to zero and so is the capacitive current Ic. As a result, the
person will experience no electric shock. This explains the importance of
system grounding.
(ii) Let us now turn to a more serious situation. Fig. (1-2-i) shows the
primary winding of a distribution transformer connected between the line
and neutral of a 11 kV line. The secondary conductors are ungrounded.
Suppose that the high voltage line (II kV in this case) touches the 230 V
conductor as shown in Fig. (1-2-i). This could be caused by an internal fault
in the transformer or by a branch or tree falling across the 11kV and 230 V
lines. Under these circumstances, a very high voltage is imposed between
the secondary conduct ors and ground. This would immediately puncture
the 230 V insulation, causing a massive flashover. This flashover could
occur anywhere on the secondary network, possibly inside a home or
factors; therefore, ungrounded secondary in this case is a potential fire hazard
and may produce grave accidents under abnormal conditions.

(i) (ii)
9
 Fig (1-2)
If one of the secondary lines is grounded as shown in fig (1-2-ii) .the accidental
contact between a11kv conductor and a 230 v conductor produces a dead short.
The short-circuit current (i.e. fault current) follows the dotted path shown Fig (1-2-
ii).This large current will blow the fuse on the 11 kv side, thus disconnecting the
transformer and secondary distribution system form the 11 kv line .

This explains the importance of system grounding in the line of line of the power
system [4].

10
 Chapter Two
Grounding of Homes and Buildings
2.1 The importance of grounding in homes and buildings

Electricity in a residential wiring system consists of electrons that flow through

metal circuit wires and this electricity always searches the shortest possible path
back to earth. Therefore, if there is a problem with the neutral wire, grounding your
electrical system will provide a direct path to the ground and prevent power surges
that could Lead to electrical hazards. In all cases, it should be ensured that all
metallic objects connected to the electrical network equipment (except for the
current conductors themselves) are well connected to the ground. Metal covers,
bodies and structures of lighting units and other devices subject to contact from
any line of phase lines must be well connected to earth [5].
Before learning how home grounding works, you should be aware of the
importance of household grounding.

1. Overload protection

One of the most important advantages of grounding is the ability to protect

electrical appliances, the home, and its inhabitants from the danger of a surge in
electric current. If a lightning strike occurs, or the intensity of the electric current
rises for any reason, this will prevent it from dangerously high voltages. If the
electrical system is grounded All the extra power will go to the earth, instead of
burning everything connected to the home electrical grid [6].

11
2. It helps in transmitting electricity

Having an electrical grounding system will make it easy to direct the power to
wherever it is needed, allowing electrical currents to safely and efficiently travel
through the home electrical system.

3. Stability of voltage levels

The grounded electrical system also facilitates the distribution of the right amount
of power to all the appropriate places, which can play a big role in helping to
ensure that electrical circuits are not discharged and filled up. Earth provides a
common reference point for many voltage sources in the electrical system.

4. Grounding is the best conductor

One of the reasons why grounding helps keep you safe is that the ground is a large
conductor, and because the extra electricity will always take a less impedance path,
by grounding your electrical system, you are giving a place for the electricity to go,
and it may save your life.

5. It prevents damage, injury and death

Without a properly grounded electrical system, you risk any appliance that is
connected to your electrical system, so that it cannot be repaired. In the worst case,
an appliance overloading can lead to a fire, leading to the risk not only of loss of
property but of bodily injury that may occur Up to death.

12
2.2 How to work grounding in homes

Necessary tools and materials

1. shovel.

2. Ordinary salt.

3. Plain soft charcoal.

4. Copper rod.

5. Copper bollard.

6. Ground wire.

7. Hammer.

The method of work

1. Using a shovel, on a dirt site outside the house, make a square hole 100 cm by
100 cm, and a depth of one meter.

2. After preparing the pit, regular salt or table salt is placed in the hole, then the
regular charcoal (heating charcoal) is scattered to be soft, and the greater the
quantity, the better the results.

3. After that, put the copper rod inside the hole in its middle center, then using the
hammer, install the copper rod inside the hole tightly, but make sure that the
copper rod protrudes from the hole by 10 cm, or twenty cm.

13
4. Then cover the hole with soil, and do no damage if you apply water to the hole
after burying it.

5. Then put the copper cleat at the top of the rod, then take the aforementioned
ground wire, tighten it tightly inside the cleat, and extend it towards the center of
the cutters in the house, and make a copper bridge to connect it to it, and then the
lines will be distributed to all rooms of the house according to the diameter of each
wire [5, 6].

Notes:

1. To protect the penis from corrosion due to salt and coal, the penis is spread over
the penis and the video is output from Al-Jazeera channel The connecting rings
between the wire and the rod by a cage, and it is better to have a yellow oxygen
weld because the copper rusts, forming a layer of linking rings.

2. A resistance of 3 is obtained, the distance between it and the other is measured is

2 x the length of the rod.

3. The ground shall be inspected continuously, and the examination period does
not exceed 6 months as a maximum.

2.3 Measuring the Grounding Electrode Resistance

2.3.1 Fall of the potential method

The most commonly used formula for finding the resistance of single grounding
electrode is:
ρ 8L
R=
[( ) ]
2 πL
ln
d
−1

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1. R = resistance in ohms of ground rod to the earth (or soil).
2. L = grounding electrode length, m. 
3. d = grounding electrode diameter. 
4. ρ = average soil resistivity in ohm-m. 

the equation given above can only determine the approximate value  of
grounding electrode resistance, depending on the theoretical value of  resistivity
of the soil at a particular site for the purpose of design work,  the exact
resistance of the grounding electrode must be determined at the site of
installation to support theoretical assumption and the  grounding conditions
adjusted, if necessary, to obtain the required  ground resistance [7]. 

The resistance of a grounding electrode can be measured with the  help of a

special designed ground tester, which generates a constant  voltage for accurate
measurement. It also can be conducted with the  help of a battery, voltmeter and
ammeter, as illustrated in the figure  below:

Fig(2-1) : Test setup for measuring the grounding electrode resistance

15
The experiment requirements are:

 Two test spikes of 50cm length and 12 mm diameter 

 30 m measuring tape  
 12 volt, 135 A h truck battery (full charged) 
 Variable scale Ammeter and Voltmeter 
 Connecting wires, four crocodile clips, and a hammer

The procedure for such experiment is as follows:

1. A test spike A is driven into the ground about 25 m from the grounding
electrode G, whose resistance is to be measured. 
2. A second spike B is placed between the two at about midway between  G & A. 
3. Connect the battery between G & A to inject current through the  ground soil. 
4. Use a Voltmeter to measure the voltage between G & B. Then the  grounding
electrode resistance could be found by using Ohm's law. 5. Two more readings
should also be taken by shifting the spike B, 3 m on either side of the original
location. For accurate results, the three readings should be approximately the
same. 
If the three readings are not the same, it means that probe B is still within the
resistance area of the grounding electrode G. shift away probe  A by another 5 m
and repeat the same procedure until you get  approximately the same results for
the three measurements.

2.3.2 Soil Resistivity Measurement

The main requirement for good earthing system design is the  knowledge of Soil
Resistivity ρ which is measured in Ohm-meter (or  Ohm-centimeter). 
16
One Ohmmeter represents the Resistivity of the Soil when it has a resistance of
one ohm between the opposite faces of a cube of the soil having one meter sides. 

It is important to find the resistivity of the soil as accurately as  possible, since
the value of the resistance of the earthing system of the  electrode is directly
proportional to the soil resistivity. If an incorrect  value of soil resistivity is used
at the design stage, the earthing system  resistance may prove to be significantly
different to that planned. This  could, in turn, have serious consequences. 

The most widely used method for soil resistivity measurement is  called the
Wenner Method which is shown below:

Fig(2-2):  Soil Resistivity Test Arrangement using Winner Method

In this method four electrodes are given into the ground in straight  line as
shown on the diagram, spaced at an equal distance of "a" meter  apart. The depth
of which each electrode is driven shouldn't exceed "a"  divided by 20 and is not
normally greater that 0.3 m. the outer two  electrodes A & B should be
connected tp the DC power supply and used  for current injection. A Voltmeter
is connected across the inner  electrodes C & D for voltage measurement. 

17
The apparent soil resistivity at point can be obtained from the  following
equation: 

ρS = 2 π a R  

where: 

ρS – apparent soil resistivity and a - spacing of electrodes in meters 

R - resistance values as found from instruments reading and Ohm's  law.

Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity 

Soil resistivity is subject to a great fluctuation which may result from  various
conditions such as: moister contents, salt concentration,  porosity, climatic
fluctuation, etc. 

a) Type of soil  
The soil composition which could be clay, gravel, sand, stones, chalk, etc.,  has a
large influence on soil resistivity. Very often, the soil conditions and 
composition in the top ground layer is different from the deeper layers  and
often a two-layer model is adopted.

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 Table(2-1): Soil Resistivity

Type of Soil  Resistivity (Ω-

m)
Garden soil  5-50

Clay  5-100

clay, gravel, sand  40-250

Porous chalk  30-100

rock  1,000-10,000

b) Climatic Conditions 
Obviously, dry and rainfall climates are at opposite extremes for the  conditions
of soil resistivity.

c) Seasonal Variation  
The effects of heat, moister, drought, and frost can introduce wide  variation in
soil resistivity. Soil resistivity usually decreases with depth,  and an increase of
only few percent of moisture in a normally dry soil will  noticeably decrease soil
resistivity. Also soil temperature below freezing  greatly increases soil
resistivity.

Experiment Requirements: 

19
 4 copper (or steel) electrodes of 60cm length and 12 mm diameter 10 m
measuring tape , 12 volt, 135 A h truck battery (full charged) ,Variable
scale Ammeter and Voltmeter ,Connecting wires, four crocodile clips,
and a hammer.

The procedure for such experiment is as follows:

1. Set up the 4 electrodes at equal spaces of 0.5 m and in a straight line  as

shown in the diagram. The electrode depth in the soil should not  exceed 10-
15cm. Make a record of the instrument’s readings.

2. Repeat step 1 for electrode spacing of 1, 2 and 3 m.

2.4 Neutral Grounding

In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system or rotating system

or transformer is connected to the ground. The neutral grounding is an
important aspect of power system design because the performance of the
system regarding short circuits, stability, protection, etc., is greatly
affected by the condition of the neutral [8]. A three phase system can be
operated in two possible ways:

1- With ungrounded neutral

2-With a grounded neutral

2.4.1 Ungrounded Neutral System

20
In an ungrounded neutral system, the neutral is not connected to the
grounded. In other words, the neutral is isolated from the ground.
Therefore, this system is also known the isolated neutral system or free
neutral system shown in the figure below.

Fig(2-3): Isolated Neutral

2.4.2 Grounded System

In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system is connected to the ground.
Because of the problems associated with ungrounded neutral systems, the neutrals
are grounded in most of the high-voltage systems [8].

21
 Fig(2-4): Neutral Grounding

Some of the advantages of neutral grounding are as follows:

1. Voltages of phases are limited to the line-to-ground voltages.

2. Surge voltage due to arcing grounds is eliminated.

3. The over voltages due to lightning discharged to ground.

4. It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.

5. It provides improved service reliability.

Method of Neutral Grounding:

The methods commonly used for grounding the system neutral are:

1. Solid grounding (or effective grounding)

2. Resistance Grounding

22
3. Reactance Grounding

4. Peterson-coil grounding (or resonant groundings)

International standard terminology for grounding:

The first letter: refers to the relationship between the ground and equipment or
objects (transformer or generator) that is concerned with the bodies and equipment

T: From the word Terre in French meaning earth, meaning there is a direct
connection between the transformer or generator and the ground.

I: It means isolated, it means there is no connection between the transformer or

generator and the ground, except for a high resistance .

The second letter: refers to the ground relationship and the electrical device that is
required to be supplied with power, that is, it is concerned with the consumer side.

T: means that there is a direct connection between the consumer and the ground.

N: neural, means that there is a direct contact between the consumer and the
neutral party, which is connected to the ground.

2.5 Types of Grounding Systems

2.5.1 TN Earthing

System In TN earthing systems, the power source (transformer neutral) is directly

connected to the earth with one or more conductors and all the exposure

23
conductive parts of an installation are connected to the neutral earth conductor or.
Security. The three subsystems of the TN main system are:

1-TN-C Earthing System: The TN-C system has the following characteristics:
Neutral and protective functions are combined in one conductor throughout the
system. (PEN - Earth protection neutral). The power source is directly connected to
the earth and all exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected to the
PEN conductor.

Fig(2-5): Earthing system type TNC

2-TN-S Earthing System: The TN-S system has the following characteristics: The
TN-S system has neutral and protective conductors throughout the system. The
power source is directly connected to the earth. All exposed conductive parts of the
installation are connected to a protective conductor (PE) through the main earthing
terminal of the installation [8].

24
 Fig(2-6): Earthing system type TNS

3-TN-C-S Earthing System :

The TN-C-S earthing system has the following characteristics: Neutral and
protective functions are combined into a single conductor in a part of the TN-C-S
system. The power supply is TN-C and the setup is TN-S. Use of TN-S
downstream of TN-C. All exposed conductive parts of an installation are
connected to the main earth terminal and the PEN conductor through the neutral
terminal, these terminals being interconnected.

25
 Fig(2-7): Earthing system type TNCS

2.5.2 TT Earthing System

In this system, the power source has direct connection to the earth. All exposed
conductive parts of the installation are also connected to a ground electrode that is
electrically independent of the source ground.

Fig(2-8): Earthing system type TT

26
2.5.3 IT System Earthing

In this system, the power source is either connected to a high ground impedance
(computer system with impedance ground) intentionally initiated from the ground,
or isolated from the ground. All exposed conductive parts. An inductance is
connected to the ground electrode [8].

Fig(2-9): Earthing system type IT

27
 Chapter Three
Power System Grounding
3.1 Introduction

Grounding is generally mean an electrical connection to the general mass of earth,

the latter being a volume of soil/rock...etc. whose dimensions are very large in
comparison to the electricity system being considered. Before discussing
definitions, it is worth noting that in Europe we tend to use the term earthing,
whilst in North America, the term “grounding” is more common [9, 10]. The IEEE
definition of grounding is :-

“Ground (ground system) A conducting connection, whether intentional or

accidental, by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to the earth or
some conducting body of relatively large extent that serves in place of the earth.”

For use within Europe, if the generally accepted terms were replaced as below,
then the meaning remains the same.

“Earth (earth system) A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental,

by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to the mass of earth or some
conducting body of relatively large extent that serves in place of the mass of
earth.”

As will be described later, it is possible to operate an electrical system without an

earth, so why is the practice of earthing electricity systems so commonplace?

The most often quoted reasons for having an earthed system are:

1. To provide a sufficiently low impedance to facilitate satisfactory protection

operation under fault.
28
2. To ensure that living beings in the vicinity of substations are not exposed to
unsafe potentials under steady state or fault conditions.

3. To retain system voltages within reasonable limits under fault conditions

(such as lightning, switching surges or inadvertent contact with higher
voltage systems), and ensure that insulation breakdown voltages are not
exceeded.

4. Custom and practice.

5. Graded insulation can be used in power transformers.

6. To limit the voltage to earth on conductive materials which enclose

electrical conductors or equipment.

Less often quoted reasons include: -

1. To stabilize the phase to earth voltages on electricity lines under steady state
conditions, e.g. by dissipating electrostatic charges which have built up due
to clouds, dust, sleet...etc.

2. A means of monitoring the insulation of the power delivery system.

3. To eliminate persistent arcing ground faults.

4. To ensure that a fault which develops between the high and low voltage
windings of a transformer can be dealt with by primary protection.

5. To provide an alternative path for induced current and thereby minimize the
electrical “noise” in cables.

29
 6. Provide an equipotential platform on which electronic equipment can
operate.

To perform adequately in fulfilling any of the above functions, the earthing system
must generally have low impedance so that in dispersing or collecting current from
the ground, an excessive voltage rise does not occur. Of course within installations
an earth connection is also necessary to ensure the correct operation of equipment
– for example electronic devices, where an earthed shield may be required. It is
essential to consider the earthing within a whole installation as one complete
system and for this to be designed and installed accordingly [9].
Earthing of elec. Installation primary concerned with ensuring safety, the earthing
system is normally designed to prove two safety functions:

1.The first is termed bonding any exposed conductive metalwork which can be
touched is connected together via bonding conductors. Most electrical equipment is
housed inside metal enclosures and if a live conductor comes into contact with this,
the enclosure will temporarily also become live. Bonding is to ensure that, should
such a fault develop, then the potential on all exposed conductive metalwork is
virtually the same. In other words, the bonds equalize potential within the site so
that the resulting potential differences are minimal. An equipotential ‘platform’ is
thus created.

If a person is in contact simultaneously with two different pieces of exposed

metalwork, a bonding conductor should ensure that the person does not receive a
shock, as the potential difference between equipment should be insufficient for this
to occur. The same principle applies within large electricity substations, factories
and houses. In factories, bonding of exposed metalwork would normally ensure
that an electrical fault to the frame of one machine did not create a potential

30
difference between that and earthed metalwork on an adjacent machine. In the
home, bonding ensures that, should a fault to the frame of a washing machine or
cooker develop, someone simultaneously touching either of these and the metal
sink would not experience an electric shock [10].

2.The second function of the earthing system is to ensure that, in the event of an
earth fault, any fault current which does result can return to source in a controlled
manner. By a controlled manner, we mean that. The return path is predetermined
such that damage to equipment or injury to individuals does not occur. The earth
connection is not of infinite capacity and zero impedance. However, the impedance
of the earthing system should be low enough that sufficient earth fault current can
flow to operate protective devices correctly, which will in turn initiate the
operation of circuit breakers or fuses .to interrupt the flow of current. The required
impedance value is normally calculated by the protection designer via fault
analysis programmer and this would be provided to those responsible for the
design of the earthing system. In addition, the rise in potential which the earthing
system will experience whilst fault current is flowing should also be limited to a
predetermined value.

These are the functions that the earthing system must provide, but
they are required to meet a wide range of different problems. The first is a
conventional fault, e.g. that arising from damage to a cable or breakdown
of the phase to earth insulation in a piece of equipment. The equipment can be in a
substation, a factory or the home. We term these “power frequency” faults, since
most of the energy dissipated in the fault will be
at mains frequency ( 50 Hz ).

31
In some locations, such as radio or television transmitters, sites where large
amounts of power are rectified or capacitor banks are switched, then energy will be
available at higher frequencies than normal .
The earthing system must be specially designed to provide a low impedance at
these frequencies.

Many electrical installations are prone to the risk of damage as a result of a

lightning strike and special arrangements are necessary to reduce the risks
involved. An adequate earthing system is a fundamental part of this arrangement.
Because a lightning impulse is steep fronted and a source of high frequency
currents, special earthing system designs are again necessary. For example, bends
in above ground conductors will form a small inductance which will be
insignificant at power frequency, but may create a high impedance to lightning
current. This may be sufficient for there to be a ‘flashover’ whereby the current
flows through other routes to ground in preference to the designed route-possibly
causing significant damage in the process.

The earthing system is also used as a means of achieving safe working conditions
during some types of maintenance or construction. Plant which was previously
energized has to be switched off and its previously live components are connected
to earth before any work can commence. This allows any stored energy to be
discharged safely to ground and helps prevent dangerous voltages arising on the
equipment being worked on (these could otherwise occur due to induction, errors
or power system faults). In some industrial premises the earthing system is
required to continuously discharge the buildup of static electricity, and thus
prevent a fire or explosion risk. Examples include paper manufacturing plants or
when explosives or volatile chemicals are present.

32
A popular misconception is that the earthing system is only required during fault
conditions.

Clearly, the earthing system performs a wide range of similar functions throughout
all the stages of providing electricity, i.e. at the generating station, the electricity
company substations (at which the supply voltages are changed) through to the
electrical installations in homes offices and factories. Copper is the most widely
used material for these earthing systems. It well tried and tested properties of
relatively low electrical resistance malleability and good corrosion resistance have
ensured that it has been the preferred material for very many years.

3.2 Definitions

The word “grounding” is commonly used in electric power system work to cover
both “system grounding” and “equipment grounding” to avoid confusion or
possible misunderstanding. This chapter is devoted exclusively to the subject of
system grounding.

These terms are defined by NEC (National Electrical Code) [9] as follows:

(A) System Ground: System ground is connection to ground from one of the
current-carrying conductors of a distribution system or of an interior winning
system.
(B) Equipment Ground: An equipment ground is connection to ground from
one or more of the non-current-carrying metal parts of the wiring system or of
apparatus connected to the system. As used in this science. The term equipment
includes all such metal parts. Metal armor or cables, outlet boxes, switch boxes,
motor frames, and metal enclosures of motor controllers.

33
(C) System Neutral Ground: System neutral ground is a connective to
ground from the neutral points of a circuit, transformer, rotating machine, or
system. The neutral point of system instate point which has the same potential us
the point of junction of a group equal non reactive resistances if connected at their
free ends to the appropriate main terminals or line of the system.

(D) Grounded System: Ground system is a system of conductors in which at

lest one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or neutral point of transformer
or generator windings), is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through a
current-limiting device.

Note: Grounded systems may be subject to various steady state and transient over
voltages depending upon the ratios of X0/ X1 and R0/X1 as viewed from the fault
location. R0, X0, and X1 are respectively, the Zero-sequence resistance, the Zero-
Sequence reactance, taken as positive if inductive and negative if capacitive, and
positive-sequence sub transient reactance.

(E) Ungrounded: Ungrounded means without an intentional connection to

ground except through potential-indicating or measuring devices.

(F) Solidly Grounded (Directly Grounded): Solidly grounded means

grounded through an adequate ground connection in which no impedance has been
inserted intentionally.

(G) Resistance Grounded: Resistance grounded means grounded through

impedance, the principal element of which is resistance.

(H) Reactance Grounded: Reactance grounded means grounded through

impedance, the principal element of which is reactance.
34
(I) Resonant Grounded (Tuned Grounded): Resonant grounded means
reactance grounded through such values of reactance that, during a fault between
one of the conductors and earth, the rated- frequency current flowing in the
grounding reactance and the rated- frequency capacitance current flowing in the
grounding reactance and the rated-frequency capacitance current flowing between
the not faulted conductors and earth shall be substantially equal. In the fault, these
two components of the fault current will be substantially 180º out of phase.
(J) Ground-fault neutralize: A grounded-fault neutralize is a grounding
device which provides an inductive component of current in a ground fault that is
substantially equal to and therefore neutralizes the rated frequency capacitive
component of the ground-fault current.

(K) Grounding Transformer: Grounding transformer is a transformer

intended primarily to provide a neutral point for grounding purposes.

3.3 Characteristics of ungrounded system

1-When the neutral of a system not grounded it is possible for destructive transient
over voltage, of several times normal, to appear from line to ground during normal
switching of a circuit having a line-to- ground fault. Tests have shown that over
voltages may be developed by repeated restricting of the are during interruption of
a line-to-ground fault. Particularly in low-voltages systems Experience has proved
that these over voltages may cause failure of insulation at other locations on one
circuit.

The same condition will result from the repeated restrict of the arc in
an arcing fault from line-to-ground. The condition described is illustrated in Fig.(2-
1).

35
 May cause second fault here

Ungrounded power source

Single line to ground fault

Interrupting fault

Fig(3-1) : transient over voltages due to ground—fault interruption on

ungrounded system may cause other faults occur on system.

2- When the neutral of a system is not grounded, aground fault on one phase
causes fault-line-to-line voltage to appear throughout the system, between
grounded two unfaulted phases. This voltage is 73 percent higher than normal Fig.
(2-2) illustrates the in line-to-ground voltage to a ground fault [10].

Fig (3-2): Effect on line-to-ground voltages of signal line-to-ground fault on an

ungrounded neutral system.

36
Usually the insulation between each line and ground is adequate to with stand full
line-to-line voltage.

However, if this voltage is applied for longer periods, it may result in failure of
insulation which may have deteriorated because of age or severe service condition.

3.4 Advantages of system neutral grounding

The advantages of operating an industrial power system grounded compared with

operating it ungrounded may be or more of the following.

1: Reduced operating and maintenance expense

a- Reduction in magnitude of transient over voltages.

b- Improved lightning protection.

c- Simplification of ground-fault location.

d- Improved system and equipment fault protection.

2: Improve Service Reliability

3: Greater safety for personnel and equipment

When the system is grounded at the neutral by allow value of impedance,

grounded-neutral lighting arresters may be used which give better lightning
arresters required for ungrounded neutral system which are grounded through a
relatively high neutral impedance. In general, circuit below 15 kV, are not exposed
to lightning within the industrial plant, when industrial plant, use voltages ab6ve
15 kv, these circuits are often exposed to lightning so that low impedance system
neutral grounding to allow the use of grounded-neutral arresters is definitely
advantageous.
Voltages below 17 kV are most commonly used in industrial plants and are the
37
highest voltages to which rotating machines are ordinarily connected. It is in these
systems that the advantages of system neutral grounding are obtained in-the
greatest degree. Minimizing damage at point of fault is usually more important
than improved lightning protection.

Table (3-1): Summary of advantages of the grounded-neutral 480-volts

system.
Ground-neutral system Ungrounded system

Safest-only 277 volts to

Ground at any time (assume When no ground on system 480
Safety good ground and 480 volts volts on two conductors.
maximum line to line).

Safety-voltage on system limited Voltage on secondary system may

to about 277 volts when primary be as high as primary voltage for
to secondary failure occurs in breakdown between primary and
transformer supplying system. secondary transformer windings.

Highest-Ground faults are Part or all of system must be taken

Service localized located and repaired; out of service to find ground faults
reliability system need not be taken out to subject to server transient over
find ground faults. voltages.

Ground faults if not removed may

Highest-Ground faults are
upon occurrence of a second
localized and trip off
ground fault cause two circuits to
immediately.
be out of service.

Once, thus causing also of

Highest-Minimize transient over
equipment floating or arcing
voltages on the system.
grounds likely

Highest-floating grounds are

Floating or arcing ground likely.
very unlikely.

38
 Table (3-2): Summary of advantages of the grounded-neutral
(2.4 to 15kv).

Ground-neutral system Ungrounded system

Safest-signal line to ground Subject to severe transient over

Safety faults are tripped off voltages
immediately

Service Highest-Ground faults are Part or all of system must be taken

reliability readily located and repaired out of service to find faults

Ground faults if not removed may

Highest-limited faults current
upon occurrence of a second
causes a minimum of damage
ground fault cause two circuits to
to equipment (with
go out at once, thus causing the
conventional resistance
loss of twice as much production
grounding)
equipment.

High fault current associated with

Highest Minimize transient
to line —to ground fault may result
over voltages on the system.
in more damage to equipment.

Maintenanc Lowest: ground faults are Ground faults are more difficult to
e cost easily located. locate.

39
 Chapter Four
Implementations & Results
In this chapter, we will conduct a simulation of an electrical circuit of the type of
power system to identify the types of error and the differences between them and
to know the values of current and voltage in the error circuit, and below is the form
of the circuit that we will work on.

Fig(4-1): Power System Circuit

In this design, we will simulate a power system circuit to get acquainted with the
results.

Fig(4-2): Design Power System Using MATLAB/Simulink

40
4.1 Case1

In this case, all electrical network equipment is grounded and the circuit works
regularly without an fault, and we note the constant voltage and current shown in
figures (4-3),(4-4),(4-5),(4-6).

Fig(4-3): Scope1, the upper is voltage and the lower is current

Fig(4-4): Scope2, the upper is voltage and the lower is current

41
Fig(4-5): Scope 3,the upper is voltage and the lower is current

Fig(4-6): Scope4,the upper is voltage and lower is current

42
4.2 case2

In this case, a single phase to ground fault has occurred, and all
equipment is grounded and We note that there is a change in voltage
and current shown in fig(4-7),(4-8),(4-9),(4-10).

Fig(4-7): Scope1, the upper is voltage and lower is current

In this Fig(4-7), the voltage and current are stable because the fault far from fault.

Fig(4-8): Scope2, the upper is voltage and the lower is current

43
In the Fig(4-8), the voltage is zero in phase A and the current is high due
to the fault because the fault near from fault.

Fig(4-9): Scope 3, the upper is voltage and the lower is current

In the Fig(4-9), the voltage is zero in phase A and the current is zero due to
because the fault after the fault.

Fig(4-10): Scope4,the upper is voltage and the lower is current

44
In the Fig (4-9), the voltage is zero in phase A and the current is zero due to
because the phase a was interrupted due to the voltage.

4.3 case 3

In this case, a single phase fault has occurred to the ground, and all
equipment is not grounded note that there is a change in voltage and
current shown in figures (4-11), (4-12).

Fig (4-11): Scope1, the upper is voltage and the lower is current

In this result the voltage is zero in phase A, voltage in phase b,c is unbalanced and
the currents are constant in all phases

Fig (4-12): Scope2, the upper is voltage and the lower is current
45
 Chapter Five
Conclusions and Future Work

5-1 Conclusions:

1- Earthing is very important for the persons safety to avoid the electrical
shock.

2- Earthing is very important for the protection of electrical devices and power
system equipment.

3- Earthing increases the fault current to a certain level to make the protection
relays sense it.

4- Earthing the electrical equipment differs according to the type of equipment,

connection, location and the level of voltage.

5- There are several types of earthing, like earthing by resistors, reactors,

solidly & many other kinds.

5-2 Future Work:

The fault currents can be investigated for different other cases, as:

1- The same power system can be tested with the other different kinds of faults.

2- The same power system can be tested with the same fault at locations.

3- The model can be modified to include more complicated system.

46
 4- The earthing of the power system model equipment can be changed to

contain a combination of grounded and ungrounded equipment.

References

[1] American National Standards Institute & Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers, ANSI / IEEE standard 80, IEEE Guide for safety in
AC Substation Grounding, ANSI / IEEE, New York, 1986.

[2] American National Standards Institute & Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers, ANSI / IEEE standard 487-1980, IEEE Guide for the
Protection of Wire-Line Communication Facilities Serving Electrical Power
Station, ANSI / IEEE, New York, 1980.

[3] A. P. Sakis Meliopolos, "Power System Grounding & Transients – An

Introduction," Marcel Dekker, New York, 1988.

[4] Mehta, "Principles of Power System," S. Chand, New Delhi, 1998.

[5] online available [

https://www.kammasheh.com/%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A
%D9%82%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84-
%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A3%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B6-
%D9%81%D9%8A-
%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%84]

[6]online available [ https://almohandes.org/t/%D9%83%D9%8A

%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84-%D8%AE
%D8%B7-%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%8A-
%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%84%D9%8A-
47
%D8%A8%D9%83%D9%84-
%D8%B3%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9/180945]

[7] Power and High Voltage Lab Experimental Guide.

[8] online available [
https://www.electricalengineeringtoolbox.com/2015/12/types-of-earthing-
systems-used-in.html]
[9] ANSI / NFPA 70-1990, NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE.²¹

[10] Lawrence A. Bey, "Grounding of AC Generators & Switching The Neutral

in Emergency & Standby Power System," Power Topic 6005, Part 1, 2010.

[11] IEEE Green Book, "Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power

Systems," IEEE Ltd., USA, 1991.

[12] Donald Beedman, "Industrial Power System Handbook," McGraw-Hill,

New York, 1985.

48