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UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction and Fundamentals of Wireless communication Technology

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Objective
 To explain the introduction about wireless networks
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 To describe the fundamentals of wireless communication.

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References
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1. Kaveh Pahlavan- Prashant Krishnamurthy “Principles of Wireless Networks”-

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Pearson Education- Delhi- 2002 and PHI- 2005.

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Introduction:
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The cellular system employs a different design approach than most commercial
radio and television systems use. Radio and television systems typically operate at
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maximum power and with the tallest antennas allowed by the regulatory agency of the
country. In the cellular system, the service area is divided into cells. A transmitter is
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designed to serve an individual cell. The system seeks to make efficient use of available
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channels by using low-power transmitters to allow frequency reuse at much smaller

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distances. Maximizing the number of times each channel can be reused in a given
geographic area is the key to an efficient cellular system design. During the past three
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decades, the world has seen significant changes in the telecommunications industry.
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There have been some remarkable aspects to the rapid growth in wireless
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communications, as seen by the large expansion in mobile systems. Wireless systems

consist of wireless wide-area networks (WWAN) [i.e., cellular systems], wireless local
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area networks (WLAN) and wireless personal area networks (WPAN). The handsets used
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in all of these systems possess complex functionality, yet they have become small, low
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power consuming devices that are mass produced at a low cost, which has in turn
accelerated their widespread use. The recent advancements in Internet technology have
increased network traffi c considerably, resulting in a rapid growth of data rates. This

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phenomenon has also had an impact on mobile systems, resulting in the extraordinary
growth of the mobile Internet.

Wireless data offerings are now evolving to suit consumers due to the simple
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reason that the Internet has become an everyday tool and users demand data mobility.
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Currently, wireless data represents about 15 to 20% of all air time. While success has
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been concentrated in vertical markets such as public safety, health care, and
transportation, the horizontal market (i.e., consumers) for wireless data is growing. In
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2005, more than 20 million people were using wireless e-mail. The Internet has changed
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user expectations of what data access means. The ability to retrieve information via the
Internet has been “an amplifi er of demand” for wireless data applications. More than
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three-fourths of Internet users are also wireless users and a mobile subscriber is four
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times more likely to use the Internet than a nonsubscriber to mobile services. Such keen
interest in both industries is prompting user demand for converged services. With more
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than a billion Internet users expected by 2008, the potential market for Internet-related
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wireless data services is quite large. In this chapter, we discuss briefl y 1G, 2G, 2.5G, and
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3G cellular systems and outline the ongoing standard activities in Europe, North
America, and Japan. We also introduce broadband (4G) systems (see Figure 1.2) aimed
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on integrating WWAN, WLAN, and WPAN. Details of WWAN, WLAN, and WPAN are
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given in Chapters 15 to 20.

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First- and Second-Generation Cellular Systems

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The fi rst- and second-generation cellular systems are the WWAN. The fi rst public
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cellular telephone system (fi rst-generation, 1G), called Advanced Mobile Phone System
(AMPS) [8,21], was introduced in 1979 in the United States. During the early 1980s,
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several incompatible cellular systems (TACS, NMT, C450, etc.) were introduced in
Western Europe. The deployment of these incompatible systems

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resulted in mobile phones being designed for one system that could not be used with
another system, and roaming between the many countries of Europe was not possible.
The first-generation systems were designed for voice applications. Analog frequency
modulation (FM) technology was used for radio transmission.
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The GSM (renamed Global System for Mobile communications) initiative gave the
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European mobile communications industry a home market of about 300 million

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subscribers, but at the same time provided it with a signifi cant technical challenge. The
early years of the GSM were devoted mainly to the selection of radio technologies for the
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air interface. In 1986, fi eld trials of different candidate systems proposed for the GSM
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air interface were conducted in Paris. A set of criteria ranked in the order of importance
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was established to assess these candidates

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Two digital technologies, Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA) (see Chapter 6 for details) [10] emerged as clear choices for
the newer PCS systems. TDMA is a narrowband technology in which communication
channels on a carrier frequency are apportioned by time slots. For TDMA technology,
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there are three prevalent 2G systems: North America TIA/ EIA/IS-136, Japanese Personal
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Digital Cellular (PDC), and European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
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Digital Cellular System 1800 (GSM 1800), a derivative of GSM. Another 2G system
based on CDMA (TIA/EIA/IS-95) is a direct sequence (DS) spread spectrum (SS) system
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in which the entire bandwidth of the carrier channel is made available to each user
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simultaneously (see Chapter 11 for details). The bandwidth is many times larger than the
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bandwidth required to transmit the basic information. CDMA systems are limited by
interference produced by the signals of other users transmitting within the same
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bandwidth GSM is moving forward to develop cutting-edge, customer-focused solutions

to meet the challenges of the 21st century and 3G mobile services. When GSM was fi rst
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designed, no one could have predicted the dramatic growth of the Internet and the rising
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demand for multimedia services. These developments have brought about new challenges
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to the world of GSM. For GSM operators, the emphasis is now rapidly changing from
that of instigating and driving the development of technology to fundamentally enable
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mobile data transmission to that of improving speed, quality, simplicity, coverage, and
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reliability in terms of tools and services that will boost mass market take-up.
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Traffic Usage:
A traffi c path is a communication channel, time slot, frequency band, line, trunk, switch,
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or circuit over which individual communications take place in sequence. Traffi c usage is
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defi ned by two parameters, calling rate and call holding.

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Calling rate, or the number of times a route or traffi c path is used per unit time; more
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properly defi ned, the call intensity (i.e., calls per hour) per traffic c path during busy
hour.

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Call holding time: or the average duration of occupancy of a traffi c path by a call. The
carried traffi c is the volume of traffi c actually carried by a switch, and offered traffi c is
the volume of traffi c offered to a switch. The offered load is the sum of the carried load
and overfl ow (traffi c that cannot be handled by the switch).
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Figure shows a typical hour-by-hour voice traffi c variation for an MSC. We notice that
the busiest period — the busy hour (BH) is between 10 A.M. and 11 A.M. We define the
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busy hour as the span of time (not necessarily a clock hour) that has the highest average
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traffic load for the business day throughout the busy season. The peak hour is defined as
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the clock hour with highest traffic load for a single day. Since traffi c also varies from
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month to month, we define the average busy season (ABS) as the three months (not
necessarily consecutive) with the highest average BH traffic load per access line.
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Telephone systems are not engineered for maximum peak loads, but for some typical BH
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load. The blocking probability is defined as the average ratio of blocked calls to total
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calls and is referred to as the GoS.

Diversity
In a radio channel, it is subjected to fading, time dispersion, and other degradations.
Diversity techniques are employed to overcome these impairments and improve signal

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quality. The basic concept of diversity is that the receiver has more than one version of
the transmitted signal available, and each version of transmitted signal is received
through a distinct channel. When several versions of the signal, carrying the same
information, are received over multiple channels that exhibit independent fading with
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comparable strengths, the chances that all the independently faded signal components
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experience the same fading simultaneously are greatly reduced. Suppose the probability
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of having a loss of communications due to fading on one channel is p and this probability
is independent on all M channels. The probability of losing communications on all
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channels simultaneously is then pM. Thus, a 10% chance of losing the signal for one
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channel is reduced to 0.13 _ 0.001 _ 0.1% with three independently fading channels
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[5,17]. Typically, the diversity receiver is used in the base station instead of the mobile
station, because the cost of the diversity combiner can be high, especially if multiple
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receivers are necessary. Also, the power output of the mobile station is limited by the
battery. Handset transmitters usually lower power than mobilemounted transmitters to
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preserve battery life and reduce radiation into the human body. The base station,
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however, can increase its power output or antenna height to improve the coverage to a
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mobile station.
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Each of the channels, plus the corresponding receiver circuit, is called a branch and the
outputs of the channels are processed and routed to the demodulator by a diversity
combiner (see Figure 10.5). Two criteria are required to achieve a high degree of
improvement from a diversity system. First, the fading in individual branches should
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have low cross correlation. Second, the mean power available from each branch should
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be almost equal. If the cross-correlation is too high, then fades in each branch will occur
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simultaneously. On the other hand, if the branches have low correlation but have very
different mean powers, then the signal in a weaker branch may not be useful even though
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it has less fades than the other branches.

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Types of Diversity
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The following methods are used to obtain uncorrelated signals for combining:
1. Space diversity: Two antennas separated physically by a short distance d can provide
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two signals with low correlation between their fades. The separation d in general varies
with antenna height h and with frequency. The higher the frequency, the closer the two
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antennas can be to each other. Typically, a separation of a few wavelengths is enough to

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obtain uncorrelated signals. Taking into account the shadowing effect (see Chapter 3),
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usually a separation of at least 10 carrier wavelengths is required between two adjacent

antennas. This diversity does not require extra system capacity; however, the cost is the
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extra antennas needed.

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2. Frequency diversity: Signals received on two frequencies, separated by coherence

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bandwidth (see Chapter 3) are uncorrelated. To use frequency diversity in an urban or

suburban environment for cellular and personal communications services (PCS)
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frequencies, the frequency separation must be 300 kHz or more. This diversity improves
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link transmission quality at the cost of extra frequency bandwidths.

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3. Time diversity: If the identical signals are transmitted in different time slots, the
received signals will be uncorrelated, provided the time difference between time slots is
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more than the channel coherence time (see Chapter 3). This system will work for an
environment where the fading occurs independent of the movement of the receiver. In a
mobile radio environment, the mobile unit may be at a standstill at any location that has a

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weak local mean or is caught in a fade. Although fading still occurs even when the
mobile is still, the time-delayed signals are correlated and time diversity will not reduce
the fades. In addition to extra system capacity (in terms of transmission time) due to the
redundant transmission, this diversity introduces a signifi cant signal processing delay,
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especially when the channel coherence time is large. In practice, time diversity is more
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frequently used through bit interleaving, forward-error-correction, and automatic
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retransmission request (ARQ).
4. Polarization diversity: The horizontal and vertical polarization components
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transmitted by two polarized antennas at the base station and received by two polarized
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antennas at the mobile station can provide two uncorrelated fading signals. Polarization
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diversity results in 3 dB power reduction at the transmitting site since the power must be
split into two different polarized antennas.
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5. Angle diversity: When the operating frequency is _10 GHz, the scattering of signals
from transmitter to receiver generates received signals from different directions that are
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uncorrelated with each other. Thus, two or more directional antennas can be pointed in
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different directions at the receiving site and provide signals for a combiner. This scheme
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is more effective at the mobile station than at the base station since the scattering is from
local buildings and vegetation and is more pronounced at street level than at the height of
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base station antennas. Angle diversity can be viewed

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as a special case of space diversity since it also requires multiple antennas.

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6. Path diversity: In code division multiple access (CDMA) systems, the use of direct
sequence spread spectrum modulation allows the desired signal to be transmitted over a
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frequency bandwidth much larger than the channel coherence bandwidth. The spread
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spectrum signal can resolve in multipath signal components provided the path delays are
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separated by at least one chip period. A Rake receiver can separate the received signal
components from different propagation paths by using code correlation and can then
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combine them constructively. In CDMA, exploiting the path diversity reduces the
transmitted power needed and increases the system capacity by reducing interference.

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1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Objective
 To know the frequency allocated to particular bands.
References
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1. Kaveh Pahlavan- Prashant Krishnamurthy “Principles of Wireless Networks”-
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Pearson Education- Delhi- 2002 and PHI- 2005.
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The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies

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of electromagnetic radiation. The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object has a different

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meaning, and is instead the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation

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emitted or absorbed by that particular object.

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The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the low frequencies used for
modern radio communication to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength (high-
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frequency) end, thereby covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to

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a fraction of the size of an atom. The limit for long wavelengths is the size of
the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of
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the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.
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Most parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are used in science for spectroscopic and
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other probing interactions, as ways to study and characterize matter.[3] In addition,

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radiation from various parts of the spectrum has found many other uses for
communications and manufacturing (see electromagnetic radiation for more
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applications).
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Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical
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properties: the frequency f, wavelength λ, or photon energy E. Frequencies observed in

astronomy range from 2.4×1023 Hz (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma
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frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely

proportional to the wave frequency.

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FRThe Electromagnetic Spectrum

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The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.

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5
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so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms,
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whereas wavelengths can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly

proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy

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(around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around
a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:
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where:
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
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c = 299,792,458 m/s is the speed of light in vacuum and
 h = 6.62606896(33)×10−34 J s = 4.13566733(10)×10−15 eV s is Planck's constant.[7]
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Whenever electromagnetic waves exist in a medium with matter, their wavelength is

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decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they

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are traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength,
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although this is not always explicitly stated.

Generally, electromagnetic radiation is classified by wavelength into radio

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wave, microwave, terahertz (or sub-millimeter) radiation,infrared, the visible

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region we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behavior of EM
radiation depends on its wavelength. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms
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and molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of energy per quantum
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(photon) it carries.
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Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible
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range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect

wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical
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properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device.
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Spectroscopes are widely used in astrophysics. For example,

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many hydrogenatoms emit a radio wave photon that has a wavelength of 21.12 cm.
Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below can be produced by and are important in the
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study of certain stellar nebulae and frequencies as high as 2.9×1027 Hz have been
detected from astrophysical sources.

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1.3 Radio Propagation Mechanisms

Objective
 To describe refraction. Reflection, scattering, shadowing and diffraction.
References
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1. C- Siva Ram Murthy and B- S- Manoj “Ad Hoc Wireless Networks Architectures
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and Protocols”- Pearson Education -2nd Edition -Delhi -2004.
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Exponential growth of mobile communications has increased interest in many topics in

radio propagation. Much effort is now devoted to refi ne radio propagation path-loss
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models for urban, suburban, and other environments together with substantiation by fi eld
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data. Radio propagation in urban areas is quite complex because it often consists of refl
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ected and diffracted waves produced by multipath propagation. Radio propagation in

open areas free from obstacles is the simplest to treat, but, in general, propagation over
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the earth and the water invokes at least one refl ected wave. For closed areas such as
indoors, tunnels, and underground passages, no established models have been developed
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as yet, since the environment has a complicated structure. However, when the
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environmental structure is random, the Rayleigh model used for urban area propagation
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may be applied.
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When the propagation path is on line of sight, as in tunnel and underground passages, the
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environment may be treated either by the Rician model or waveguide theory. Direct wave
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models may be used for propagation in a corridor. In general, radio wave propagation
consists of three main attributes: reflection, diffraction and scattering. Reflection occurs
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when radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium with
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different electromagnetic properties.

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The amplitude and phase of the reflected wave are strongly related to the medium’s
instrinsic impedance, incident angle, and electric field polarization. Part of the radio wave

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energy may be absorbed or propagated through the reflecting medium, resulting in a

reflected wave that is attenuated. Diffraction is a phenomenon by which propagating
radio waves bend or deviate in the neighborhood of obstacles.
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Radio propagation
 Radio waves can be propagated and receiving power is influenced
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in different ways:
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• Direct transmission (path loss, fading dependent on frequency)

• Reflection at large obstacles
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• Refraction through different media

• Scattering at small obstacles
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• Diffraction at edges
• shadowing
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 Propagation in free space is always like light (straight line).

 Receiving power proportional to 1/d² (d = distance between sender
and receiver)
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shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction 11

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Diffraction results from the propagation of wavelets into a shadowy region caused by
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obstructions such as walls, buildings, mountains, and so on. Scattering occurs when a
radio signal hits a rough surface or an object having a size much smaller than or on the
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order of the signal wavelength.

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This causes the Signal energy to spread out in all directions. Scattering can be viewed at
the receiver as another radio wave source. Typical scattering objects are furniture, lamp
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posts, street signs, and foliage. In this chapter, our focus is to characterize the radio
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channel and identify those parameters which distort the information-carrying signal (i.e.,
base band signal) as it penetrates the propagation medium. The several empirical models
used for calculating path-loss are also discussed.

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1.4 Wireless LANs and PANs

Objective

 To describe the Wireless Local Area Networks and Personal Area Networks and
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its applications.
References
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1. C- Siva Ram Murthy and B- S- Manoj “Ad Hoc Wireless Networks Architectures
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and Protocols”- Pearson Education -2nd Edition -Delhi -2004.

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Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is not connected by cables
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of any kind. It is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and enterprise

(business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or
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as a connection between various equipment locations.[1] Wireless telecommunications

networks are generally implemented and administered usingradio communication. This
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implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI model network
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structure
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Wireless LAN standards will also play an important role in the evolution of personal
communications. They are expected to cover local areas, generate pico-cells and provide
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interconnectivity between Wireless PANs and broadband wireless/mobile networks.

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Moreover, Wireless LANs in cooperation with higher layer protocols standardization

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efforts are expected to solve the interoperability problems and offer an unprecedented
opportunity to increase the networking customer base beyond the satiated corporate
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environment. In this section, we highlight the most important, mature and evolving
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Wireless LAN (WLAN) standards.

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A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance
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using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access

point for Internet access. The use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow

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users to move around within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the
network.

Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand
name. Fixed wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or
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networks at two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser
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light beams over line of sight paths. It is often used in cities to connect networks in two
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or more buildings without installing a wired link.
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Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively small
area, that is generally within a person's reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and
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invisible infrared light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop.

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ZigBee also supports WPAN applications. Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace as
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equipment designers start to integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic

devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi
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PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure

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A Wireless PAN is a human centered network, connecting personal communication

devices in a spontaneous architecture, within a short-range, ‘‘personal’’ or ‘‘body’’
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space. Data may be exchanged between devices carried by the same person (e.g. phone,
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watch, PDA), between persons while in contact (e.g. during handshaking, business cards
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may be exchanged) or between the user and the environment (e.g. the car may recognize
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its driver, and start the engine). Various technologies have been proposed for PAN
networks.. The dominant communication method is the RF technology and Bluetooth is
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the ad hoc standard. IEEE has started standardizing the Wireless PANs technologies in
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the IEEE 802.15 working group. In more details, the IEEE 802.15 has defined the
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following working subgroups:

1. 802.15.1, which is almost identical to Bluetooth standard;
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2. 802.15.2, which works towards overcoming the interference between 802.11

WLANs and PANs
operating at the 2.4-GHz band;

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3. 802.15.3, which provides higher data rates ad hoc networks; and

4. 802.15.4, which studies lower data rate and lower
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1.5 IEEE 802.11 standard and HiPERLAN

Objective
 To describe the IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN) standard and HiPERLAN.
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References
 C- Siva Ram Murthy and B- S- Manoj “Ad Hoc Wireless Networks Architectures
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and Protocols”- Pearson Education -2nd Edition -Delhi -2004.
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Wireless LAN:
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The physical layer in a LAN deals with the actual physical transmission medium used for
communication.
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a. Some commonly used physical media: twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical
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fiber, and radio waves.

 In IEEE 802 Logical Link Control (LLC) forms the upper half of the data link
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layer. Medium access control (MAC) forms the lower sublayer.

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a. error-controlled, flow-controlled
b. Adds an LLC header, containing sequence and acknowledgement numbers.
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 LLC provides three service options:

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c. Unreliable datagram service

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d. Acknowledged datagram service

e. Reliable connection-oriented service
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 A wireless LAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a local area network
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(LAN) through a wireless (radio) connection.

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 A standard, IEEE 802.11, specifies the technologies for wireless LANs.

 It is designed to work in two modes:
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a. In the presence of a base station: access point

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b. In the absence of a base station: ad hoc networking

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 Physical Layer
a. It supports three different physical layers:
i. Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

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ii. Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

iii. Infrared
b. Clear channel assessment (CCA): It provides mechanisms for sensing the
wireless channel and determine whether or not it is idle.
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 MAC Sublayer follows carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
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(CSMA/CA).
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802.11 (WiFi)
WiFi is a common wireless technology used by home owners, small businesses, and
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starting ISPs. WiFi devices are available “off the shelf” from computer stores, and
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enhanced WiFi devices are designed for ISP use. Advantages of WiFi are as follows:
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Ubiquitous and vendor neutral; any WiFi device will work with another regardless of the
manufacturer. Affordable cost. Hackable; many “hacks” exist to extend the range and
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performance of a WiFi network.

Disadvantages are as follows:
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Designed for LANs, not wide area networking (WAN).

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Uses the CSMA mechanism. Only one wireless station can “talk” at a time, meaning one
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user can potentially hog all of the network’s resources.

Applications such as video conferencing, Voice-Over Internet Protocol (VOIP), and
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multimedia can take down a network.

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HIPERLAN
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HiperLAN (High Performance Radio LAN) is a Wireless LAN standard.[1] It is

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a European alternative for the IEEE 802.11 standards (theIEEE is an international

organization). It is defined by the European Telecommunications Standards
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Institute (ETSI). In ETSI the standards are defined by the BRAN project (Broadband
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Radio Access Networks). The HiperLAN standard family has four different versions.
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Planning for the first version of the standard, called HiperLAN/1, started 1991, when
planning of 802.11 was already going on. The goal of the HiperLAN was the high data

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rate, higher than 802.11. The standard was approved in 1996. The functional specification
is EN300652, the rest is in ETS300836.

The standard covers the Physical layer and the Media Access Control part of the Data
link layer like 802.11. There is a new sublayer called Channel Access and Control
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sublayer (CAC). This sublayer deals with the access requests to the channels. The
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accomplishing of the request is dependent on the usage of the channel and the priority of
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the request.
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CAC layer provides hierarchical independence with Elimination-Yield Non-Preemptive

Multiple Access mechanism (EY-NPMA). EY-NPMA codes priority choices and other
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functions into one variable length radio pulse preceding the packet data. EY-NPMA
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enables the network to function with few collisions even though there would be a large
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number of users. Multimedia applications work in HiperLAN because of EY-NPMA

priority mechanism. MAC layer defines protocols for routing, security and power saving
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and provides naturally data transfer to the upper layers.

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On the physical layer FSK and GMSK modulations are used in HiperLAN/1.
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HiperLAN features:
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 range 50 m
IN

 slow mobility (1.4 m/s)


G

supports asynchronous and synchronous traffic

 sound 32 kbit/s, 10 ns latency
CO

 video 2 Mbit/s, 100 ns latency

LL

 data 10 Mbit/s
EG

HiperLAN does not conflict with microwave and other kitchen appliances, which are on
E

2.4 GHz. HiperLAN/2 functional specification was accomplished February 2000. Version
2 is designed as a fast wireless connection for many kinds of networks. Those
are UMTS back bone network, ATM and IP networks. Also it works as a network at
home like HiperLAN/1. HiperLAN/2 uses the 5 GHz band and up to 54 Mbit/s data rate.

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The physical layer of HiperLAN/2 is very similar to IEEE 802.11a wireless local area
networks. However, the media access control (the multiple access protocol) is Dynamic
TDMA in HiperLAN/2, while CSMA/CA is used in 802.11a.

Basic services in HiperLAN/2 are data, sound, and video transmission. The emphasis is
FR
in the quality of these services (QoS).[1]
AN

The standard covers Physical, Data Link Control and Convergence layers. Convergence
CI

layer takes care of service dependent functionality between DLC and Network layer (OSI
S

3). Convergence sublayers can be used also on the physical layer to connect IP, ATM or
UMTS networks. This feature makes HiperLAN/2 suitable for the wireless connection of
XA

various networks. On the physical layer BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM or 64QAM modulations
VI

are used.
ER

HiperLAN/2 offers security measures. The data are secured with DES or Triple
DES algorithms. The wireless access point and the wireless terminal
EN

can authenticate each other.

GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E

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 www.francisxavier.ac.in

1.6 Bluetooth
Objective
 To describe the IEEE 802.15 (Bluetooth) and its specifications.
References
FR
1. William Stallings- “Wireless Communication and Networks”- Pearson Education-
AN
Delhi- 2002
CI

Bluetooth is a high-speed, low-power, microwave wireless link technology designed to

S

connect phones, laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and other portable equipment
XA

with little or no work by the user. Unlike infrared, Bluetooth does not require line-of-
sight positioning of connected units. The technology uses modifications of existing
VI

wireless LAN techniques but is most notable for its small size and low cost. Whenever
ER

any Bluetooth-enabled devices come within range of each other, they instantly transfer
address information and establish small networks between each other, without the user
EN

being involved.
GI

Features of Bluetooth technology are as follows:

 Operates in the 2.56 gigahertz (GHz) ISM band, which is globally available (no
NE

license required)
ER

 Uses Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

IN

 Can support up to eight devices in a small network known as a “piconet”

 Omnidirectional, nonline-of-sight transmission through walls 10 m to 100 m range
G

 Low cost
CO

 1 mw power
LL

 Extended range with external power amplifier (100 meters)

EG

Bluetooth and IrDA are both critical to the marketplace. Each technology has advantages
and drawbacks, and neither can meet all users’ needs. Bluetooth’s ability to penetrate
E

solid objects and its capability for maximum mobility within the piconet allow for data
exchange applications that are very difficult or impossible with IrDA. For example, with
Bluetooth, a person could synchronize his or her

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phone with a personal computer (PC) without taking the phone out of a pocket or purse;
this is not possible with IrDA. The omnidirectional capability of Bluetooth allows
synchronization to start when the phone is brought into range of the PC. On the other
hand, in applications involving one-to-one data exchange, IrDA is at an advantage.
FR
Consider an application where there are many people sitting across
AN
a table in a meeting. Electronic cards can be exchanged between any two people by
CI
pointing their IrDA devices toward each other (because of the directional nature). In
contrast, because Bluetooth is omnidirectional in nature, the Bluetooth device will detect
S

all similar devices in the room and the user would have to select the intended person
XA

from, say, a list provided by the Bluetooth device. On the security front, Bluetooth
VI

provides security mechanisms which are not present in IrDA.

ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E

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 www.francisxavier.ac.in

1.7 HomeRF
Objective

 To describe the Home RF and its requirements

FR
References
AN
1. William Stallings- “Wireless Communication and Networks”- Pearson Education-
CI
Delhi- 2002
S

HomeRF is a subset of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and primarily

XA

works on the development of a standard for inexpensive radio frequency (RF) voice and
VI

data communication. The HomeRF Working Group has also developed the Shared
Wireless Access Protocol (SWAP). SWAP is an industry specification that permits PCs,
ER

peripherals, cordless telephones, and other devices to communicate voice and data
without the use of cables. SWAP is similar to the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
EN

Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocol of

GI

IEEE 802.11 but with an extension to voice traffic. The SWAP system can operate either
NE

as an ad hoc network or as an infrastructure network under the control of a connection

point. In an ad hoc network, all stations are peers, and control is distributed between the
ER

stations and supports only data. In an infrastructure network, a connection point is

IN

required so as to coordinate the system, and it provides the gateway to the public
G

switched telephone network (PSTN). Walls and floors do not cause any problems in its
functionality, and some security is also provided through the use of unique network IDs.
CO

It is robust and reliable, and minimizes the impact of radio interference.

LL

Features of HomeRF are as follows:

EG

Operates in the 2.45 GHz range of the unlicensed ISM band.

Range: up to 150 feet.
E

Employs frequency hopping at 50 hops per second.

It supports both a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) service to provide delivery of
interactive voice and a CSMA/CA service for delivery of high-speed data packets.

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The network is capable of supporting up to 127 nodes.

Transmission power: 100mW.
Data rate: 1 Mbps using 2 frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulation and
2 Mbps using 4 FSK modulation.
FR
Voice connections: up to 6 full duplex conversations.
AN
Data security: blowfish encryption algorithm (over 1 trillion codes).
CI
Data compression: Lempel-Ziv Ross Williams 3 (LZRW3)-A Algorithm.
Comparison of Bluetooth with Shared
S

Wireless Access Protocol (SWAP)

XA

Currently SWAP has a larger installed base compared to Bluetooth, but it is believed that
VI

Bluetooth is eventually going to prevail. Bluetooth is a technology to connect devices

without cables. The intended use is to provide short-range connections between mobile
ER

devices and to the Internet via bridging devices to different networks (wired and wireless)
that provide Internet capability. HomeRF SWAP is a wireless technology optimized for
EN

the home environment. Its primary use is to provide data networking and dial tones
GI

between devices such as PCs, cordless phones, Web tablets, and a broadband cable or
NE

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modem. Both technologies share the same frequency
spectrum but do not interfere with each other when operating in the same space. As far as
ER

comparison with IrDA is concerned, SWAP is closer to Bluetooth in its scope and
IN

domain, so the comparison between Bluetooth and IrDA holds good to a large extent
G

between these two also.

CO
LL
EG
E

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 www.francisxavier.ac.in

1.8 Wireless Sensor Networks

Objective

 To describe the Wireless Sensor Networks and its applications.

FR
References
AN
1. C- Siva Ram Murthy and B- S- Manoj “Ad Hoc Wireless Networks Architectures
CI
and Protocols”- Pearson Education -2nd Edition -Delhi -2004.
S

A wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of spatially

distributed autonomous sensors to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such
XA

as temperature, sound,pressure, etc. and to cooperatively pass their data through the
VI

network to a main location. The more modern networks are bi-directional, also
ER

enabling control of sensor activity. The development of wireless sensor networks was
motivated by military applications such as battlefield surveillance; today such networks
EN

are used in many industrial and consumer applications, such as industrial process
GI

monitoring and control, machine health monitoring, and so on.

The WSN is built of "nodes" – from a few to several hundreds or even thousands, where
NE

each node is connected to one (or sometimes several) sensors. Each such sensor network
ER

node has typically several parts: a radio transceiver with an internal antenna or
IN

connection to an external antenna, a microcontroller, an electronic circuit for interfacing

G

with the sensors and an energy source, usually a battery or an embedded form of energy
harvesting. A sensor node might vary in size from that of a shoebox down to the size of a
CO

grain of dust, although functioning "motes" of genuine microscopic dimensions have yet
LL

to be created. The cost of sensor nodes is similarly variable, ranging from a few to
EG

hundreds of dollars, depending on the complexity of the individual sensor nodes. Size
and cost constraints on sensor nodes result in corresponding constraints on resources such
E

as energy, memory, computational speed and communications bandwidth. The topology

of the WSNs can vary from a simple star network to an advanced multi-hop wireless

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mesh network. The propagation technique between the hops of the network can be
routing or flooding.

In computer science and telecommunications, wireless sensor networks are an active

research area with numerous workshops and conferences arranged each year.
FR

The main characteristics of a WSN include

AN
CI
 Power consumption constrains for nodes using batteries or energy harvesting
 Ability to cope with node failures
S

 Mobility of nodes
XA

 Communication failures
VI

 Heterogeneity of nodes
ER

 Scalability to large scale of deployment

 Ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions
EN

 Ease of use
GI

 Power consumption

Sensor nodes can be imagined as small computers, extremely basic in terms of their
NE

interfaces and their components. They usually consist of a processing unit with limited
ER

computational power and limited memory, sensors or MEMS (including specific

IN

conditioning circuitry), a communication device (usually radio transceivers or

G

alternatively optical), and a power source usually in the form of a battery. Other possible
inclusions are energy harvesting modules, secondary ASICs, and possibly secondary
CO

communication devices (e.g. RS-232 or USB).

LL

The base stations are one or more components of the WSN with much more
EG

computational, energy and communication resources. They act as a gateway between

E

sensor nodes and the end user as they typically forward data from the WSN on to a
server. Other special components in routing based networks are routers, designed to
compute, calculate and distribute the routing tables.

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1.9 Optical Wireless Networks

Objective

 To describe the optical wireless networks and network unit,

FR
References
AN
1. C- Siva Ram Murthy and B- S- Manoj “Ad Hoc Wireless Networks Architectures
CI
and Protocols”- Pearson Education -2nd Edition -Delhi -2004.
S

An optical network unit (ONU) is a device that transforms incoming optical signals
into electronics at a customer's premises in order to provide telecommunications services
XA

over an optical fiber network.

VI

An ONU is a generic term denoting a device that terminates any one of the endpoints of
ER

a fiber to the premises network, implements apassive optical network (PON) protocol,
and adapts PON PDUs to subscriber service interfaces.[1] In some contexts, an ONU
EN

implies a multiple subscriber device. An optical network terminal (ONT) is a special case
GI

of an ONU that serves a single subscriber.

NE

An ONU closure is a mechanical compartment that houses the ONU equipment. The
outer closure faces the outside environment and provides physical, mechanical, and
ER

environmental protection for cable (fiber and copper) components or equipment housed
IN

within it.
G

An ONU system consists of a closure that is a metallic or non-metallic enclosure that

CO

provides physical and environmental protection for the active electronic, optoelectronics,
and passive optical components it houses. It terminates optical fibers from the ODN and
LL

processes the signals to and from the Customer Premises Equipment (CPE). It is the NE
EG

that provides the tariffed telecommunications as well as video service interfaces for
E

multiple residential and small business customers.

Services on the customer side of the ONU are communicated over metallic twisted pairs
and coaxial cable drops (in the future, possibly fiber cable or wireless) to a Network

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Interface (NI) where they are handed off to the customer’s network (usually, inside
wiring). Depending on the deployment strategy, the ONU closure may provide one or
more of the following additional features:
FR
1. Access to the fiber distribution cable
AN
2. Management of slack fiber and fiber splices
3. Access to the Telephone Support Cable (TSC) for the purpose of powering the
CI

ONU
S

4. Prevention of unauthorized entry.

XA

Primary power for ONUs is derived from either an external DC or an external AC power
VI

source. Back-up power for ONUs can either be derived from an external power source or
be internal to the ONU closure and be provided by the FITL system supplier. Primary
ER

power and external back-up power can be delivered to ONUs over either copper twisted
pairs or coaxial cable facilities. These cable facilities are commonly referred to as the
EN

TSC.
GI

Deployment of an ONU system requires access to the fiber distribution cable, TSC, and
NE

metallic customer drop wires. When access to these cables is provided internal to the
ER

ONU closure (i.e., by looping each cable through the closure), it is necessary that the
ONU closure also provide splicing and storage facilities for each of these cables.
IN

Telcordia GR-950, Generic Requirements for Optical Network Unit (ONU) Closures and
G

ONU Systems, contains complete proposed specifications for the ONU closures and
CO

systems.
LL
EG
E

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 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
AN
CI
S
XA
VI
Wireless Networks
ER
EN
- Introduction
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E 1

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
AN
CI
Synopsis

S
XA
VI
ER
 Fundamentals of Wireless  Bluetooth
Communication Technology

EN
 Home RF

GI
 Electromagnetic spectrum  Wireless Sensor Networks

NE
 Radio propagation  Optical wireless networks
ER
mechanisms
 Characteristics of the wireless IN
G
channel CO
 IEEE 802.11 Standard LL
EG
 HIPERLAN standard E 2

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Fundamentals

FR
AN
CI
 A computer network is an interconnected

S
collection of autonomous computers.

XA
VI
 Networking Goals:

ER
• Resource sharing - e.g., shared printer, shared files.

EN
• Increased reliability - e.g., one failure does not cause
GI
NE
system failure.
ER
• Economics - e.g., better price/performance ratio.
IN
• Communication - e.g., e-mail. G
CO
LL
EG
E 3

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Fundamentals of Wireless Communication

FR
 Two aspects of mobility:

AN
CI
• User mobility: users communicate (wireless) “anytime, anywhere, with
anyone”

S
• Device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the

XA
network

VI
 Wireless vs. mobile Examples

ER
  stationary (wired and fixed) computer
  notebook in a hotel

EN
  wireless LANs in historic buildings

GI
  Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

NE
 The demand for mobile communication creates the need for

ER
integration of wireless networks into existing fixed networks:
IN
• Local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11,
G
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) (HIPERLAN -
CO
combined technology for broadband cellular short-range communications
and wireless Local Area Networks (LANs) ) LL
• Internet: Mobile IP extension of the Internet Protocol IP
EG
• Wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN
E
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

FR
AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.
E 5

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Electromagnetic spectrum

FR
AN
twisted coax cable optical transmission

CI
pair

S
1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m

XA
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VI
ER
ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

EN
ELF = Extremely Low Frequency (30 ~ 300 Hz) UHF = Ultra High Frequency (300 MHz ~ 3GHz)
VF = Voice Frequency (300 ~ 3000 Hz) SHF = Super High Frequency (3 ~ 30 GHz)

GI
VLF = Very Low Frequency (3 ~ 30 KHz) EHF = Extremely High Frequency (30 ~ 300GHz)

NE
LF = Low Frequency (30 ~ 300 KHz) Infrared (300 GHz ~ 400 THz)

ER
MF = Medium Frequency (300 ~ 3000 KHz) Visible Light (400 THz ~ 900 THz)
HF = High Frequency (3 ~ 30 MHz) UV = Ultraviolet Light (900 THz ~ 1016 Hz)

IN
VHF = Very High Frequency (30 ~ 3000 MHz) X-ray (1016 ~ 1022 Hz)

G
Gamma ray (1022 Hz ~)

CO
Frequency and wave length:  = c/f LL
wave length , speed of light c  3x108m/s, frequency f
EG
E 6

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Electromagnetic spectrum

FR
AN
 The Electromagnetic spectrum is used for information

CI
S
transmission by modulating the amplitude, frequency, or phase

XA
of the waves.

VI
 VLF, LF, and MF are called as ground waves.

ER
• Transmission range up to a hundred kilometers

EN
• Used for AM radio broadcasting

GI
 HF and VHF

NE
• The sky wave may get reflected several times between the Earth and the

ER
ionosphere.

IN
• Used by amateur ham radio operators and for military communication.
 VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio G
• simple, small antenna for cars CO
LL
• deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
EG
E 7

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Radio Transmission

FR
AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the
CO
curvature of the earth. LL
EG
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
E 8

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Electromagnetic spectrum

FR
 SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication

AN
• small antenna, focusing

CI
• Microwave transmissions travel in straight lines.

S
• High signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

XA
• Line-of-sight alignment is required.

VI
• large bandwidth available

ER
 Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
• some systems planned up to EHF

EN
• limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance

GI
frequencies)

NE
– weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.

ER
 Infrared waves and waves in the EHF band are used for short-range

IN
communication.
G
• Widely used in television, VCR, stereo remote controls
 Visible light CO
• Used in the optical fiber LL
• Laser can be used to connect LANs on two buildings but can travel limited
EG
distance and cannot penetrate through rain or thick fog. E 9

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Spectrum Allocation

FR
AN
Europe USA Japan

CI
Cellular GSM 450-457, 479- AM PS, TDM A, CDM A PDC
Phones 486/460-467,489- 824-849, 810-826,

S
496, 890-915/935- 869-894 940-956,
960, TDM A, CDM A, GSM 1429-1465,

XA
1710-1785/1805- 1850-1910, 1477-1513
1880 1930-1990

VI
UM TS (FDD) 1920-
1980, 2110-2190

ER
UM TS (TDD) 1900-
1920, 2020-2025
Cordless CT1+ 885-887, 930- PACS 1850-1910, 1930- PHS

EN
Phones 932 1990 1895-1918

GI
CT2 PACS-UB 1910-1930 JCT
864-868 254-380

NE
DECT
1880-1900

ER
W ireless IEEE 802.11 902-928 IEEE 802.11
LANs 2400-2483 IEEE 802.11 2471-2497

IN
HIPERLAN 2 2400-2483 5150-5250
5150-5350, 5470- 5150-5350, 5725-5825

G
5725
Others RF-Control RF-Control RF-Control

CO
27, 128, 418, 433, 315, 915 426, 868
868
LL
ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands EG
E
worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences) 10

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Radio propagation

FR
AN
 Radio waves can be propagated and receiving power is influenced

CI
in different ways:

S
• Direct transmission (path loss, fading dependent on frequency)

XA
• Reflection at large obstacles

VI
• Refraction through different media

ER
• Scattering at small obstacles
• Diffraction at edges

EN
• shadowing

GI
 Propagation in free space is always like light (straight line).
NE
ER
 Receiving power proportional to 1/d² (d = distance between sender

IN
and receiver)
G
CO
LL
EG
shadowing reflection refraction scattering
E diffraction 11

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Characteristics of the Wireless Channel

FR
AN
 Path loss: the ratio of the power of the transmitted signal to the

CI
power of the same signal received by the receiver.

S
• Free space model: Assume there is only a direct-path between the transmitter

XA
and the receiver.

VI
• Two-way model: Assume there is a light-of-sight path and the other path

ER
through reflection, refraction, or scattering between the transmitter and the
receiver

EN
GI
• Isotropic antennas (in which the power of the transmitted signal is the same
in all direction): The receiving power varies inversely to the distance of

NE
power of 2 to 5.

ER
 Fading: fluctuations in signal strength when received at the
IN
G
receiver.
CO
• Fast fading/small-scale fading: rapid fluctuations in the amplitude, phase, or
multipath delays. LL
EG
• Slow fading/large-scale fading (shadow fading): objects that absorb the
E
transmissions lie between the transmitter and receiver. 12

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Characteristics of the Wireless Channel

FR
AN
 Measures used for countering the effects of fading are diversity

CI
and adaptive modulation.

S
• Diversity modulation:

XA
• Time diversity: spread the data over time.

VI
• Frequency diversity: spread the transmission over frequencies. Example:

ER
the direct sequence spread spectrum and the frequency hopping spread

EN
spectrum.

GI
• Space diversity: use different physical transmission paths. An antenna

NE
array could be used.

ER
• Adaptive modulation: the transmitter adjusts the transmission based on the

IN
feedback from the receiver.

G
• Complex to implement
CO
LL
EG
E 13

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Characteristics of the Wireless Channel

FR
AN
 Interference

CI
• Adjacent channel interference: interfered by signals in nearby frequencies.

S
Solved by the guard bands.

XA
• Co-channel interference: narrow-band interference due to other systems
using the same frequency. Solved by multiuser detection machenisms,

VI
directional antennas, and dynamic channel allocation methods.

ER
• Inter-symbol interference: distortion in the received signal caused by the

EN
temporal spreading and the consequent (neighbor) overlapping of individual
pulses in the signal. Solved by adaptive equalization that involves

GI
mechanisms for gathering the dispersed symbol energy into its original time

NE
interval.

ER
 Doppler Shift
IN
• The change/shift in the frequency of the received signal when the transmitter
and the receiver are mobile to each other.
G
CO
• Moving towards each other, the frequency will be higher; two moving away,
the frequency will be lower. LL
EG
E 14

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Multipath propagation

FR
AN
 Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver

CI
S
due to reflection, scattering, diffraction.

XA
 Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

VI
 interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol

ER
Interference (ISI)

EN
 The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted

GI
 distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

NE
ER
IN
multipath

G
LOS pulses pulses

CO
LL
EG
signal at sender E signal at receiver 15

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Characteristics of the Wireless Channel

FR
AN
 Transmission Rate Constraints

CI
• The number of times of signal changes is called the baud rate. Bit rate =

S
baud rate x bits per signal

XA
• Nyquist’s Theorem for noiseless channel:

VI
• If the signal has L discrete levels over a transmission medium of
bandwidth B , the maximum data rate C = 2B log2 L bits/sec

ER
• Example: a noiseless 3-kHz channel cannot transmit binary signals at a

EN
rate exceeding 6000 bps (= 2 x 3000 log2 2).

GI
• Shannon’s Theorem for noisy Channel

NE
• maximum data rate C = B log2 (1 + S/N) bits/sec B: bandwdith, S: signal
power, N: noise power
ER
• S/N (Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR), usually measured as 10 log10S/N in db
IN
= decibels, is called thermal noise ratio.
G
• Example: SNR = 20 db, 2 KHz bandwidth. The maximum data rate is
2000 x log2 (1 + 100) = 9230.241 bps CO
LL
EG
E 16

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 www.francisxavier.ac.in
IEEE 802 Standards

FR
 IEEE 802 standards defines the physical and data link layer for LANs.

AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
The important ones are marked with *. The ones marked with 
E 17
are hibernating. The one marked with † gave up.
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 www.francisxavier.ac.in

IEEE 802 Standard

FR
AN
 The physical layer in a LAN deals with the actual physical

CI
S
transmission medium used for communication.

XA
• Some commonly used physical media: twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical

VI
fiber, and radio waves.

ER
 In IEEE 802 Logical Link Control (LLC) forms the upper half of
the data link layer. Medium access control (MAC) forms the

EN
lower sublayer.

GI
NE
• error-controlled, flow-controlled

ER
• Adds an LLC header, containing sequence and acknowledgement numbers.

IN
 LLC provides three service options:
• Unreliable datagram service
G
• Acknowledged datagram service CO
• Reliable connection-oriented service LL
EG
E 18

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Wireless LAN: 802.11

FR
AN
 A wireless LAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a

CI
local area network (LAN) through a wireless (radio) connection.

S
 A standard, IEEE 802.11, specifies the technologies for wireless

XA
LANs.

VI
 It is designed to work in two modes:

ER
• In the presence of a base station: access point
• In the absence of a base station: ad hoc networking

EN
 Physical Layer

GI
NE
• It supports three different physical layers:

ER
• Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

IN
• Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

G
• Infrared
CO
• Clear channel assessment (CCA): It provides mechanisms for sensing the
wireless channel and determine whether or not it is idle.
LL
 MAC Sublayer follows carrier sense multiple access with
EG
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). E 19

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Wireless LANs

FR
AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
(a) Wireless networking with a base station.
LL
(b) Ad hoc networking. EG
E 20

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

FR
AN
 The wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a type of local-area

CI
network that uses radio waves to communicate between nodes.

S
 A stationary node called an access point (AP) coordinates the

XA
communication between nodes.

VI
 The two main standards for WLANs are the IEEE 802.11 standard

ER
and European Telecommunications Standards Instititue (ETSI)

EN
HIPERLAN standard.

GI
 Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) are short-distance
NE
wireless networks.
ER
IN
 Bluetooth is a popular WPAN specification.
• Work within 10 m. G
CO
• Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) including Ericsson, Intel, IBM,
LL
Nokia, and Toshiba is the driving force for Bluetooth.
EG
 The IEEE 802.15 is a standard for WPAN. E 21

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
What is HIPERLAN?

AN
CI
S
XA
HIPERLAN - HIgh PErformance Radio LAN

VI
HIPERLAN is a new standard for Radio

ER
LANs developed in Europe by ETSI

EN
HIPERLAN is an interoperability standard

GI
which specifies a common air interface

NE
MAC and PHY layers in OSI model
ER
HIPERLAN will be a family of standards
IN
HIPERLAN 1 is described in detail
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
HIPERLAN - reference model

AN
CI
S
Application Layer

XA
Presentation Layer

VI
higher layer protocols

ER
Session Layer

EN
Transport Layer Medium Access Control

GI
(MAC) Sublayer

NE
Network Layer
Channel Access Control

ER
(CAC) Sublayer
Data Link Layer

IN
G
Physical Layer Physical (PHY) Layer

CO
OSI HIPERLAN LL
Reference Model EG
Reference Model
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
Origins of HIPERLAN

AN
CI
S
Early wireless LANs operating in the

XA
ISM bands (900MHz and 2.45GHz)

VI
Low data rate (~1Mbps) - an indirect result of the FCC

ER
spread spectrum rules part 15.247

EN
Severe interference environment - from unlike wireless

GI
LANs and other ISM band systems

NE
Lack of standards - IEEE 802.11 was initiated to satisfy

ER
this need but it was taking time to develop

IN
ETSI set up RES10 to develop a standard that
would be equal in performance
G
to wired LANs such as Ethernet CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
HIPERLAN 1 - history

AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ETSI set up RES10 group - mid 1991

ER
l

l RES10 start work on standard - early 1992

EN
l CEPT allocate spectrum - early 1993

GI
l RES10 complete draft standard - mid 1995

NE
l ETSI publish final standard - late 1995

ER
l RES10 start work on type approval - early 1996
IN
l HIPERLAN passes public enquiry - mid 1996

G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
HIPERLAN 1 - requirements

AN
CI
S
XA
VI
l Short range - 50m

ER
Low mobility - 1.4m/s
Networks with and without infrastructure

EN
Support isochronous traffic

GI
audio 32kbps, 10ns latency

NE
video 2Mbps, 100ns latency
Support asynchronous traffic
ER
data 10Mbps, immediate access IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
HIPERLAN 1 PHY - specifications

AN
CI
S
XA
High transmission rate - 23.5294Mbps

VI
Modulation - non diff GMSK, BT = 0.3

ER
Error control - FEC, BCH(31,26)
Packet failure rate - 0.01 (4160 data bits)

EN
Low transmission rate - 1.470588Mbps

GI
Modulation - FSK, freq dev = 368kHz
NE
Channelisation - 5 channels, 5.15-5.30GHz
ER
IN
Transmit power - +10, +20, +30dBm
G
Receive sensitivity - -50, -60, -70dBm
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
HIPERLAN 1 PHY - packets

AN
CI
S
DATA PACKET

XA
VI
LOW RATE 1.5Mbps HIGH RATE 23.5Mbps

ER
LOW RATE HEADER SYNCH SEQUENCE DATA BLOCK DATA BLOCK

EN
AC HEADER 35bits (560bits) 450bits 496 bits 496bits

GI
1-47 BLOCKS

NE
ACK PACKET

ER
LOW RATE 1.5Mbps

IN
G
NO MAC HEADER LOW RATE ACK
23bits (368bits)
CO
IMMEDIATE TRANS

LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
HIPERLAN 1 PHY -

AN
CI
S
XA
A HIPERLAN can only use one Channel

VI
There is no mechanism for changing channel

ER
Antenna diversity an option but...
Must use same antenna for CCA

EN
and transmission for correct MAC function

GI
Must reduce transmit power by antenna gain

NE
to maintain EIRP as specified by CEPT

ER
Power saving with...
IN
Low rate header for modem power saving
G
Power saving cycle strategies sleep/wake modes
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Bluetooth

FR
AN
•Bluetooth is a high-speed, low-power, microwave wireless link technology designed

CI
•to connect phones, laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and other portable

S
•equipment with little or no work by the user.
•Unlike infrared, Bluetooth does not require line-of-sight positioning of connected units.

XA
•The technology uses modifications of existing wireless LAN techniques but is most notable

VI
•for its small size and low cost.
•Whenever any Bluetooth-enabled devices come within range of each other, they instantly

ER
transfer address information and establish small networks between each other, without the user
being involved.

EN
•Features of Bluetooth technology are as follows:

GI
•Operates in the 2.56 gigahertz (GHz) ISM band, which is globally available

NE
•(no license required)
•Uses Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

ER
•Can support up to eight devices in a small network known as a “piconet”

IN
•Omnidirectional, nonline-of-sight transmission through walls
•10 m to 100 m range
•Low cost
G
•1 mw power
CO
•Extended range with external power amplifier (100 meters)
LL
EG
E 30

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

HomeRF

FR
AN
HomeRF is a subset of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and
primarily works on the development of a standard for inexpensive radio frequency

CI
(RF) voice and data communication.

S
The HomeRF Working Group has also developed
the Shared Wireless Access Protocol (SWAP). SWAP is an industry specification

XA
that permits PCs, peripherals, cordless telephones, and other devices to

VI
communicate voice and data without the use of cables.

ER
SWAP is similar to the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
protocol of IEEE 802.11 but with an extension to voice traffic.
Features of HomeRF are as follows:

EN
Operates in the 2.45 GHz range of the unlicensed ISM band.

GI
Range: up to 150 feet.

NE
Employs frequency hopping at 50 hops per second.
It supports both a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) service to provide

ER
delivery of interactive voice and a CSMA/CA service for delivery of high-speed

IN
data packets.
The network is capable of supporting up to 127 nodes.
Transmission power: 100mW. G
CO
Data rate: 1 Mbps using 2 frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulation and
2 Mbps using 4 FSK modulation.
Voice connections: up to 6 full duplex conversations.
LL
EG
Data security: blowfish encryption algorithm (over 1 trillion codes).
E 31

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Wireless Sensor Networks

FR
AN
CI
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)

S
Wireless sensor networks consist of some nodes that have limited

XA
processing capability, small memory and low energy source.

VI
These nodes are deployed randomly and often densely in the

ER
environment.
In monitoring applications, sensor nodes sense data from the

EN
environment periodically and then transmit them to a base station

GI
which is called sink node.

NE
ER
Thereby data transmission consumes node’s energy based on

IN
transmission distance

G
CO
LL
EG
E 32

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Design Goals of WSNs

FR
AN
CI
Energy Efficiency

S
Node deployment

XA
Energy consumption without losing accuracy

VI
Fault Tolerance

ER
Quality of Service

EN
GI
Data Aggregation/Fusion

NE
Connectivity

ER
Scalability
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
5/13/2015
E
33
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
INFRASTRUCTURELESS
ER
NETWORKS
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Introduction and Issues in Ad Hoc

FR
Wireless Networks

AN
CI

An ad hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile nodes (or routers)

S
dynamically forming a temporary network without the use of any existing

XA
VI
network infrastructure or centralized administration.

ER

The routers are free to move randomly and organize themselves arbitrarily;

EN
thus, the network’s wireless topology may change rapidly and

GI
unpredictably.

NE
ER

Some form of routing protocol is in general necessary in such an

IN
environment, because two hosts Mobile users will want to communicate in
G
CO
situations in which no fixed wired infrastructure is available.
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

A Scenario for Infrastructure less

FR
Networks

AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Issues in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

FR
AN
CI

Ad hoc networks inherit some of the traditional problems of wireless

S
communication and wireless networking:

XA
VI

The wireless medium does not have proper boundaries outside of which

ER
nodes are known to be unable to receive network frames.

EN

The wireless channel is weak, unreliable, and unprotected from outside

GI
NE
signals, which may cause lots of problems to the nodes in the network.

ER

The wireless channel has time-varying and asymmetric propagation

IN
properties. Hidden-node and exposed-node problems may occur.
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
Contd..

AN
CI

Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocol Research Issues

S
Networking Issues

XA

VI

Ad Hoc Routing and Forwarding

ER

Unicast Routing

EN
GI

Proactive Routing Protocols

NE

Reactive Routing Protocols

ER
IN

Multicast Routing

Location-Aware Routing G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

FR
Issues

AN
CI

TCP is an effective connection-oriented transport control protocol that

S
provides the essential flow control and congestion control required to ensure

XA
VI
reliable packet delivery.

ER

The main research areas and open issues include the following:

EN

Impact of mobility

GI

Nodes interaction MAC layer

NE
ER

Impact of TCP congestion window size

Interaction between MAC protocols IN

G

Network Security CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Different Security Attacks

FR
AN
CI

Impersonation

S

Denial of service

XA
Disclosure attack

VI

ER

Man in the middle attack

EN

Black hole attack

GI

Wormhole attack

NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in
Medium Access Scheme and Transport
Layer Protocols

FR
AN
CI

Random access will be suitable for ad hoc networks because of lack of

S
infrastructure support.

XA
VI

The use of Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11 is not optimized in a multi-hop

ER
environment.

EN

The Multiplicative Increase–Multiplicative Decrease (MIMD) rate

GI
NE
adaptation algorithm causes the periodic TCP packet retransmissions.

ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
Contd..

AN
CI

TCP is unable to distinguish between losses due to route

S
failures and network congestion.

XA

TCP suffers from frequent route failures.

VI
The contention on wireless channel.

ER


TCP unfairness.

EN

GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
Transport Layer Protocols

AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Pricing Scheme

FR
AN
CI

The use of pricing as a means for allocating resources in communication

S
networks has received much attention in recent years.

XA
VI

Some of them proposed a scheme where a network provider charges users

ER
as a function of the traffic load on the individual links in the network, and

EN
users accessing the network decide on their transmission rate as a function

GI
of these network prices.

NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Quality of Service Provisioning

FR
AN
CI

Quality of service (QoS) is a measure of the level of service that a

S
particular data gets in the network.

XA
VI

The network is expected to guarantee a set of measurable pre-

ER
specified service attributes to the users in terms of end-to-end

EN
performance such as delay, bandwidth, probability of packet loss,

GI
delay variance (jitter), and so forth.

NE
ER

Traditional Internet QoS protocols like Resource Reservation
IN
Protocol (RSVP) cannot be easily migrated to the wireless
G
CO
environment due to the error-prone nature of wireless links and the
high mobility of mobile devices.
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Self Organizing and Security

FR
AN
CI

Self-organization is a great concept for building scalable systems consisting
of huge numbers of subsystems.

S
XA

self-organization is especially important in ad hoc networking because of
the spontaneous interaction of multiple heterogeneous components over

VI
wireless radio connection.

ER

Security goals

EN

Availability

GI

Confidentiality

NE
Integrity

ER


Authentication
IN

G

Non-repudiation
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Addressing and Service Discovery

FR
AN
CI

In MANETs, some of the connected hosts might have, in addition to the ad hoc

S
network interface, an external connection to the Internet. Such nodes may announce

XA
this ability as a service to the participating ad hoc nodes. Using service discovery,

VI
members of the MANET are then able to use such a gateway service.

ER
- In an electronic parking system, a service is defined differently. In such a scenario,

EN

GI
implemented as a sensor network, each parking slot is equipped with a sensor.

NE
Whenever the slot is not occupied, the sensor announces a parking service and a

ER
guidance system able to route the car to the parking slot.

IN
- Using their wireless hand-held device or not ebook, participants in collaborative
G

CO
applications or distributed gaming environments need to discover application or
game servers before participating in a session. LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Energy Management

FR
AN
CI

The main reasons for energy management in ad hoc networks are as follows:

S

Limited energy reserve:

XA
Difficulties in replacing the batteries

VI

ER

Lack of central coordination

EN

Constraints on the battery source

GI
NE

Selection of optimal transmission power:

ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Scalability

FR
AN
CI

A set of properties are identified that a scalable and efficient solution must have:

S

• Localization of overhead: a local change should affect only the immediate

XA
neighborhood, thus limiting the overall overhead incurred due to the change.

VI
ER

• Lightweight, decentralized protocols: we would like to avoid concentrating

EN
responsibility at any individual node, and we want to keep the necessary state to be

GI
maintained at each node as small as possible.

NE

• Zero-configuration: we want to completely remove the need for manual

ER
configuration beyond what can be done at the time of manufacture.
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Ad hoc wireless internet

FR
AN
CI

An ad hoc network typically refers to any set of networks where all

S
devices have equal status on a network and are free to associate with

XA
VI
any other ad hoc network devices in link range.

ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

FR
AN
MAC Protocols

CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
 Introduction  Contention-based Protocols

GI
 Issues with reservation mechanisms

NE
 Design Goals  Contention-based Protocols

ER
 Classifications without Scheduling mechanisms
IN
 MAC Protocols that use
G
 Contention-based Protocols
directional antennas
CO
LL
 Other MAC Protocols
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Issues

FR
AN
 The main issues need to be addressed while designing a MAC

CI
protocol for ad hoc wireless networks:

S
• Bandwidth efficiency is defined at the ratio of the bandwidth used for actual

XA
data transmission to the total available bandwidth. The MAC protocol for ad-

VI
hoc networks should maximize it.

ER
• Quality of service support is essential for time-critical applications. The

EN
MAC protocol for ad-hoc networks should consider the constraint of ad-hoc
networks.

GI
NE
• Synchronization can be achieved by exchange of control packets.

ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Issues

FR
AN
 The main issues need to be addressed while designing a MAC

CI
protocol for ad hoc wireless networks:

S
• Hidden and exposed terminal problems:

XA
• Hidden nodes:

VI
– Hidden stations: Carrier sensing may fail to detect another station.
For example, A and D.

ER
– Fading: The strength of radio signals diminished rapidly with the

EN
distance from the transmitter. For example, A and C.

GI
• Exposed nodes:

NE
– Exposed stations: B is sending to A. C can detect it. C might want to

ER
send to E but conclude it cannot transmit because C hears B.

IN
– Collision masking: The local signal might drown out the remote
transmission.
• Error-Prone Shared Broadcast Channel G
• Distributed Nature/Lack of Central CoordinationCO
LL
• Mobility of Nodes: Nodes are mobile most of the time.
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Wireless LAN configuration

FR
AN
CI
S
A B C

XA
Laptops

VI
ER
radio obstruction
Wireless

EN
D LAN

GI
Palmtop E

NE
Server Base station/

ER
access point

IN
G
CO
LL LAN
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol

FR
AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
(a) The hidden station problem.
(b) The exposed station problem.
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Design goals of a MAC Protocol

FR
AN
 Design goals of a MAC protocol for ad hoc wireless networks

CI
• The operation of the protocol should be distributed.

S
• The protocol should provide QoS support for real-time traffic.

XA
• The access delay, which refers to the average delay experienced by any

VI
packet to get transmitted, must be kept low.

ER
• The available bandwidth must be utilized efficiently.

EN
• The protocol should ensure fair allocation of bandwidth to nodes.

GI
• Control overhead must be kept as low as possible.

NE
• The protocol should minimize the effects of hidden and exposed terminal

ER
problems.

IN
• The protocol must be scalable to large networks.
• It should have power control mechanisms.
G
CO
• The protocol should have mechanisms for adaptive data rate control.
• It should try to use directional antennas.
LL
EG
• The protocol should provide synchronization among nodes.
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Classifications of MAC protocols

FR
AN
 Ad hoc network MAC protocols can be classified into three types:

CI
• Contention-based protocols

S
• Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms

XA
• Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms

VI
• Other MAC protocols

ER
MAC Protocols for Ad Hoc
Wireless Networks

EN
GI
Contention-based Contention-based Other MAC
Contention-Based

NE
protocols with protocols with Protocols
Protocols
reservation mechanisms scheduling mechanisms

ER
Directional
RI-BTMA
Antennas

IN
Sender-Initiated Receiver-Initiated Synchronous Asynchronous MACA-BI
MMAC
MARCH

G
Protocols Protocols Protocols Protocols
MCSMA
RI-BTMA D-PRMA
CO
MACA/PR
PCM
Single-Channel Multichannel MACA-BI CATA RTMAC
Protocols Protocols MARCH HRMA
SRMA/PA
LL RBAR

MACAW BTMA
FPRP
EG
FAMA DBTMA E
ICSMA

Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Classifications of MAC Protocols

FR
AN
 Contention-based protocols

CI
• Sender-initiated protocols: Packet transmissions are initiated by the sender

S
node.

XA
• Single-channel sender-initiated protocols: A node that wins the contention

VI
to the channel can make use of the entire bandwidth.

ER
• Multichannel sender-initiated protocols: The available bandwidth is
divided into multiple channels.

EN
• Receiver-initiated protocols: The receiver node initiates the contention

GI
resolution protocol.

NE
 Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms
ER
IN
• Synchronous protocols: All nodes need to be synchronized. Global time

G
synchronization is difficult to achieve.
CO
• Asynchronous protocols: These protocols use relative time information for
effecting reservations. LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Classifications of MAC Protocols

FR
AN
 Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms

CI
• Node scheduling is done in a manner so that all nodes are treated fairly and

S
no node is starved of bandwidth.

XA
• Scheduling-based schemes are also used for enforcing priorities among flows

VI
whose packets are queued at nodes.

ER
• Some scheduling schemes also consider battery characteristics.

EN
 Other protocols are those MAC protocols that do not strictly fall

GI
under the above categories.

NE
ER
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols

FR
AN
 MACAW: A Media Access Protocol for Wireless LANs is based

CI
on MACA (Multiple Access Collision Avoidance) Protocol

S
 MACA

XA
• When a node wants to transmit a data packet, it first transmit a RTS

VI
(Request To Send) frame.

ER
• The receiver node, on receiving the RTS packet, if it is ready to receive the

EN
data packet, transmits a CTS (Clear to Send) packet.

GI
• Once the sender receives the CTS packet without any error, it starts

NE
transmitting the data packet.

ER
• If a packet transmitted by a node is lost, the node uses the binary exponential

IN
back-off (BEB) algorithm to back off a random interval of time before

G
retrying.
CO
 The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA might
LL
starves flows sometimes. The problem is solved by MACAW.
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

MACA Protocol

FR
AN
CI
S
XA
VI
ER
EN
GI
NE
ER
IN
G
CO
The MACA protocol. (a) A sending an RTS to B.
(b) B responding with a CTS to A. LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

MACA examples

FR
AN
 MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals

CI
• A and C want to

S
send to B

XA
• A sends RTS first

VI
RTS
• C waits after receiving

ER
CTS from B CTS CTS
A B C

EN
GI
NE
 MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals
ER
IN
• B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
G
• now C does not have
CO
RTS RTS
to wait for it cannot CTSLL
receive CTS from A A EG
B C
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

MACAW

FR
AN
 Variants of this method can be found in IEEE 802.11 as

CI
DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC),

S
 MACAW (MACA for Wireless) is a revision of MACA.

XA
• The sender senses the carrier to see and transmits a RTS (Request To

VI
Send) frame if no nearby station transmits a RTS.

ER
• The receiver replies with a CTS (Clear To Send) frame.

EN
• Neighbors

GI
• see CTS, then keep quiet.

NE
• see RTS but not CTS, then keep quiet until the CTS is back to the
sender.

ER
• The receiver sends an ACK when receiving an frame.
• Neighbors keep silent until see ACK. IN
• Collisions G
• There is no collision detection. CO
LL
• The senders know collision when they don’t receive CTS.
EG
• They each wait for the exponential backoff time.E
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 www.francisxavier.ac.in

MACA variant: DFWMAC in IEEE802.11

FR
AN
CI
sender receiver

S
XA
idle

VI
idle

ER
packet ready to send; RTS
data;
ACK

EN
RxBusy time-out;
RTS RTS;

GI
wait for the time-out 
ACK right to send CTS
data;

NE
time-out 
NAK

ER
NAK;
RTS CTS; data

IN wait for
G
wait for ACK data
CO
ACK: positive acknowledgement
LL
RxBusy: receiver busy RTS; RxBusy
NAK: negative acknowledgement
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols

FR
AN
 Floor acquisition Multiple Access Protocols (FAMA)

CI
• Based on a channel access discipline which consists of a carrier-sensing

S
operation and a collision-avoidance dialog between the sender and the

XA
intended receiver of a packet.

VI
• Floor acquisition refers to the process of gaining control of the channel. At

ER
any time only one node is assigned to use the channel.

EN
• Carrier-sensing by the sender, followed by the RTS-CTS control packet

GI
exchange, enables the protocol to perform as efficiently as MACA.

NE
• Two variations of FAMA

ER
• RTS-CTS exchange with no carrier-sensing uses the ALOHA protocol

IN
for transmitting RTS packets.

G
• RTS-CTS exchange with non-persistent carrier-sensing uses non-
persistent CSMA for the same purpose.
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols

FR
AN
 Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocols (BTMA)

CI
• The transmission channel is split into two:

S
• a data channel for data packet transmissions

XA
• a control channel used to transmit the busy tone signal

VI
• When a node is ready for transmission, it senses the channel to check
whether the busy tone is active.

ER
• If not, it turns on the busy tone signal and starts data transmissions

EN
• Otherwise, it reschedules the packet for transmission after some random

GI
rescheduling delay.

NE
• Any other node which senses the carrier on the incoming data channel

ER
also transmits the busy tone signal on the control channel, thus, prevent
two neighboring nodes from transmitting at the same time.
IN
 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocol (DBTMAP) is an
extension of the BTMA scheme. G
• a data channel for data packet transmissions
CO
LL
• a control channel used for control packet transmissions (RTS and CTS
EG
packets) and also for transmitting the busy tones. E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols

FR
AN
 Receiver-Initiated Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocol (RI-

CI
BTMA)

S
• The transmission channel is split into two:

XA
• a data channel for data packet transmissions

VI
• a control channel used for transmitting the busy tone signal

ER
• A node can transmit on the data channel only if it finds the busy tone to be absent

EN
on the control channel.

GI
• The data packet is divided into two portions: a preamble and the actual data packet.

NE
 MACA-By Invitation (MACA-BI) is a receiver-initiated MAC

ER
protocol.
IN
• By eliminating the need for the RTS packet it reduces the number of
G
control packets used in the MACA protocol which uses the three-way
handshake mechanism. CO
LL
 Media Access with Reduced Handshake (MARCH) is a receiver-EG
initiated protocol. E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based Protocols with

FR
Reservation Mechanisms

AN
CI
S
 Contention-based Protocols with Reservation Mechanisms

XA
• Contention occurs during the resource (bandwidth) reservation phase.

VI
• Once the bandwidth is reserved, the node gets exclusive access to the

ER
reserved bandwidth.
• QoS support can be provided for real-time traffic.

EN
 Distributed packet reservation multiple access protocol (D-

GI
PRMA)

NE
• It extends the centralized packet reservation multiple access (PRMA)

ER
scheme into a distributed scheme that can be used in ad hoc wireless

IN
networks.

G
• PRMA was designed in a wireless LAN with a base station.
CO
• D-PRMA extends PRMA protocol in a wireless LAN.
LL
• D-PRMA is a TDMA-based scheme. The channel is divided into fixed- and
equal-sized frames along the time axis. EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in
Access method DAMA: Reservation-

FR
TDMA

AN
CI
S
 Reservation Time Division Multiple Access

XA
• every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots

VI
• every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k data-slots using

ER
this mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).

EN
• other stations can send data in unused data-slots according to a round-robin
sending scheme (best-effort traffic)

GI
NE
e.g. N=6, k=2

ER
N mini-slots N * k data-slots

IN
G
CO
LL
reservations EG
other stations can use free data-slots
for data-slots based on a round-robin scheme
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols with

FR
Reservation Mechanisms

AN
CI
S
 Collision avoidance time allocation protocol (CATA)

XA
• based on dynamic topology-dependent transmission scheduling

VI
• Nodes contend for and reserve time slots by means of a distributed

ER
reservation and handshake mechanism.

EN
• Support broadcast, unicast, and multicast transmissions.

GI
• The operation is based on two basic principles:

NE
• The receiver(s) of a flow must inform the potential source nodes about

ER
the reserved slot on which it is currently receiving packets. The source

IN
node must inform the potential destination node(s) about interferences

G
in the slot.
CO
• Usage of negative acknowledgements for reservation requests, and
LL
control packet transmissions at the beginning of each slot, for
distributing slot reservation information to senders of broadcast or
EG
multicast sessions. E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols with

FR
Reservation Mechanisms

AN
CI
S
 Hop reservation multiple access protocol (HRMA)

XA
• a multichannel MAC protocol which is based on half-duplex, very slow

VI
frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) radios

ER
• uses a reservation and handshake mechanism to enable a pair of
communicating nodes to reserve a frequency hop, thereby guaranteeing

EN
collision-free data transmission.

GI
• can be viewed as a time slot reservation protocol where each time slot is
assigned a separate frequency channel.

NE
 Soft reservation multiple access with priority assignment
(SRMA/PA) ER
IN
G
• Developed with the main objective of supporting integrated services of
real-time and non-real-time application in ad hoc networks, at the same
CO
time maximizing the statistical multiplexing gain.
LL
• Nodes use a collision-avoidance handshake mechanism and a soft
EG
reservation mechanism. E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols with

FR
Reservation Mechanisms

AN
CI
 Five-Phase Reservation Protocol (FPRP)

S
• a single-channel time division multiple access (TDMA)-based broadcast

XA
scheduling protocol.

VI
• Nodes uses a contention mechanism in order to acquire time slots.

ER
• The protocol assumes the availability of global time at all nodes.

EN
• The reservation takes five phases: reservation, collision report, reservation
confirmation, reservation acknowledgement, and packing and elimination

GI
phase.

NE
 MACA with Piggy-Backed Reservation (MACA/PR)
ER
• Provide real-time traffic support in multi-hop wireless networks
IN
• Based on the MACAW protocol with non-persistent CSMA
• The main components of MACA/PR are: G
• A MAC protocol CO
LL
• A reservation protocol EG
• A QoS routing protocol E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols with

FR
Reservation Mechanisms

AN
CI
 Real-Time Medium Access Control Protocol (RTMAC)

S
XA
• Provides a bandwidth reservation mechanism for supporting real-time traffic

VI
in ad hoc wireless networks

ER
• RTMAC has two components
• A MAC layer protocol is a real-time extension of the IEEE 802.11 DCF.

EN
– A medium-access protocol for best-effort traffic

GI
– A reservation protocol for real-time traffic

NE
• A QoS routing protocol is responsible for end-to-end reservation and

ER
release of bandwidth resources.

IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols with

FR
Scheduling Mechanisms

AN
CI
S
 Protocols in this category focus on packet scheduling at the nodes

XA
and transmission scheduling of the nodes.

VI
 The factors that affects scheduling decisions

ER
• Delay targets of packets

EN
• Traffic load at nodes

GI
• Battery power

NE
 Distributed priority scheduling and medium access in Ad Hoc

ER
Networks present two mechanisms for providing quality of service
(QoS) IN
G
• Distributed priority scheduling (DPS) – piggy-backs the priority tag of a
CO
node’s current and head-of-line packets to the control and data packets
LL
• Multi-hop coordination – extends the DPS scheme to carry out scheduling
EG
over multi-hop paths. E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Contention-based protocols with

FR
Scheduling Mechanisms

AN
CI
 Distributed Wireless Ordering Protocol (DWOP)

S
• A media access scheme along with a scheduling mechanism

XA
VI
• Based on the distributed priority scheduling scheme

ER
 Distributed Laxity-based Priority Scheduling (DLPS) Scheme
• Scheduling decisions are made based on

EN
• The states of neighboring nodes and feed back from destination nodes

GI
regarding packet losses

NE
• Packets are recorded based on their uniform laxity budgets (ULBs) and the
ER
packet delivery ratios of the flows. The laxity of a packet is the time
remaining before its deadline.
IN
G
CO
LL
EG
E
Department of ECE-FXEC
 www.francisxavier.ac.in

MAC Protocols that use directional

FR
Antennas

AN
CI
 MAC protocols that use directional antennas have several

S
advantages:

XA
• Reduce signal interference

VI
• Increase in the system throughput

ER
• Improved channel reuse
 MAC protocol using directional antennas

EN
• Make use of an RTS/CTS exchange mechanism

GI
• Use directional antennas for transmitting and receiving data packets

NE
 Directional Busy Tone-based MAC Protocol (DBTMA)
ER
• It uses directional antennas for transmitting the RTS, CTS, data frames, and

IN
the busy tones.
G
 Directional MAC Protocols for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
CO
• DMAC-1, a directional antenna is used for transmitting RTS packets and
omni-directional antenna for CTS packets. LL
• DMAC-1, both directional RTS and omni-directional RTS transmission are
EG
used. E
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 www.francisxavier.ac.in

Other MAC Protocols

FR
AN
 Multi-channel MAC Protocol (MMAC)

CI
• Multiple channels for data transmission

S
• There is no dedicated control channel.

XA
• Based on channel usage channels can be classified into three types: high

VI
preference channel (HIGH), medium preference channel (MID), low

ER
preference channel (LOW)

EN
 Multi-channel CSMA MAC Protocol (MCSMA)

GI
• The available bandwidth is divided into several channels

NE
 Power Control MAC Protocol (PCM) for Ad Hoc Networks
ER
• Allows nodes to vary their transmission power levels on a per-packet basis
 Receiver-based Auto rate Protocol (RBAR) IN
• Use a rate adaptation approach G
CO
 Interleaved Carrier-Sense Multiple Access Protocol (ICSMA)
LL
EG
• The available bandwidth is split into tow equal channels
• The handshaking process is interleaved between the two channels.
E
Department of ECE-FXEC