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1 Lead and cadmium levels in raw bovine milk and dietary risk assessment in areas

2 near petroleum extraction industries

4 Authors

5 Reza Norouzirada; Jose-Ramiro González-Montañab; Felipe Martínez-Pastorc; Hedayat

6 Hosseinid; Ali Shahrouziane; Mehdi Khabazkhoobf; Fardin Ali Malayerig; Haniyeh

7 Moallem Bandanig; Mohsen Paknejadh; Behrouz Foroughi-niai; Atefeh Fooladi

8 Moghaddamj*

9
a
10 . Department of Biochemistry, School of Paramedicine, Dezful University of Medical

11 Sciences, Dezful, Iran; and Endocrine Physiology Research Center, Research Institute

12 for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.

13 [email protected]
b
14 . Department of Medicine, Surgery and Veterinary Anatomy, Universidad de León,

15 León, Spain. [email protected]

17 Biology (Cell Biology), Universidad de León, León, Spain. [email protected]

19 Nutrition & Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences,

20 Tehran, Iran. [email protected]

22 [email protected]
f
23 . Department of Medical Surgical Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shahid

24 Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. [email protected]

1
 g
25 . Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Zabol University of

26 Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran. [email protected]

28 Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran. [email protected]

30 [email protected]
i
31 . Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; and

32 Students Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.

33 [email protected]
j
34 . Technical University of Munich, Research Department Nutrition and Food Sciences,

35 Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Freising, Germany. [email protected]

36

37 Corresponding author

38 *Atefeh Fooladi Moghaddam. Technical University of Munich, Research Department

39 Nutrition and Food Sciences, Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Maximus-von-

40 Imhof-Forum 2, 85354, Freising, Germany; e-mail: [email protected]

41

2
42 Abstract

43 Oil fields are a source of heavy metal pollution, but few studies have evaluated its

44 impact on the intake of these contaminants through milk, an important food especially

45 for children. From February 2015 to 2016, 118 samples of raw cow's milk, 14 of fodder

46 and 8 of water in Southwest Iran were collected from farms close to oil fields or related

47 industries. Lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) levels were evaluated by graphite furnace

48 atomic absorption spectrometry. Mean±SE in milk and fodder were 47.0±3.9 and

49 54.0±6.9 µg/kg for Pb, and 4.7±1.0 and 3.5±1.3 µg/kg for Cd. No Pb or Cd was

50 detected in water. Most milk samples (82.2%) for Pb were above the permissible limits

51 (20 µg/kg). Exposure to Pb and Cd from milk consumption was calculated in two

52 scenarios: mean and maximum exposure for the age range of 2-90 years. The intake of

53 an average Iranian adult (25 years, 60 kg b. w., 0.14 kg milk/day) would be 6.6 μg Pb

54 and 0.66 μg Cd/day (WI of 46.2 and 4.6 μg, respectively), well below the risk values

55 proposed by some international organisations, even in the maximum exposure scenario.

56 However, Pb exposure for infants and toddlers may be closer to the risk values, since

57 milk and milk products could be the main contributor to Cd and Pb, and small children

58 consume 2-3 times more food than adults relative to their body weight. The risk of Pb

59 and Cd exposure through milk close to oil fields should be considered and a monitoring

60 plan for these contaminants is strongly recommended.

61

62 Key words: raw cow milk, lead, cadmium, heavy metals, exposure assessment.

63

64 Abbreviations: CONTAM: Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain; EFSA:

65 European Food Safety Authority; EPA: Environmental Protection Agency; IARC:

3
66 International Agency for Research on Cancer; JECFA: Joint FAO/WHO Expert

67 Committee on Food Additives; MI: monthly intake; PTMI: provisional tolerable

68 monthly intake; TWI: tolerable weekly intake; WI: weekly intake.

69

70

4
71 1. Introduction

72 Milk is an important nutritious food, especially for children, in many parts of the world.

73 The risk of milk contamination increases in the vicinity of highly polluted areas.

74 Oxidants, nitrates, agricultural pesticides, industrial chemicals, and heavy metals could

75 be potential contaminants of milk (Swarup et al., 2005; Patra et al., 2008).

76 Sources of heavy metal contamination include combustion of fuels, the proximity of

77 roads, mining and industrial areas, and specifically, iron and steel plants (Swarup et al.,

78 2005; Singh et al., 2011; Tunegová et al., 2016). Plants from land irrigated with

79 contaminated water allow heavy metals to pass into the atmosphere, land, water and

80 then to animal feed. Through this route it enters the trophic chain and is finally ingested

81 by animals and people (Patra et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2010; Perween, 2015).

82 Heavy metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) have negative effects on livestock

83 health (Rahimi, 2013; Lane et al., 2015), as well as harmful effects on human health

84 (Perween, 2015). This problem is more important for children, who consume large

85 amounts of milk, and are the most vulnerable population.

86 Pb and Cd are not essential for animals and plants. These metals are potentially toxic,

87 causing hematologic, neurotoxic, and nephrotoxic effects even at low concentrations.

88 Human exposure to these heavy metals has a negative effect on specific organs that may

89 lead to metabolic disorders, fatigue, heart failure, and cancer. Furthermore, both chronic

90 and acute exposure to Pb can result in encephalopathy (vomiting, depressed

91 consciousness and lethargy), and it also decreases the learning ability in childhood

92 (EFSA, 2010; JECFA, 2011; EFSA, 2012). Thus, Pb and Cd monitoring in milk must be

93 considered as a fundamental part of public health and product quality (Rahimi, 2013;

94 Tunegová et al., 2016).

5
 95 The concentration of heavy metals in milk produced in some areas varies greatly, due to

96 the differences in the contamination source (Swarup et al., 2005; Ataro et al., 2008). To

97 the best of our knowledge, no studies have been carried out on the concentration of

98 heavy metals in milk from livestock living close or exposed to contamination from oil

99 extraction activities, not only pumping but also transport and processing, perhaps a

100 consequence of dominant winds. Because oil fields are a source of Pb, Cd and other

101 heavy metal contamination, our objective was to estimate the level of Pb and Cd

102 contamination in cow’s milk, as well as water and fodder, by studying an area of

103 Southwest Iran exposed to contamination not only from nearby oil fields, but also to

104 contaminated areas because of the Iran-Iraq war, and oil-related facilities (pipelines, and

105 refineries). By studying that area, we aimed at testing the hypothesis that Pb and Cd

106 levels are elevated in the water and fodder produced locally, as well as elevating heavy

107 metal pollution in milk. In addition, we estimated the population’s exposure to these

108 two heavy metals from milk consumption, in order to assess the risk level in these areas.

109

110 2. Materials and Methods

111 2.1. Characteristics of the studied area

112 Southwest Iran has differential characteristics from the rest of the country (Kameli et

113 al., 2013). Oil and gas extraction, transport, processing and distribution of their

114 derivatives are sources of contamination (Lane et al., 2015). Moreover, the fine dust

115 entering from Iraq and Saudi Arabia transfers many contaminants to these areas, with

116 war and political-military conflicts making things worse (Ashrafi et al., 2014). Dez

117 river, which flows through eight provinces of Southwest Iran moves contaminants

118 downstream, significantly increasing the risk of contamination in some areas.

6
119

120 2.2. Sampling design

121 Convenient sampling was performed on 15 dairy farms located in 14 different regions

122 of Southwest Iran (Khuzestan province), including industrial or traditional farms.

123 Samples of milk, food and water were obtained based on the existing most

124 representative livestock in the investigated area. Most farms were located in the Dezful

125 area, except for two farms in the Shirin Ab-Dez region (Figure 1, farms A and B).

126 Figure 1 shows farms are North or North-East relative to many oil fields and their

127 facilities, and to current or former war areas (Iraq/Saudi Arabia). Therefore, these areas

128 are exposed to contaminants not only by proximity to contamination sources but also

129 because of the predominant South/ Southwest winds.

130 Immediately after milking, 200 ml raw cow milk was collected in pre-acid wash sterile

131 screw-topped bottles. Before sampling, all the dishes were kept in 10% nitric acid for 24

132 hours, then washed with deionized water for 48 hours and dried in an incubator. The

133 same method was used to collect water samples and fodder samples. All samples were

134 kept at -80°C until the time of measurement. This study included 118 milk samples

135 distributed as shown in Tables 1 and 2, eight water samples, and 14 fodder samples.

136

137 2.3. Pb and Cd analyses

138 All reagents were purchased from Merck KGaA Laboratories (Darmstadt, Germany).

139 According to Iranian National Standard Determination of Food Pb and Cd Content (INS

140 method No. 9266 and AOAC official method 999.11 standards), the samples were dried

141 and then ashed at 450ºC under a gradual increase in temperature. 6M HCl (1+1) was

142 added, and the solution was evaporated to dryness. The residue was dissolved in 0.1M

7
143 HNO3, and Pb and Cd were measured with a graphite furnace atomic absorption

144 spectrometer (Varian-SpectrAA 600), equipped with a platform graphite tube and a

145 deuterium background corrector. A blank digestion solution was made for comparison.

146 To check the accuracy of the analytical method, a multi-element standard solution

147 (Merck) with different concentrations of Cd and Pb (0.2, 1, 10, 50 and 100 µg/kg) was

148 used for calibration. The standard curve was performed with a concentration range of 5,

149 10, and 30 µg/kg for Pb and 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 µg/kg for Cd.

150 The precision of the method was expressed as recoveries close to 100% (95-110% for

151 Pb and 80-97% for Cd), with a standard deviation (SD) of the recoveries lower than

152 0.010, and with a relative standard deviation (RSD) lower than 10% for both metals.

153 Limit of detection (LoD) and limit of quantification (LoQ) was 3 and 9 µg/kg,

154 respectively for Pb measurement and 0.4 and 1.2 µg/kg, respectively for Cd

155 measurement. Duplicate analysis was performed for all samples.

156

157 2.4. Exposure assessment

158

159 The European Union recommends maximum Pb levels of 20 ppb (20 µg/kg w. w., wet

160 weight) in raw milk, heat-treated milk and milk for the manufacture of milk-based

161 products (European-Union, 2006, 2015).

162 Lead is absorbed more in children than in adults. It accumulates in soft tissues, and over

163 time in bones, and above all, for its long half-lives in blood and bone. The Panel on

164 Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) of European Food Safety Authority

165 (EFSA) and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)

8
166 identified developmental neurotoxicity in young children and cardiovascular effects and

167 nephrotoxicity in adults as critical effects for risk assessment.

168 In 1972, JEFCA established a Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) of 3 mg of

169 lead per person, equivalent to 50 μg/kg b. w., stating this did not apply to infants and

170 children. In 1978, the committee retained the PTWI for adults, noting that establishing a

171 PTWI for children was not yet possible owing to the lack of scientific data. In 1987, the

172 PTWI for infants and children was established at 25 μg/kg b. w.; this value was

173 extended to all age groups. However, JEFCA, based on dose-response analysis,

174 considered that the previously established value (PTWI of 25 μg/kg b. w.) could not be

175 considered protective of health and withdrew it (JECFA, 2011). Moreover, they stated

176 that it was not possible to establish a new PTWI. The CONTAM indicated that the

177 PTWI of 25 μg/kg b. w. was no longer appropriate as there was no evidence for a

178 threshold for critical lead-induced effects (EFSA, 2010).

179 It is recommended to use margin of exposure (MOE), which is calculated by dividing

180 the benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL) values derived from human data

181 for the end points of dietary exposure (EFSA, 2010). MOEs apply to different age

182 groups (infants, <3 months; toddlers, 1-3 years; children, 4-7 years, and adults), and is

183 also considered for medium and high consumers (EFSA, 2010).

184 The JECFA reaffirmed that foetuses, infants and children are subgroups that are most

185 sensitive to lead. Therefore, protection of children and women of childbearing age

186 against the risk of neurodevelopmental effect, is sufficient to protect all age groups from

187 harmful effects of lead (JECFA, 2011). The mean dietary exposure estimated for

188 children aged 1–4 years ranges from 0.03 to 9 μg/kg b. w. per day, and for adults from

9
189 0.02 to 3 μg/kg b. w. per day. In addition to the dietary contribution, other sources of

190 exposure to lead also need to be considered (JECFA, 2011).

191 The European Union initially did not propose a maximum value for Cd in raw milk

192 (European-Union, 2006), although it suggested maximum amounts between 5 and 10

193 µg/kg in infant formulas (liquid formulae or powdered formulae) manufactured from

194 cow's milk proteins or protein hydrolysates (European-Union, 2014). The Codex

195 Alimentarius does not report permissible levels of Cd in milk (Codex-Alimentarius-

196 Commission, 2011).

197 With respect to Cd, and because of the long half-life in living organisms, exposure over

198 a longer period of time should be considered to ensure safe and appropriate levels of

199 exposure throughout life with no appreciable risk to the consumer (Codex-

200 Alimentarius-Commission, 2011; EFSA, 2011; JECFA, 2011; EFSA, 2012).

201 Therefore, in 1988, a PTWI of 7 μg/kg b. w. for cadmium was established by JECFA.

202 Later in 2009, and subsequently confirmed in 2011, the CONTAM adopted an opinion

203 on cadmium in food. It was recommended that the PTWI should be reduced to a

204 tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 2.5 μg/kg b. w. in order to ensure a high level of

205 protection of all consumers, including exposed and vulnerable subgroups of the

206 population (EFSA, 2011; 2012).

207 In 2010, the JECFA reviewed its previous evaluation and established a provisional

208 tolerable monthly intake (PTMI) of 25 μg/kg body weight, corresponding to a WI of 5.8

209 μg/kg b. w. (JECFA, 2011).

210 The EFSA decided to review its assessment of exposure in the European population to

211 cadmium, showing up-to-date information on the consumption of different foods,

212 including milk and milk products. It sought to ensure a high level of protection of all

10
213 consumers, including exposed and vulnerable subgroups of the population, such as

214 children, vegetarians or people living in highly polluted areas. It pointed out that total

215 exposure is the result of not only a few main contributors, but the sum of the

216 contributions of different food groups (EFSA, 2012).

217 In this study, we used the occurrence data for Cd and Pb contamination in milk and

218 mean milk intake in the studied area and calculated the exposure of these two heavy

219 metals from milk. These values were then used to compare the exposure to Cd and Pb

220 from milk with the TWI set by JECFA and EFSA.

221

222 2.5. Data analysis

223 Data were analyzed by using SPSS (IBM) version 20 and the R statistical environment

224 v. 3.4.2. Results are reported as Mean ± SE. We also reported the proportion of milk

225 samples with Pb concentrations above the 20 µg/kg w. w. (European-Union, 2006,

226 2015). To compare Pb and Cd levels among all sampled locations (milk, water and

227 fodder) we carried out an ANOVA test with Tukey post-hoc multiple comparisons.

228 Exposure assessment was calculated using the equation below in two scenarios: mean

229 and maximum Pb and Cd occurrence.

Contaminant occurence ( g/kg) milk consumption (kg/day)

230 This exposure (µg/day/kg b. w.) was used to calculate weekly exposure, in order to

231 compare it with the published TWI. So as to obtain a complete figure of the relative risk

232 in the sampled zones, we carried out a bibliographic research to get an estimation of

233 both average body weight and milk/dairy consumption at different ages (from toddlers

234 to seniors) (Ghassemi et al., 2002; Haghdoost et al., 2008; Abdollahi et al., 2014;

235 Esfarjani et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2015).

11
236

237 3. Results

238 3.1. Pb and Cd in raw cow milk

239 The concentrations (mean ± SE) of Pb and Cd in the 118 milk samples are summarized

240 in Table 3. The Pb concentration was 47.0 ± 3.9 µg/kg and the Cd concentration was 4.7

241 ± 1.0 µg/kg. Since the permissible limit for Pb in European Union is set at 20 µg/kg

242 (European-Union, 2006; 2015), 82.2% of the samples were above this limit. Pb and Cd

243 levels in milk segmented by sampling areas (Figure 1) are shown in Tables 1 and 2.

244 Most of the regions (11 of 14) showed values above the permissible limit for Pb. The

245 Hamzeh area showed the highest average value (almost twice as much the next highest

246 value). However, for Cd, only the average level of Tanour Boland region was well

247 above the average value of the rest of the sampled areas (Table 1). No apparent

248 clustering was detected in the sampled areas for either Pb or Cd.

249

250 3.2. Levels of lead and cadmium in water and feed samples

251 Pb and Cd were not detected in any of the 8 water samples. Pb level in fodder samples

252 (mean ± SE) was 54.0 ± 6.9 µg/kg, with a range of 30.0 to 130.0 µg/kg. Cd in fodder

253 samples (mean ± SE) was 3.5 ± 1.3 µg/kg, with a range of 3.0 to 20.0 µg/kg.

254

255 3.3. Exposure assessment of lead and cadmium from milk consumption

256 The exposure to Pb and Cd coming from milk consumption in the region was calculated

257 in two scenarios: mean scenario and max scenario. We estimated both weekly intake

258 (WI) and TWI for a range of ages from 2 to 90 years old, taking into account the

259 average body weight and milk intake in Iran. Results are summarized in Figure 2. The

12
260 intake for an average Iranian adult (25 years old, 60 kg b. w., 0.14 kg milk per day)

261 would be of 6.6 µg Pb and 0.66 µg Cd per day. That is, an exposure of 0.11 and 0.011

262 µg/kg b. w./day, respectively. The WI would be 46.2 and 4.6 µg, respectively. These

263 figures are far from the 1500 µg Pb/week and 348 µg Cd/week currently defined, or at

264 some point advised (by Codex Alimentarius, EFSA and JECFA) as TWI for a 60-kg

265 person. However, in the maximum exposure scenario, the WI would be of 244.9 µg Pb

266 and 97.9 µg Cd.

267 While the WIs for an adult person are far from the respective TWIs, even in the

268 maximum exposure scenario, Figure 2 shows a much higher exposure for infants,

269 toddlers and young adolescents. In fact, due to a higher milk intake in infants, WI

270 increases considerably (indeed, due to lower body weight, the exposure is much higher

271 at these ages). In the case of the mean scenario, WIs are still much lower than the limits

272 defined by the TWIs. However, in the maximum scenarios, the WIs for Pb are close to

273 the TWIs for infants and young adolescents, and the maximum WIs for toddlers (up to 5

274 years old) could be higher than the corresponding TWIs. The situation is even worse for

275 Cd, with ages 2–15 having maximum WIs clearly above the corresponding TWIs.

276

277 4. Discussion

278 Concerns regarding Pb and Cd on human health have arisen from accumulation of these

279 metals in the environment, especially in agricultural and livestock production,

280 increasing the potential to enter products aimed at human consumption (Lane et al.,

281 2015). Therefore, monitoring of milk, as one of the potential sources of these heavy

282 metals, is necessary (Singh et al., 2011).

13
283 In this research, Pb concentration in raw cow's milk, was higher than the permissible

284 limit in most of the sampling areas. These results are in agreement with others

285 considering areas near contamination sources, such as roads (Simsek et al., 2000;

286 Perween, 2015), mining areas (Giri et al., 2011; Gonzalez-Montaña et al., 2012), coal-

287 fired power plants (Gonzalez-Montaña et al., 2012; Tunegová et al., 2016) dumps,

288 metropolitan areas and industrial units (Simsek et al., 2000; Swarup et al., 2005; Patra et

289 al., 2008; Hyseni and Musaj, 2014; Perween, 2015).

290 Our results showed the values of lead in the cow milk samples were in agreement with

291 those reported from Turkey (Simsek et al., 2000; Ayar et al., 2009), Croatia (Pavlovic et

292 al., 2004; Bilandzic et al., 2011), and several times higher than those reported from

293 India (Tripathi et al., 1999; Dhanalakshmi and Gawdaman, 2013), Thailand (Parkpian et

294 al., 2003), Italy (Licata et al., 2004), South Africa (Ataro et al., 2008), Spain (Gonzalez-

295 Montaña et al., 2012), Greece (Gougoulias et al., 2014), and Iran (Najarnezhad and

296 Akbarabadi, 2013; Najarnezhad et al., 2015; Mostafidi et al., 2016). Although they are

297 inferior, to those investigated in Italy (Coni et al., 1995; Caggiano et al., 2005;

298 Anastasio et al., 2006), India (Swarup et al., 2005), Romania (Serdaru et al., 2001),

299 Pakistan (Javed et al., 2009), France (Maas et al., 2011), Sudan (Abdalla et al., 2013),

300 Kosovo (Hyseni and Musaj, 2014), Pakistan (Iftikhar et al., 2014) and Egypt (Meshref

301 et al., 2014).

302 Mean concentrations of the cadmium found were lower than those cited in Romania

303 (Serdaru et al., 2001), Croatia (Pavlovic et al., 2004), Poland (Baranowska et al., 2006),

304 Italy (Caggiano et al., 2005; Anastasio et al., 2006), Turkey (Ayar et al., 2009), Egypt

305 (Meshref et al., 2014), Kosovo (Hyseni and Musaj, 2014), but are similar to those

306 reported from Italia (Licata et al., 2004), Croatia (Pavlovic et al., 2004), Chile (Muñoz

14
307 et al., 2005), Greece (Gougoulias et al., 2014), and Iran (Najarnezhad et al., 2015).

308 Whereas most values are higher than cadmium levels reported from Argentine (Rubio et

309 al., 1998), India (Tripathi et al., 1999; Dhanalakshmi and Gawdaman, 2013), Thailand

310 (Parkpian et al., 2003), Brazil (Santos et al., 2004), South Africa (Ataro et al., 2008),

311 Spain (Sola-Larrañaga and Navarro-Blasco, 2009), France (Maas et al., 2011), Sudan

312 (Abdalla et al., 2013), Iran (Najarnezhad and Akbarabadi, 2013; Mostafidi et al., 2016)

313 and Pakistan (Batool et al., 2016).

314 To date, only one study assessed the Pb level in raw cow milk in the Southwest of Iran

315 (Tajkarimi et al., 2008) and none have analysed Cd. This is a region of special interest

316 because of its proximity to conflict areas and contamination sources (especially those

317 related to oil extraction and processing). Tajkarimi et al. (2008) sampled 14 milk

318 factories in different provinces of Iran and they found lead mean residues of 2.4±1.4

319 µg/kg in Shoosh (Khuzestan), one order of magnitude lower than the values indicated

320 here. Compared to other studies (Najarnezhad et al., 2015) carried out in the Northwest

321 of this country (West Azerbaijan province), we have reported higher exposure (µg/kg,

322 47.0 Pb and 4.7 Cd vs. 7.0 and 10.0, respectively). Whereas both provinces are in the

323 West of Iran, Khuzestan is closer to polluted areas and more exposed to dominant winds

324 carrying pollution from zones related to oil or conflict.

325 Other authors have reported Pb and Cd in cow’s milk from other areas in Iran.

326 Najarnezhad and Akbarabadi (2013) reported Pb and Cd in cow’s milk from the other

327 side of the country, the Khorasan-Razavi province in North-East Iran. They reported

328 values of 12.9 ± 6.0 µg/kg for Pb and 0.3 ± 0.3 µg/kg for Cd. Tajkarimi et al. (2008)

329 found average Pb values of 7.9 ± 0.98 µg/L, ranging from 1.5 ± 0.4 in Kerman province

330 to 23.4 ± 1.7 in Isfahan. For this author, 90% of the samples were lower than the

15
331 maximum limit (20 µg/kg), while the highest values were found in the areas of Tehran,

332 Isfahan, and West Azerbaijan, the most industrialized regions in Iran. Therefore, the

333 high levels of lead in milk may be the result of industrial air pollution in these regions

334 (Baranowska et al., 2006; Patra et al., 2008; Tajkarimi et al., 2008). However, other

335 possible causes have been cited, such as proximity of roads and highways, adding this

336 metal to gasoline (Baranowska et al., 2006; Tunegová et al., 2016), contamination of

337 food (Muñoz et al., 2005; Andjušić et al., 2012), prevailing winds in the area or use of

338 pesticides (Baranowska et al., 2006). Nevertheless, even the values in these more

339 polluted areas contrast with our results, indicating that Southwest Iran is an area of high

340 interest due to its exposure to heavy metal contamination.

341 For many researchers, the main source of lead contamination is irrigation with

342 contaminated water (Tajkarimi et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2011).

343 Therefore, simultaneous evaluation of metals in water and fodder could provide a good

344 estimation of environmental contamination sources (Bakary et al., 2015). Rather

345 surprisingly, neither Pb nor Cd could be detected in the water samples. Thus, the role of

346 water as a source of heavy metals, either by direct ingestion by the animals or indirectly

347 by irrigation seems unlikely. In present study, elevated Pb and Cd levels were detected

348 in all fodder samples, so cattle fodder should be considered as the major source of Pb

349 and Cd in milk samples, despite the absence of a link with irrigation water. Air

350 contamination seems to be a likely culprit here, either from the exhausts of oil

351 extraction or processing activities or from dust being blown from contaminated areas

352 (Dahshan et al., 2013; Bakary et al., 2015; Perween, 2015).

353 We have estimated the weekly intake (WI) of Pb and Cd for the Iranian population

354 through consuming milk. The WI for Pb for a typical young Iranian adult of 60 kg is

16
355 46.2 μg. The values found are well below (%3.1 TWI) the previously stablished risk

356 value of 1500 μg/week for a 60-kg person (EFSA, 2011; JECFA, 2011), which would

357 indicate a low risk for consumers at the sampled regions. It is important to note that this

358 research only refers to milk intake, which may have a very low contribution to the total

359 intake of Pb in the regional population.

360 The estimated WI of Cd from ingested milk for a 60 kg-person was determined to be 4.6

361 µg. Taking into account the JECFA (2010) limit value of 25 μg/kg b. w./month, the

362 ma imum monthly intake of Cd for the average Iranian should not e ceed 1500 μg,

363 which is appro imately 350 μg/week. If we use the WI of 2.5 μg/kg b. w., established

364 by EFSA (2011), the scenario of maximum Cd concentrations in this research shows a

365 weekly intake of 150 μg for a 60 kg- person. In both cases, the weekly intake of Cd in

366 the investigated areas, due to ingestion of milk, is well below the risk values proposed,

367 being 1.3 and 3%, respectively. It is important to take into account the contributions of

368 lead in other sources and not only in milk.

369 However, considering the cumulative nature of Pb and Cd and the fact that children and

370 especially toddlers mainly depend on milk for feeding, it might be of concern to this age

371 group in the long term. For instance, an assessment on “cadmium dietary e posure in

372 the uropean population” ( FSA, 2012), shows that the main contributors to Cd

373 exposure, for adults, children and adolescents are starchy roots and tubers, grains and

374 grain-based products, vegetables and derivatives. However, and not surprisingly, milk

375 and dairy products are the main Cd sources for infants and toddlers. It is assumed that

376 children’s e posure would be 2–3 times that of the general population on a body weight

377 basis (JECFA, 2011).

17
378 Both documents show that overall exposure is the result of not only a few main

379 contributors but the addition of contributions of a number of different food groups

380 (JECFA, 2011; EFSA, 2012), although the contribution of milk and dairy products

381 varies between 6 and 8% (JECFA, 2011). Nevertheless, other age groups may be at risk,

382 since exposure to Cd may be higher when other food batches are ingested.

383 Pb and Cd do not have a biological function, are toxic, and can be accumulated in the

384 body (Liu, 2003; IARC, 2006: JECFA, 2011). The International Agency for Research

385 on Cancer (IARC) has classified Cd and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to

386 humans (group I) on the basis of sufficient evidence in both humans and experimental

387 animals (IARC, 1993; IARC, 2017). This same Agency, the IARC, has placed inorganic

388 lead compounds as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A) (IARC, 2006; IARC,

389 2017), while organic lead compounds are not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to

390 humans (Group 3) (IARC, 2006). However, the Environmental Protection Agency

391 ( PA) classified lead and compounds (inorganic) at Group 2B “as probable human

392 carcinogen", and to be considered "reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens"

393 (IRIS-EPA, 2004).

394 Considering the toxicity of these heavy metals, their probable carcinogenicity, the

395 neurological and nephrotoxic effects, and the findings in the sampled areas (especially

396 Hamzed), we strongly recommend to establish a continuous monitoring system in the

397 areas affected by high levels of contamination, specifically in cattle ranches close to oil

398 fields. Although the exposure seems to be far from those warned by the international

399 organizations, our report puts Southwest Iran apart from the rest of the country and

400 supports our hypothesis on the increased levels of Pb and Cd, and potentially other

401 heavy metals and pollutants. The monitoring data can be used to assess the exposure

18
402 and help the managers and policymakers to choose the best options for reducing human

403 exposure and the related risk.

404

405 5. Ethical Approval

406 The proposal for this study was approved by the ethics committee of Dezful University

407 of Medical Sciences, Dezful, Iran.

408

409 6. Conflicts of Interest

410 No competing interests are declared by the authors.

411

412 7. Authors’ Contributions

413 R. Norouzirad and A. Shahrouzian designed the study; M. Khabazkhoob, F. Ali

414 Malayeri, H. Moallem Bandani, M. Paknejad and B. Foroughi-nia carried out the

415 samplings and analyses; M. Khabazkhoob, A. Fooladi Moghaddam carried out the data

416 analysis; J.R. González-Montaña and F. Martínez-Pastor contributed to the analysis of

417 the data. R. Norouzirad and A. Fooladi Moghaddam and H.Hosseini wrote the draft;

418 J.R. González-Montaña and F. Martínez-Pastor contributed to the preparation of the

419 manuscript and revised it critically. All authors contributed to the final version and have

420 read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

421

422 8. Acknowledgments

423 We thank the Research Deputy of Dezful University of Medical Sciences, Dezful, Iran

424 for financial support of this project, Grant No. DUR-126 and Ms. Ana Sanchez and

425 Dr.Mehranoosh Dolatshahi for their English revision.

19
426

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640

641

29
642 10. Tables and Figure

643 Table 1. Average Pb levels (µg/kg) in milk samples in each sampling area.

Pb
Regions
N Minimum Maximum Mean SE

Daste Lale 10 N.D 100.0 42.50 † 7.66

Tanour Boland 13 N.D 50.0 27.50 † 2.86

Golkhane 7 4.0 50.0 27.00 † 5.02

Cham Golak 11 10.0 50.0 33.33 † 2.81

Al-Mahdi 3 30.0 50.0 36.67 † 6.67

Shirin Ab-Dez 21 4.0 200.0 63.14 † 8.38

Hamzeh 15 1.0 250.0 114.20 † 14.69

Kolouli 3 10.0 20.0 15.00 2.89

Bande-Bal 3 30.0 40.0 35.00 † 2.89

Pirouzi 3 20.0 100.0 46.67 † 26.67

Behrouzi 5 0.5 50.0 16.70 8.65

Safiabad 3 2.0 60.0 30.67 † 16.75

Mianrrood 4 10.0 30.0 20.00 4.08

Pishineh 17 N.D 150.0 29.43 † 8.34

644 N.D: no detected.

†
645 Mean Pb levels of these areas were above permissible limits (20 µg/kg).

30
646

647 Table 2. Average Cd levels (µg/kg) in milk samples in each sampling area.

Cd
Regions
N Minimum Maximum Mean SE

Daste Lale 10 1.0 2.0 1.50 0.23

Tanour Boland 13 N.D 100.0 26.75 6.78

Golkhane 7 1.0 3.0 2.00 0.46

Cham Golak 11 N.D 6.0 2.17 0.45

Al-Mahdi 3 N.D 1.0 0.47 0.29

Shirin Ab-Dez 21 0.8 4.0 1.83 0.18

Hamzeh 15 N.D 10.0 3.14 0.60

Kolouli 3 1.0 3.0 2.00 0.58

Bande-Bal 3 2.0 3.0 2.50 0.29

Pirouzi 3 N.D 1.0 0.33 0.33

Behrouzi 5 0.6 5.0 2.52 0.85

Safiabad 3 N.D 1.0 0.40 0.31

Mianrrood 4 0.5 3.0 1.50 0.54

Pishineh 17 N.D 10.0 1.49 0.57

648 n.d: no detected

649

31
650 Table 3. Average Pb and Cd levels (µg/kg) in the 118 milk samples collected in the

651 study, and proportion of samples above permissible limits (Pb: 20 µg/kg).

Samples above
Metal Mean ± SE Minimum Maximum
permissible limits

Pb 47.0 ± 3.9 N.D 250.0 97 (82.2%)

†
Cd 4.7 ± 1.0 N.D 100.0

†
652 There is not an established limit.

653

32
654 Figure 1. Sampled areas in this study.

655

656 A: Daste Lale; B: Tanour Boland and Golkhane; C: Cham Golak; D: Al-Mahdi; E:

657 Shirin Ab-Dez; F: Hamzeh, G: Kolouli; H: Bande-Bal; I: Pirouzi; J: Behrouzi; K:

658 Safiabad; L: Mianrood; M: Pishineh. Notice the position of the oil and gas fields and

659 related facilities (refineries, pipelines, processing plants, tanker terminals) and the

660 polluted areas by the Southwest Iran-Iraq border relative to these areas, considering also

661 the predominant West and Southwest winds.

662

663

33
664 Figure 2. Weekly intake (WI) for Pb and Cd, calculated from 2 to 90 years of age,

665 taking into account body weight and approximate milk/dairy intake at different ages in

666 Iran.

667

668

34
669

670 WI was calculated according to our results, in a "mean exposure" scenario (WI;

671 47 µg/kg milk for Pb and 4.7 µg/kg milk for Cd) and in a "maximum exposure"

672 scenario (WI max; 250 µg/kg and 100 µg/kg, respectively). Notice that the WI is in a

673 logarithmic scale, in order to fit adequately both scenarios. Infants and young

674 adolescents have a higher milk intake, thus the peak at young ages. From 1 years old,

675 intake data is segmented by sex, with females having a slightly lower milk intake. The

676 dotted line on the top is the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) for each age (averaged by

677 sexes, because they are almost coincident in the logarithmic scale).

35