Getu Sima Reje

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME
POTENTIAL SOURCES OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION IN
DRINKING WATER OF ADDIS ABABA.
BY
GETU SIMA
FEBRUARY 2011
By
Getu Sima
February, 2011
A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Adds

Ababa University in Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of
Master of Science in Environmental Science
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
BY
GETU SIMA
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME

SCIENCE FACULTY
APPROVED BY SIGNATURE
Dr. Feleke Zewge ------------------

Advisor
Prof. B. S. Chandravanshi ------------------

Examiner
Dr. Mesfin Redi ------------------

Examiner
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and for most I offer my deepest heartfelt thanks and glory to the almighty GOD,
who is the source of my strength and inspiration in the ups and downs of my life. I
extremely appreciate my beloved wife Hirut Assefa, my children Nahome, Natan and
Mikyas for encouraging me to have patience when conditions were challenging and for
sharing all the troubles in my long years of studies. They were my swivels who kept me
in the track when things were hard.
I am so grateful to my advisor, Dr Feleke Zewge for his support from the very beginning
in giving me the opportunity to work on this thesis, facilitating conditions in chemistry
department laboratory in the digestion and analysis of my samples, in making the lab
staff members to cooperate me when things were difficult and for his comments through
every step of my work. My special thanks also go to Dr. Mesfin Redi for his invaluable
support in showing me direction how to write my thesis work scientifically and for other
contributions he made during the analysis of my samples. My heartfelt gratitude goes to
the technical assistants in chemistry lab. Miss. Amakelech Belete for her timely and
genuine help in the sample analysis, Mr.Hailegebriel Mengesha for his technical support
and in providing me the necessary chemicals and apparatus, Miss Marta technical
assistant in Env.Sci.lab. , Mimi, Hirut technical assistants in micro bio.Lab and my friend
Minaleshewa Atlabachew (PhD student in chemistry) for their invaluable full support.
A financial support was made by UN-Habitat and AAEPA and is greatly acknowledged.
Special thanks go to Mr. Zeleke Teferi (Head of AAWSA water quality control) for his
genuine technical support. I also have appreciation for his patience in his advice and
provision of transport service for more than two months in two rounds of sampling
periods and the necessary chemicals in helping me accomplish this study. Finally, I am
very grateful to all my brothers, sisters and other relatives for their precious support in
my MSc. Study.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………………………….....I
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………….II
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………….IV
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………V
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ………………………………………………………..VII
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………..VIII
1.INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..1
1.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2. HUMAN EXPOSURE TO LEAD ....................................................................................... 6
1.3. HEALTH EFFECT OF LEAD ........................................................................................ 16
1.4. LEAD POLLUTION OF WATER ................................................................................... 19
1.5. OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOME OF THE STUDY............................................................. 25

1.5.1. General Objective ............................................................................................... 25
1.5.2. Specific Objectives ............................................................................................. 25
1.5.3. Outcome of the Study ......................................................................................... 26
2. EXPERIMENTAL…………………………………………………………………...27
2.1. INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................................................ 27
2.2. REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS ..................................................................................... 27
2.3. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 27

2.3.1. Description of the Study Area............................................................................. 27
2.3.2. Soil Sampling...................................................................................................... 28
2.3.3. Preparation of Soil Samples................................................................................ 29
2.3.4. Determination of Soil pH.................................................................................... 29
ii
2.3.5. Digestion of the Soil Samples............................................................................. 29
2.3.6. Determinations of Metals in the Samples ........................................................... 30
2.3.7. Recovery Test ..................................................................................................... 30
2.3.8. Method Detection Limits .................................................................................... 31
2.3.9. Statistical Method ............................................................................................... 31
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………………………..32
3.1. INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION ...................................................................................... 32
3.2. MODIFIED DIGESTION PROCEDURE FOR SOIL SAMPLES ......................................... 34
3.3. EVALUATION OF ANALYTICAL FIGURES OF MERIT ................................................. 35

3.3.1. Precision of Results............................................................................................. 35
3.3.2. Validation of Optimized Procedure .................................................................... 35
3.4. DETERMINATION OF METALS ................................................................................... 36
3.5. SOIL ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................... 36

3.5.1. Dire Water Supply. ............................................................................................. 37
3.5.2. Legedadi Water Supply System.......................................................................... 40
3.5.3. Akaki Water Supply System............................................................................... 42
3.5.4. Gefersa Water Supply System ............................................................................ 45
3.5.5. Comparison of Pb, Cr and Cd Mean Concentrations and pH of the
Samples of the Four Sampling Locations……………………………………...47
3.5.6. Comparisons of Pb, Cr and Cd mean concentrations and pH of samples
near highways, agriculture and sediment around Dire and Legedadi dams……50
3.5.7. Comparisons Pb, Cr and Cd mean concentrations and pH of Soil Samples
near Highways, Agricultural Soil and Sediment around Akaki Boreholes…….52
3.5.8. Comparisons Pb, Cr and Cd Mean Concentrations and pH of Samples
near Highways, Agricultural and Sediment around Gefersa dam………………55
3.5.9. Comparison of Lead Mean Concentration in Soil Samples around
Addis Ababa Drinking Water Sources With that of other Cities of the World…58
4 .CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………….63
4.1. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................... ..63
4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................. 64
5. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………….....65
APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………………..80
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1: Locations of sampling sites used in this study ……………………….............28
Figure 2: Calibration graph of Pb, Cr and Cd Standard solution…………………..33 - 34
Figure 3: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of soil
Samples around the four sites………………………........................................49
Figure 4: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of
different type soil samples around Dire and Legedadi dams………………….51
different type of soil samples around Akaki GW sources…………………….54
different type of soil samples around Gefersa dam….......................................57
Figure 7: Correlation Coefficients of Heavy metals for Soil and Water Samples
around Drinking Water Sources of Addis Ababa……………………………..61
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: Estimate of Relative Lead Exposure in Selected Countries…………………….5
Table 2: Worldwide Emissions1 of Lead into Soils (1983)………………………..........10
Table 3: Estimated Worldwide Anthropogenic Emissions of

Lead to the Atmosphere (1983)………………………………………………..13
Table 4: Estimated Pb inputs (% of total) to agricultural soils in Germany,

Netherlands, Switzerland & the United Kingdom……………………………..25
Table 5: Instrumental operating conditions for determination of metals in soil

Samples using flame atomic absorption spectrometer………………................30
Table 6: Working standards and correlation coefficients of the calibration

curves for determinations of metals using AAS………………………………32
Table 7: Recovery test for soil samples………………………………………………....36
Table 8: Method Detection Limits for soil samples………………………………..........36
Table 9: Metal Concentrations for Soils that are not expected to be

Contaminated (background values) and the recommended Upper
Concentration Limit for Contaminated Soils…………………………………..37
Table 10: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of soil
Samples around Dire dam…………………………………………………….38
Table 11: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium Mean Concentrations and pH of Soil
Samples around Legedadi dam …...................................................................40
v
Page
Samples around Akaki Ground Water Sources………………………………43
Samples around Gefersa dam…………………………………………………45
Samples and Pb Mean Concentration of Water Samples around the Four
Sampling Locations…………………………………………………………..48
Table 15: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of

different types of soil samples around Dire and Legedadi dams……………..51
Table 16: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of different
types of soil samples around Akaki Ground Water Sources…………………..53
Table 17: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of different
types of soil samples around Gefersa dam……………………………............56
Table 18: Correlation (Pearson) Coefficient Matrices between Metal

Concentrations of Soil Samples in the four Sampling Locations (within
two Metal Mean Concentrations)……………………………………………..60
Table 19: Correlation (Pearson) Coefficient Matrices between Lead

Mean Concentrations of Water Samples and Soil Samples in the
four Sampling Locations……………………………………………………....62
vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AAEPA Addis Ababa Environmental Protection Authority.
AAP American Academy of Pediatrics.
AAWSA Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority.
AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program.
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program.
EU European Union.
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of the UN).
FDREMWR Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Water Resources.
FNB Food and Nutrition Board.
GPS Global Positioning System.
MADEPDWP Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection Drinking Water

Program.
LRTAP Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution
MOEE Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy.
NCM Nordic Council of Ministers.
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride.
UNDP United Nations Development Program.
USHUD United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.
WHO World Health Organization.
vii
ABSTRACT
The level of lead (Pb) in the world’s environment has generally increased since
industrialization. Although the consumption of lead in developed countries has been
declined, it is still being used in developing countries. The new specification that was
brought into law in early 2003 provides for both regular and premium gasoline and
leaded and unleaded types. Before this new specification, there was the use of leaded
gasoline in Ethiopia (Addis Ababa) for many years in the past.
The massive scale of human lead mining and consumption has led to substantial amounts
of lead (Pb) being released in to the environment and furthermore being transported by
environmental means through water, air and soil. Once the initial deposition of Pb into
the environment has taken place, it may be transferred between water, soil and air and
thus continue its long-range environmental transport contaminating the environment.
Lead can enter into water bodies through air, soil and direct discharge from point sources.
This study was aimed to investigate the potential sources of contamination of drinking
water by Lead in Addis Ababa. It was specially aimed at the determination of the
concentration of lead (Pb) and additionally those of Chromium and cadmium in soils
around Legedadi and Gefersa dams, and Akaki ground water sources and the extent of
their pollution in the drinking water of Addis Ababa using AAS.
For the analysis, known mass of dried soil samples were digested using wet digestion
method in 1.5 mL (30%) H2O2 and 6 mL of freshly prepared 3:1(v/v) mixture of
conc.HCl and conc.HNO3 (aqua regia) for three and half an hour in temperature interval
from 180 – 240 0C. The concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd were analyzed using Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer and the pH of the soil samples was also measured.
From analysis of the soil samples, the ranges of mean concentrations (mg/kg) of lead
,chromium and cadmium and pH ranges of the soils collected around the four sites; Dire,
Legedadi, Akaki and Gefersa respectively are 33.00 – 59.70, 35.40 – 68.60, 35.80 –
468.70 and 36.60 – 67.30 for Pb ; 17.70 – 34.40, 21.20 – 37.50, 43.00 – 988.00 and
viii
33.70 – 88.60 for Cr ; 2.30 – 3.40, 2.10 – 5.50, 2.90 – 6.60 and 2.30 – 3.90 for Cd
and the pH ranges are 5.40 – 5.86, 5.63 – 8.07, 6.53 – 8.49 and 4.82 – 5.82.
The ranges of mean concentrations (mg/kg), mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd and
pH ranges of the soil samples collected in the four sampling locations of the sources of
Addis Ababa drinking water respectively are ; 33.0 ± 1.6 – 469 ± 6.9, 17.7 ± 0.6 – 988
± 64.0 and 2.1 ± 0.1 – 6.6 ± 0.5 and 4.82 ± 0.04 – 8.49 ± 0.15.
ix
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Water is the basic requirement for life and is the most basic natural resource. However,
the quality of water is being deteriorated due to human activities such as decomposition
of municipal, domestic, industrial and agricultural wastes (Khan et al., 2005). Water, like,
air, is also an important part of our environment and is directly related to the sustenance
of human being or any other living organisms. Water quality is a critical factor affecting
human health and wellbeing. Safe drinking water is a basic need for human development,
health and well-being, and because of this it is an internationally accepted human right
(WHO, 2001).
The water quality conditions of streams, lakes and groundwater, are in general not
systematically assessed in Ethiopia (Feleke et al., 2003). In addition to water
contamination by pathogenic microbes, which is common in Ethiopia, chemical pollution
is increasing with industrialization and with the wide-spread use of agricultural
chemicals. Most of the population of Ethiopia in rural and urban areas doesn’t have
access to safe and reliable sanitation facilities. Some studies indicate that pesticides have
been detected in water and that surface and groundwater are polluted with nitrate and
nitrogen containing compounds.
The birth and growth of most cities in Ethiopia were associated with the development of
infrastructures such as transportation routes and establishment of industries. Thus cities
are often the commercial and industrial corners of the country. Addis Ababa too, has been
a host for the majority of small and medium scale industries. Thus they are the primary
source of water pollution (Abdulshikur, 2007). Heavy metal pollution from tanneries,
battery recycling processes and other industries may also cause damage to the
environment (Feleke et al., 2003).
Tamiru et al., (2003) reported that, the states of groundwater pollution in Addis Ababa
are similar to those realities existing in most developing countries. The level of water
pollution in Addis Ababa is tending to get higher with increasing human population and
1
low economic status of the inhabitants. Consequently pollution of surface and
groundwater is one of the most serious problems affecting the health of the residents.
Addis Ababa is the capital of Africa in general and that of Ethiopia in particular.
The fast population growth, uncontrolled urbanization and industrialization, poor

sanitation situation, uncontrolled waste disposal etc. cause serious quality degradation of
surface and groundwater. Currently water quality degradation in Addis Ababa has
become the main threat to the health of the residents specially living in the down stream
and in areas where there is shortage of municipal water supply (Tamiru et al., 2003). In
developing countries, there are no strict regulations in controlling pollutants from the
sources like, domestic, agricultural, and industrial activities.
Similarly, due to the absence of monitoring systems in the protection of environment,

there are a number of pollutant sources that continuously deteriorate the quality of
surface and groundwater in Addis Ababa (Birhanu, 2007). Within the last half a century,
there has been lack of information on the types and concentrations of heavy metals in
drinking water. However, it is possible to anticipate the presence of some heavy metals
like lead, in drinking water of Addis Ababa due to the presence of uncontrolled
anthropogenic activities (Fite, 2008).
Water is a major sink for pollutants from air or soil and also from industrial wastes.
Contamination of water with lead (Pb) is of major concern regarding its poisoning
throughout the world (Abbas and Jaffar, 2002). Lead is a soft bluish-grey heavy and
malleable metal that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust in trace amounts (AAP, 2007). It
is usually, found combined with other elements to form lead compounds. Lead’s
extensive use is largely due to its low melting point and corrosion resistant in the
environment (ATSDR, 1999) and (ATSDR, 2007).
It can be found in all parts of our environment. Much of it comes from the human
activities including burning of fossil fuel, mining and manufacturing. The naturally
occurring lead in the earth’s crust is found, in ores like galena, lead (II) sulphide, PbS.
However, human activities have resulted in the atmospheric lead, mainly as PbSO4 and
2
PbCO3. It is generally resistant to corrosion, but dissolves in low pH, acidic water.
Besides such weak solutions, a significant fraction may be present in an undissolved
form, colloidal particles, or larger particles of lead(II)carbonate, lead(II)oxide, and
lead(II)hydroxide (Narong, 2003).
Lead contamination of the environment is primarily due to anthropogenic activities

making it the most ubiquitous toxic metal in the environment (Amdur, et al., 1991). Lead
(Pb) and its compounds have been known to man for about 7,000 years and its poisoning
has been recognized for at least 2500 years. Lead has been used for thousands of years in
plumbing, production of glass and crystal, and in the manufacturing of ammunition
(AAP, 2007). The important releases of Pb to the environment may be grouped into the
following categories; releases from natural sources, in other words, releases resulting
from natural mobilization of naturally occurring Pb from the earth’s crust and mantle,
such as volcanic activities and the weathering of rocks; current anthropogenic releases
from the mobilization of lead impurities in raw materials like fossil fuels and other
extracted and treated metals; current anthropogenic releases of lead used in products and
processes as a result of mining and processing activities, manufacturing, use, disposal,
recycling and reclamation; releases from incineration and installation for municipal
waste, open burnings and from residues containing lead; and the mobilization of
historical lead releases previously deposited in soil, sediments and wastes (UNEP, 2006).
The major natural sources for mobilizations of lead from the earth’s crust are volcanoes
and weathering of rocks. The atmospheric emission from volcanoes in 1983 was
estimated at 540-6000 tonnes (Nriagu, 1989). The weathering of rocks releases lead to
soils and aquatic systems. This process plays a significant role in the global lead cycle,
but only rarely results in elevated concentrations in any environmental compartment.
Over the last 6000 years, natural and anthropogenic lead has been introduced into the
global environment through atmospheric transport.
Prior to industrial revolution, anthropogenic Pb was emitted only as a bi-product of

mining and smelting of lead, silver and copper ores. By the mid-18th century, combustion
of Pb containing coal became the primary sources of industrial lead emissions to the
3
atmosphere. Since the 1920’s, automobile exhaust with Pb containing gasoline additives
(alkyl lead), has overwhelmed all other sources of anthropogenic Pb emitted into the
environment (Atani and Mauro, 2005).
Lead is a significant environmental contaminant because it is toxic, persistent, and can be

accumulated and stored in biological tissues (ATSDR, 1993). Lead can enter the food
chain following deposition on soil, in surface waters and on plants. The release of lead in
the atmosphere by anthropogenic emission is the primary source of lead in the
environment (ATSDR, 1993). The transport and distribution of lead from fixed, mobile
and natural sources are primarily via air, although there is a continuous transfer of Pb
between air, water and soil. The transport and fate of Pb in the environment is influenced
by its interaction with a given environment medium (air, water and soil).
The interaction depends on the physicochemical properties of both lead and lead
compounds and the environment (MOEE, 1994a). Lead is used in a number of products
such as lead acidic batteries (PbO2), solders, alloys, lead crystal, flint glass, paint
pigment, insecticides [Pb3(AsO4)2], fireworks, ammunition, and building construction
materials (Hem,1978). The organolead compounds tetraethyl lead and tetramethyl lead
have been used as antiknock and lubricant agents in petrol. Lead contamination arises
mainly from the combustion of petrol, to which alkyl lead compounds in the form of
tetramethyl lead and tetraethyl lead have been added as an antiknocking agent in order to
prevent the fuel from spontaneously exploding before its ignition by spark plug.
Due to growing concerns about the problems associated with Pb, the use of leaded
gasoline has been decreasing globally at an annual rate of about 7% (Faiz et al., 1996).
The maximum level of Pb in leaded gasoline has been set to be less than 0.15 g/L since
July 1989 (Nriagu, 1990), but there are still many countries that use leaded gasoline with
Pb content of about 0.4 g/L (Faiz et al., 1996; Kaysi et al., 2000). In developing countries
such as Iran leaded gasoline with Pb content of more than 0.4 g/L was used in the past
decade (Rahmani et al., 2001). Lead standards for gasoline were established in 1985
(Abbas and Jaffar, 2002). These standards allow Pb concentrations for unleaded and
4
leaded gasoline 0.013 g/L and 0.4 g/L respectively as a new specification for regular
gasoline. This standard is also being implemented in Ethiopia (ESMAP, 2003).
Marcantonio et al., (2002) indicated that more than 95% of present-day lead deposited in
the environment is of anthropogenic origin. The anthropogenic Pb is distributed through
the atmosphere and subsequently enters the terrestrial and marine environments by wet
and dry depositions. The history of anthropogenic Pb emissions has been investigated by
analyzing the isotope composition of lead in suspended particulate matter (aerosols),
sediments, water, ice and soil. The residence time of Pb isotopes in the atmosphere is of
about two weeks (Veron et al., 1999); the residence time of Pb in deep water varies
between 50-200 years.
Table 1: Estimate of relative Lead Exposure in Selected African Countries (Adapted

from WRI 2002 / as cited in ESMAP (2003).
Exposure to
Average Actual leaded
Market Motor Maximum
% gasoline Actual Leaded Total Urban gasoline
Share of gasoline Lead
consumed Lead gas Population in (tons per
Country Leaded consumed concentration
in urban Conc. Emission thousands Million
Gasoline {a}(million in Gasoline
areas Gasoline (metric (1995) urban
(%) 2002a liters) (g/L)
(g/L)b tons) populations
in (1995)
Ethiopia 100 188 70 0.6 0.06 11 8,695 0.9
Ghana 100 806 80 0.6 0.1 81 6,222 10.4
Kenya 100 458 70 0.4 0.2 92 7,763 8.3
Senegal 100 242 80 0.8 0.2 48 3,629 10.7
Tanzania 100 165 70 0.4 0.2 33 7,279 3.2
a
Market share and fuel consumption data are for 2002 but for Kenya is 1995 data.
b
Lead content for Ghana is average actual for 2001/02 (Jan 01–May 02); for Tanzania, Senegal & Kenya
lead content is assumed.
The table shows that the lead exposure in Ethiopia and Tanzania is expected to be lower
than in neighboring Kenya or similar countries like Ghana and Senegal. However, the
overall Pb emissions per capita in Ethiopia urban areas may be lower for those people
whose main activities take place closest to the major roads. This exposure can be
expected to be similar to that observed in other countries where gasoline has a similar Pb
content to that used in Ethiopia (ESMAP, 2003).
5
ESMAP (2003) reported that, at present, because the Ethiopian vehicle flow is small and
the residents dispersed, the impacts of airborne Pb and other pollutants are likely to be
low in an international context and in relation to other environmental issues. However,
the problem is concentrated in the major cities where the ambient atmospheric Pb and
associated heath problems would be larger and growing. For example, a rough estimate
of the amount of urban lead exposure from gasoline for Ethiopia in relation to other
selected Sub-Saharan African or similar countries is shown in Table 1.
This study aims to investigate the potential sources of contamination of drinking water by
Lead in Addis Ababa. It specially aims at the determination of the concentration of lead
(Pb) in soils around Legedadi and Gefersa dams, and around Akaki ground water. It also
aims at the comparison of concentrations of Pb in the water samples particularly from
dams and Akaki boreholes with that of the soil samples to evaluate whether the soils
around the water sources could be the cause for Pb pollution of the water or not.
1.2. Human Exposure to Lead
Lead is not a natural constituent of human body. It may enter the body by ingestion and
inhalation. Exposure pathways include industrial emissions, auto emissions, lead-based
paint, ambient air, indoor and outdoor dust, and soil (CDC, 2005). Lead may be a public
health threat in two primary ways: 1) through surface water contamination of domestic
water supplies, 2) through accumulation in soils to a level that could harm through
ingestion by children or absorption by pregnant women, to unborn child. Dissolved Pb at
consumer level is primarily derived from Pb pipes, Pb solder used in connections of
copper pipes and Pb in plumbing fixtures or pumps (Fred et al., 1998).
The background concentration of lead in the earth’s crust is 16 µg/g (Juberg, 2000), but
human industrial activities have resulted in Pb concentrations several orders of magnitude
above background levels in soils (up to 5,000 µg/g), freshwater (up to 10 µg/L), and air
(up to 10 µg/m3) (Juberg, 2000). The global distribution of Pb, coupled with its well-
documented deleterious effects on biological systems makes it one of the most hazardous
environmental toxicants. The fact that lead is toxic has been known for more than 2000
6
years, but there remains some uncertainty about knowledge of the complex relationship
between Pb exposure and human response (Juberg, 2000).
1.2.1. Sources of Exposure
Lead is one of the most toxic heavy metals found in the environment (Needleman et al.,
1990) and has become the most widely distributed toxic heavy metal in the urban
environment as a result of its extensive use as antiknock additive in gasoline in the past
(Brown and Hem, 1984). Consideration of lead intake by man must take into account
other routes in addition to ingestion in food. Air contains concentrations of lead that vary
with the degree of urbanization and industrial pollution. Therefore, in the course of
respiration, lead is inhaled and some of it is then absorbed into the body. Similarly,
drinking water may contain concentrations of lead which differ according to geographical
location.
Thus food, water and air contribute to the total intake of lead, and their relative
importance with respect to the resulting body burden of lead depends on the proportion of
lead retained in the body from each source. Humans are exposed to lead through different
routes. These exposures may occur due to inhalation of ambient lead in air (Harrison and
Laxen, 1981). Some pathways by which children increase their exposure to lead are
putting toys, fingers and other non-food items (such as paint) in their mouth (Gottlieb and
Koehler, 1994).
Surif and Chai (1995) found that the occupational groups, such as printing press workers
and bus drivers have increased lead burdens. Humans are also exposed to lead from
drinking water that passes through lead plumbing (Alexander et al., 1993).
Exposure to lead occurs mainly through inhalation of dust and air and ingestion of
foodstuffs, water and dust. Attention is drawn to the following:
• Inhalation is an important route of exposure for people in the vicinity of point

sources, including open burning of wastes containing lead products, in countries that still
use lead in petrol, and in some occupational settings including secondary lead recovery.
7
• Ingestion of lead in dust and soil is a major exposure pathway in children,
because of their biological and behavioral characteristics.
• Intake of food and beverages is usually the primary source of exposure for
adults in the general population. There are multiple sources of exposure. Attention is
drawn to the following:
• A wide range of exposure sources exist, whose characteristics vary both within
and between countries.
• In some countries, lead in petrol is still an important source of exposure. Other

sources include lead in paint, low temperature-fired ceramics, informal sector recycling
of car batteries, mine tailings and the air, soil and dust in the vicinity of point sources
(e.g., smelters).
• Dust in homes with paint containing lead pigment can cause elevated blood lead
levels in children.
• Tap water from leaded pipes can also be an important exposure source.
• Other potential sources of exposure include products containing lead, such as

cosmetics, traditional medicines, toys and jewelry, contaminated spices and food coloring
(UNEP, 2006). The main source of Pb exposure for children is house dust from lead-
based paints. Another source is soil contaminated by lead-based and past vehicle and
industrial emissions (Mary, 2004).
1.2.1.1. Environmental Sources
a) Soil
Lead occurs naturally in the earth’s crust, but due to increased release of anthropogenic
Pb into the environment, contamination of soil by lead constitutes a great environmental
concern. Lead is ubiquitous in soil. Levels of 8-20 mg/kg found in non-cultivated soils
indicate that it has always been present in man's environment, although not necessarily at
such high levels (WHO, 1972). In cultivated soils levels up to 360 mg/kg have been
8
reported (WHO, 1972). Near industrial sources lead may reach 10,000 mg/kg or more
(WHO, 1972). Proximity to roads with high traffic density may contribute substantially to
soil levels (for example, 403 mg/kg in the top 5 cm layer of soil) (WHO, 1972).
In addition, high levels of lead may occur in dust settling in urban areas, and may result
in direct contamination of food. Surface contamination in situ of plants growing near
highways does occur. Lead is absorbed by edible and none edible vegetation, so that
grasses, for instance in highly contaminated areas, may attain levels of 20-60 mg/kg. The
chemical forms of lead and the various factors limiting their availability for uptake by
plants, e.g. type of soil, pH, etc., are other important considerations. Lead enters the food
chain through plants or through accidental ingestion of soil. However, not all plants take
up lead to an equal extent so that the soil content of lead may remain high in spite of
cultivation. Lead accumulates similarly in food of animal origin from absorption and
retention of plant lead by farm animals (WHO, 1972).
The trace element content of soils depends on the nature of the parent rock and on the
amount of sewage sludges, industrial wastes and fertilizers, and impurities entering the
soil which may contain heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, nickel and silver. This may
gravely affect plants, animals and man. Several studies indicated Pb pollution in the
surface soil due to the use of leaded gasoline in developed countries (Mellor and Bevan,
1999; Al-Chalabi and Hawker, 2000; Sutherland et al., 2000; Li, 2006), but the extent of
the pollution has not been quantified in the developing countries like Ethiopia. The
environmental problems associated with leaded gasoline are aggravated where highways
are close to agricultural lands.
This is because accumulated Pb can be transferred to food chain by either direct

atmospheric fallout on the plants or plant uptake from the soil (Enayatzamir et al., 2008).
In urban areas automobile exhaust contributes substantially to the atmospheric pollution.
Lead compounds are the major pollutants emitted by automobiles. In effect plants
growing on highways are usually exposed to more lead than other localities. Sewage
sludge containing large quantities of lead and other metals is regularly discharged on to
the field and garden soils due to increasing trends in urbanization (Paivoke, 2002).
9
Table 2: Worldwide Emissions1 of Lead into Soils in 1983 (Nriagu and Pacyna, 1988)
and OECD (1993).
Source (kg x 106)

Agricultural and food wastes 1.5-27
Animal wastes, manure 3.2-20
Logging and other wood wastes 6.6-8.2
Urban refuse 18-62
Municipal sewage sludge 2.8-9.7
Miscellaneous organic wastes including excreta 0.02-1.6
Solid wastes, metal manufacturing 4.1-11
Coal fly ash, bottom fly ash 45-242
Fertilizer 0.42-2.3
Peat (agricultural and fuel use) 0.45-2.0
Wastes of commercial products 195-390
Atmospheric fall-out 202-263
Total input to soils 479-1113
Mine tailings 130-390
Smelter slags and wastes 195-390
Total discharge on land 808-1893
1
Current estimate (1992) would be lower, given the reduction that has occurred in airborne emissions of
lead from mobile sources. Many of these emissions are localized due to the nature of the particulate matter.
b) Air
Lead is one of the most toxic heavy metals found in the environment (Needleman et al.,
1990) and it can be released in to the atmosphere from different sources. The increased
“motorization” and the still widespread use of lead additives for petrol in developing
countries; however points at fuel additives as a source of lead emission to air that
continuously must call for special attention in a global context. It is estimated that 35 %
of automotive lead emissions are subject to long-range transport.
10
The major sources for emission to air from natural sources are volcanoes, airborne soil
particles, sea spray, biogenic material and forest fires. Total emission to air from natural
sources in 1983 is estimated at 970-23000 tonnes per year (Nriagu, 1989); roughly 10%
of the total anthropogenic air emission in the mid-1990. The most comprehensive
assessments of the global atmospheric emission dated back to 1983. The reduction in the
use of lead as fuel additive and implementation of emission reduction measured has
caused the emission to lower significantly. From 1983 to mid 1990’s the total emission
of lead to air decreased from about 330,000 tonnes (medium estimates of (Nriagu and
Pacyna, 1988) to 120,000 tonnes.
In the mid-1990’s fuel additives still accounted for 74% of the global lead to air. Besides
fuel additives non-ferrous production and coal combustion were the major sources. In
EU15 in 1998 fuel additives accounted for 61%, but this amount will today be
significantly lower making production processes (mainly non-ferrous metal production)
and combustion in manufacturing industry (mainly coal combustion ) as the major
processes. It should be noted that some sources may be significantly under estimated due
to methodology of the inventories used for the world and EU15 estimates. In particular
waste incineration may be underestimated (AMAP, 2002).
In rural areas levels of lead in air of 0.1µg /m3 or less are found (WHO, 1972). However,
depending upon the degree of pollution due to urbanization, the amounts of lead in city
air range from 1-3 µg/m3, and will occasionally be much higher under peak traffic
conditions (WHO, 1972).On the basis of the information available, and depending upon
the degree of urbanization of the area concerned, its topographical situation, weather
conditions, and habitat, it may be assumed that the intake of lead by inhalation in cities
could on occasion be 100 µg/day (WHO, 1972).
Lead-containing dusts are present in many manufacturing processes and may add to the
lead content in all foods to a small degree (Shy et al., 1971). Infants and children may be
exposed to proportionally higher levels than adults because the higher metabolic rate
would involve the inhalation of two to three times the amount of a given air pollutant.
11
Some unconfirmed reports have suggested that a very small proportion of the total lead in
urban air might be in organic form. This is a separate problem that needs to be considered
by experts in air pollution. The contribution of lead from air to the total intake can be
estimated only from the total body burden (WHO, 1972).
The contributors to the atmospheric level of lead are industrial lead smelters, disposal of
discarded batteries and other lead-containing materials, burning of garbage and old
painted wood, weathering of old lead-containing paints on buildings, as well as the
burning of coal and fuel oil. A source of lead that calls for particular consideration is the
lead tetra-alkyls used as petrol (gasoline) additives. The lead derived from petrol
additives contributes not only to the intake through inhalation but also to the intake
through ingestion as a result of fallout from vehicle exhausts on nearby food crops. An
increased lead content may be found in crops at distances up to 50 m from highways,
depending on weather conditions and traffic volume (WHO, 1972).
Although previously significant, in many countries the atmospheric contributions to total

lead levels derived from fossil fuels is now less important compared with that from lead-
containing petrol additives. The very low atmospheric levels of alkyl lead compounds in
city air do not contribute significantly to the lead problem. Tobacco smoking may also
contribute to lead intake by man (FAO/WHO, 1967). While atmospheric lead is present
in relatively small concentrations, this source assumes considerable importance because a
greater proportion of lead is likely to be absorbed after inhalation than after ingestion.
In Nigeria, it has been predicted that at least 15,000 kg of lead is emitted into the
environment through burning (Agbo, 1997). Hence automobile exhausts were believed to
account for 80% of the air pollution and lead content in Nigeria’s super grade gasoline is
600-800 mg/L (Osibanjo and Ajayi, 1989; Shy, 1990), which is much higher than
permissible levels in some pollution conscious countries.
12
Table 3: Estimated Worldwide Anthropogenic Emissions of Lead to the Atmosphere in
1983 (Adapted from Nriagu and Pacyna, 1988) and OECD (1993).
Source category Emission rate (thousand tones )

Coal combustion
electric utilities 0.78-4.65
industry and domestic 0.99-9.90
Oil combustion
electric utilities 0.23-1.74
industry and domestic 0.72-2.15
Pyrometallurgical non-metal production
mining 1.70-3.40
lead production 11.7-31.2
copper-nickel production 11.0-22.1
zinc-cadmium production 5.52-11.5
Secondary non-ferrous metal production 0.09-1.44
Steel and iron manufacturing 1.07-14.2
Refuse incineration
municipal 1.40-2.80
sewage sludge 0.24-0.30
Phosphate fertilizers 0.06-0.27
Cement production 0.02-14.2
Wood combustion 1.20-3.00
Mobile sources1 248.03
Miscellaneous 3.90-5.10
Total 289-376
Median value 332
1
Current (1992) estimates for such emissions would be considerably lower given the reduction in the use of
tetraethyl lead that has occurred since 1983. According to the International Lead and Zinc Study Group,
worldwide (excluding Economies in Transition and China) use of lead in the production of tetraethyl lead
had declined to 68 000 tones in 1992. Approximately 75 per cent of this amount would be emitted to the
atmosphere, with the remaining 25 per cent being deposited in the engine oil and tailpipe (US EPA, 1986).
13
c) Water
Sea-water contains lead (0.003-0.20 mg/L). Natural water contains no more than
0.005 mg/L but in the presence of nitrate, ammonium salts or dissolved carbon dioxide
the water becomes plumbosolvent. This occurs in soft, slightly acid water in older homes
where lead piping is still in use (WHO, 1972). Levels of lead as high as 25 mg/L have
been reported (Egan, 1972). Hard waters normally lay down a protective coat of calcium
salts which avoids this hazard, but even this form of protection may not apply if naturally
hard water also has a high organic and nitrate content. The levels of lead encountered in
water supplies are probably about 0.01 mg/L.
Assuming a consumption of 2.5 L of water per day the maximum lead intake from this
source would be 250 µg; this would contribute significantly to the total amount of lead
taken in by man. Another possible source of contamination that has aroused concern is
lead present in food containers, in the widest sense, including lead water-piping.
Depending on pH, mineralization and other factors, traces of lead may leach into food or
drink from such containers. It is recognized that the use of lead plumbing for drinking-
water supplies and especially for soft or softened water is not advisable.
There is little information on the ability of fish and shellfish to accumulate lead from
contaminated waters. The concentrations of 1.4 ppm in muscles of fishes from a lake near
a Pb mine and high values also been reported in 1971 for lead in shellfish (up to 10 ppm)
in certain areas in United States (WHO, 1972),
1.2.1.2. Industrial Sources
Lead is one of the major heavy metals that has been known for ages and has gained
considerable importance as a potent pollutant of the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Besides natural weathering processes of geological materials and soils, the main sources
of lead pollution are exhaust fumes of automobiles, chimneys of factories using lead,
effluents from the storage battery, industry, mining, and smelting of iron ores, metal
plating and finishing operations, fertilizers, pesticides and additives in pigments and
gasoline (Eick et al., 1999; Asamit, 1994; Dean et al., 1972; Field and Lager, 1975).
14
Lead is of great concern because it is widely recognized as one of the most ubiquitously
distributed toxic metals used in industries across many sectors 3.1 million tones of lead
was extracted in 2000 from the earth’s crust by man and brought in to circulation in the
technosphere. Besides this, a significance amount of lead ended up in metal extraction
residues or was mobilized as impurity by extraction of other minerals like coal from
metal extraction and the use of coal (NCM, 2003).
Lead is used in a large number of industrial processes. In people exposed occupationally

to lead fumes or dust the intake of lead by inhalation and by ingestion will be increased.
Therefore, part of the body burden of lead in particular individuals may be contributed by
industrial exposure. As mentioned below, industrial emissions near smelting works may
frequently add lead dust contamination to other environmental sources. Lead-containing
dusts are present throughout all manufacturing processes and gradually add to the lead
content of all foods to a small degree (WHO, 1972; Shy et al., 1971).
In the past, lead impurities in food additives were another source of lead. Modern
legislation and trade practice, and the adoption, in food additive specifications, of limits
for lead recommended in different reports of various organizations, have virtually
eliminated this hazard. Lead smelters and dumps where lead-containing material such as
old batteries has been discarded or burnt may contribute to localized environmental
contamination of the food supply (WHO, 1972). The primary industrial sources of lead
contamination include metal smelting and processing, secondary metals production, lead
battery manufacturing, pigment and chemical manufacturing, and lead-contaminated
wastes. Widespread contamination due to the former use of lead in gasoline is also of
concern (Smith et al., 1995).
1.2.1.3. Agricultural Sources
The use of lead arsenate in agriculture has diminished. Where its use is still permitted on
orchard crops, it contributes only a small proportion of the total intake of lead by man.
The use of lead-containing pesticides in tobacco has likewise diminished although it
15
might have contributed significantly to the lead intake by smokers. More recent analytical
data however are required (WHO, 1972).
1.2.1.4. Other Sources
Consideration of lead in food and water must take into account lead contamination of the
domestic environment. Old lead paint on walls and woodwork, and paints on toys may
be important sources of excessive lead intake in children (WHO, 1972). Lead glazes are
used on ceramic kitchenware, earthenware and stoneware vessels because they allow
more flexibility in the kiln temperatures for firing pottery. Lead may also occur in
decorative glazes on some pottery. The leaching of lead from inadequately fired glazes
has been investigated and it is known to present serious health hazards in vessels used as
containers for acidic foods and beverages.
Lead glazes for decorative purposes should not be placed in contact with food. Pewter
containers and tinned copperware, in which the use of impure tin was a frequent source of
lead, have now largely been replaced by aluminum and stainless steel containers. Tinplate
cans with soldered seams have been investigated as possible sources of lead
contamination for a variety of foods. In a survey carried out in the United Kingdom the
mean lead concentration for canned baby food was about 0.24 mg/kg compared with a
level of 0.04 mg/kg for baby food in jars (U.K. Report, 1972).
The tin coating itself contains little lead, if any, but the solder used for the seam may
contain up to 98% lead (WHO, 1972). Incineration also represents a potentially
significant source of lead exposure. The ash produced by municipal waste incinerators
contains lead (Denison and Ruston, 1990). In addition, this metal can be inhaled from
combustion gases or ingested since it is easily leached out of ash into soil or water.
1.3. Health Effect of Lead
The production and use of lead in industry and in the consumer products has exposed
people to Pb. Because lead is a basic element, it can not be degraded or broken down in
to a less toxic substance. It is widely recognized as one of the most versatile and
16
persistent toxic metals used in the manufactured products that end up in the public
domain. Lead is released to the biosphere from both natural and anthropogenic sources
(NCM, 2003). Therefore, when lead is found near human settlements by either naturally
occurring or anthropogenic processes, it may threaten public health until removed (CDC,
2005). Lead is of great concern because it is widely recognized as one of the most
ubiquitously distributed toxic metals used in industries across many sectors.
All credible evidence indicates that Pb is neither essential nor beneficial to living
organisms, and that all measured effects are adverse including those on survival, growth,
reproduction, development, behavior, learning and metabolism (Ronald, 1988). Lead is a
toxic material, known to be harmful to human health if ingested or inhaled. Lead in the
body can damage the brain, kidney, nervous system, and red blood cells. Children,
infants, pregnant women, and their unborn children are especially vulnerable to lead. In
children, lead has been associated with impaired mental and physical development, as
well as hearing problems. The harmful effects of lead in the body can be slight and may
occur without any obvious signs of lead poisoning (MADEPDWP, 2005).
It is a well-known toxin that causes delays in the physical and mental development of
children that are exposed to elevated levels. Pb poisoning causes anemia, damage to the
central nervous system, mental deterioration, and can impact all major body systems
(Mohd et al., 1998). Lead was historically widely used in plumbing and older plumbing
systems provide the opportunity for lead to dissolve in to drinking water, especially by
waters with low pH (Hem, 1978). Lead can be toxic even at very low exposure levels and
has acute and chronic effects on health and the environment. It is highly toxic to humans
and has no known beneficial effects in the body. Pb can affect the nervous system, the
reproductive system, and the heart and blood system. Even the lowest doses can impair
the nervous system. Chronic low exposure is of concern.
Lead bioaccumulates in the human skeleton, and can be released under pregnancy from
the bone structure to the blood. In the environment lead is known to be toxic to plants,
animals, and microorganisms. It also bioaccumulates in the wet tissues of mammals and
aquatic algae and invertebrates. Since it is nonbiodegradable and tends to bioaccumulate
17
in the cells of the living organisms, binding environmental requirements and urgent
treatment solutions are needed for lead removal from water, wastewater and other sources
(Kaan and Sevgi, 2008). Lead may also be a threat to children who ingest soil containing
Pb or to unborn children if sufficient lead is absorbed by the mother to cause elevated
blood lead concentrations in the fetus (Fred et al., 1998).
In particular, the ubiquities of Pb, its toxicity even in trace quantities and tendency to
bioaccumulate in the food chain make Pb poisoning a leading environmental health threat
(Joonki, 2005). Its exposure is considered as a major environmental health threat to
young children, because it affects their developing nervous systems and intellectual and
behavioral development (Mary, 2004). Lead poisoning causes various severe health
problems in vital organs of humans, such as damage to the kidney, liver, blood
composition, nervous system, reproductive system and retardation in mental function.
Neurodevelopmental effects in children, even at low levels of exposure, represent the
most critical effect. Other adverse effects include neurological, cardiovascular, renal,
gastrointestinal, haematological and reproductive effect (UNEP, 2006).
Lead is a general toxicant and accumulates in the skeleton. The vertical transmission in
humans occurs as early as 12th week of gestation. Young children absorb 4-5 times as
compared to the adults. Lead is toxic to both central and peripheral nervous system
(Athar et al., 2005). Certain population groups are vulnerable and especially susceptible
to lead. Attention is drawn to the following:
• New data highlight the special vulnerability of small children. Exposure of

children can be magnified by their activities and behavioral patterns and biological
characteristics.
• Exposure starts in utero since lead passes through the placenta into the foetus;
thus pregnant women are a population of concern.
• Occupational exposure (e.g., some workers in the informal recycling sector).
18
• Other vulnerable population groups include socially and economically
disadvantaged populations and the malnourished, whose diets are deficient in proteins
and calcium.
Lead is a well-documented neurotoxicant. Attention is drawn to the following:
• Lead exposure in children is linked to a lowering of their IQ.
• Epidemiological studies consistently find adverse effects in children at blood

lead levels down to 10 μg/dL. Recent studies reported lead-induced IQ-decrements in
children with blood lead levels below 10 μg/dL.
• There is presently no known threshold for the effect of lead.
•A growing number of studies suggest that exposure to lead may cause behavioral
deficits and lower functional skills during childhood and later in life (UNEP, 2006).
1.4. Lead Pollution of Water
The impact of human population on surface and groundwater is increasing with the
development of industry and population size in the city of Addis Ababa. The introduction
of undesirable materials into soil, water and air can occur not only as a consequence of
man's activities but also through the natural processes. As a result there is a change in the
characteristics of soil, water and air, which may have effect on the health of people.
Water quality degradation is one of the major environmental problems of these days. This
is due to its unique characteristics that make it crucial for the existence of life and an
important factor in many physical and biochemical processes.
The physical, chemical and biological quality degradation can limit the intended use of
water. Water pollution is a global problem and has been evident for a long period of time
(Tamiru et al., 2003). Lead deposited in water, either from air or through run-off from
soils, partitions rapidly between sediment and aqueous phase, depending on pH, salt
content, and the presence of organic chelating agents. Lead has a low vapor pressure and
thus, once deposited in water, does not volatilize into the atmosphere.
19
Lead exists in the aquatic medium in three phases; dissolved lead, suspended particulate
and sediment. Most of the Pb in water eventually goes to the sediment phase. Lead is
slightly soluble in water, so there is a potential for human exposure through drinking
water (MOEE, 1994a). Lead in wastes can be a source of groundwater pollution at
significant distances from the source in relatively rare cases (Fred et al., 1998).
Kaan and Sevgi (2008) have reported that pollution of water by toxic heavy metals
through the discharge of industrial wastewater is particularly a very difficult problem
threatening the ecosystem. Rapid industrialization has seriously contributed to the release
of toxic heavy metals to water streams. Toxic metal compounds not only contaminate
surface water sources (seas, lakes, ponds and reservoirs), but also contaminate
underground water in trace amounts by leaching from the soil after rain and snow.
Increasing concentrations of these metals in the ecosystem constitute a severe health

hazard due to their toxicity, accumulation and magnification throughout the food chain.
Lead is soluble in water, and this solubility is markedly increased by high water softness
and acidity (Davidson and Rabinowitz, 1991; Gaines, 1913; Raab et al., 1993). The
World Health Organization (WHO, 2006) has set a guideline of 10 µg/L for lead
concentration in drinking water. There is also a draft guideline value of 0.02 mg/L Pb
concentration in drinking water for Ethiopia (FDREMWR, 2002). Natural lead
concentrations of water bodies are generally low, and background concentrations of less
than 0.45-14 µg/L in ground water has been reported (Smedley et al., 2002).
However, contamination from anthropogenic sources is more common, and high lead
concentrations have been found in surroundings of metal mines and smelters (Miller et
al., 2004; Florea et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005b). Point contamination on a smaller scale
also occurs as a result of industrial emission, agriculture and dumping of sewage sludge.
Before the introduction of unleaded gasoline, the use of leaded gasoline was one of the
major sources of lead pollution. Road transport is still polluting the atmosphere, soil and
water near the highways (Caselles, 1998; Fakayode and Olu-Owolabi, 2002; Li, 2006).
20
Lead may be leached out, or washed out in suspension from pipes or from soil after
heavy rains or flooding especially in acid conditions (Narong, 2003). Mining, acid
battery manufacturing, metal plating, printing, textile, photographic materials, explosive
manufacturing, ceramic and glass industries are the main sources of lead contamination.
Moreover, lead contamination of drinking waters is often a result from corrosion of lead-
containing piping material (Kaan and Sevgi, 2008). Lead released to ground water,
surface water and land is usually in the form of elemental lead, lead oxides and lead
hydroxides, and lead metal oxyanion complexes (Smith et al., 1995).
1.4.1 Sources of Lead Pollution of Drinking Water
1.4.1.1 Pipe Materials for the Distribution of Drinking Water
Lead is present in tap water to some extent as a result of its dissolution from natural
sources but primarily from household plumbing systems in which the pipes, solder,
fittings of old plumbing systems (which may contain up to 50% of Pb), or service
connections to homes that contain lead (Murphy, 1993; Gulson et al., 1994; Gulson et al.,
1997; Seifert et al., 2000; Barton et al., 2002; Rajaratnam et al., 2002; Fertmann et al.,
2004) and (WHO,1996). Lead frequently occurs at concentration greater than the
guideline value in situations where lead pipes and solders are present.
Lead is a component of brass, bronze and gun-metal, which are used in fittings in
plumbing systems. In some circumstances, fittings made of these metals can be a
significant contributor to the concentrations of the Pb at the tap (WHO, 2004). Davidson
and Rabinowitz (1991) indicated that, though water supplies themselves can be
contaminated with lead; most lead in drinking water comes from residential plumbing.
Lead piping was uncommon after the 1930’s but lead soldering was common and legal
until 1986; and some plumbing fixtures today still contain lead (Maas and Patch, 2004;
Troesken and Beeson, 2003; U.S. Congress, 1986).
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe is also widely used in distribution systems. Lead has been
used as a stabilizer in unplasticised PVC water pipe in many countries, and may give rise
to elevated lead levels in drinking water for a time after a new installation (WHO, 2004)
21
and (Shah, 2002). Pb has been documented to leach from drinking water pipes resulting
in high concentrations of lead in the water that passes through (Muhammad, 2001). It is a
well-known substance to leach into water carried in PVC pipes that contain lead
stabilizers .Incinerators also release additives contained in PVC products into the
environment (Joe, 2002). PVC pipes contain compounds of lead that can be leached from
them and result in high lead concentrations in drinking water.
The amount of lead dissolved from the plumbing system depends on several factors like
water softness and standing time of the water, soft acidic water being the most
plumbosolvent (WHO, 1996). Lead concentrations up to 5580 µg/L have been detected in
tap water (Murphy, 1993; Gulson et al., 1994; Gulson et al., 1997; Seifert et al, 2000;
Barton et al., 2002; Rajaratnam et al., 2002; Fertmann et al., 2004). However, these
extremely high concentrations are rare, and in Addis Ababa, the WHO guideline of 10
µg/L was exceeded by three fold in raw water from dams and tap water from some
households (Fite, 2008).
1.4.1.2 Soil due to its High Lead Content
Human activities have significantly increased the global emissions of heavy metals,
particularly lead (Pb), in the surface environment (Nriagu and Pacyna, 1988). Lead is
among the most hazardous heavy metals that has damaging impacts on human and
environmental health (Wong and Li, 2004). Environmental bodies of water become
contaminated from contact with soil. Traffic induced Pb, as a result of using leaded
gasoline, is one of the major sources of lead in the populated and highly industrialized
areas (Fakayode and Olu-Owolabi, 2002).
Current anthropogenic releases from the mobilization of lead impurities in raw materials
such as fossil fuels and other extracted and treated metals; current anthropogenic releases
of lead in products and processes as a result of mining and processing activities,
manufacturing, use, disposal, recycling and reclamation; releases from incineration and
installations for municipal waste, open burning and from releases containing lead; and the
22
mobilization of historical lead releases previously deposited in soil, sediments and wastes
(UNEP, 2006).
Many surveys which mainly focused on specific locations such as industrial sites, parks
and soils along roadside, and soil Pb concentrations have been conducted in different
countries (Ferreira et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2005; Cloquet et al., 2006). Due to water
shortage in arid and semi-arid regions, soils in parts of these regions are irrigated with
sewage, which may have both positive and negative consequences (Yadav et al., 2002).
The positive aspect of wastewater irrigation is that nutrients and organic matter are
provided to soils (Horswell et al., 2003).
However, as a result of long-term irrigation with domestic sewage or industrial effluent,

the Pb concentrations in soils of the irrigated area were found significantly higher than
the background values (Bourennane et al., 2006; Dere et al., 2007; Rodriguez et al.,
2008). Atmospheric deposition of lead has also been reported as a major contributor to a
lake sediment burden. The presence of lead and other heavy metals has been reported in
soils and plants including leafy vegetables (Akinola and Ekiyoyo, 2006; Adeyeye, 2005;
Osibanjo and Ajayi, 1980).
Though the use of leaded gasoline decreased in recent times, the increasing number of
automobiles compensated its effect on the vehicles based on lead emission. In addition,
wearing down of vehicle tires can also introduce Pb (Giannouli et al., 2007) to the
roadsides soil. Because lead is immobilized by the organic component of soil, it
deposited from the air is generally retained in the upper 2-5 cm of undisturbed soil (CDC,
1991). The natural lead content in soil typically ranges from below 10 mg/kg soil up to
30 mg/kg soil. The concentration of lead in the top layer of soils varies considerably
because of the deposition, and accumulation, of atmospheric particulates from
anthropogenic sources.
In addition to atmospheric deposition, agricultural particles are sources of lead input to

soils. The final report of the EU Concerted Action AROMIS (Assessment and reduction
of heavy-metal input agro-ecosystems) (Eckel et al., 2005) provides summary
23
information on metal inputs to agricultural soils from minerals and organic fertilizers and
other sources. Soil and sediments are important sinks of lead in the environment. Lead in
soil is related to airborne lead since Pb in the air settles onto soil. This causes areas near
highways to have increased levels of Pb in soil, due to historic use of leaded gasoline.
Leaded paint, in the form of paints chips and dust, is another source of lead in soil
(Rabin, 1989; USHUD, 1990).
All of these lead sources create higher levels of lead contaminated soil in inner city
communities (Weitzman et al., 1993). Historically, atmospheric deposition of lead has
been the primary source of lead in soil. Most of the lead found in contaminated urban
area soils is thought to come from past uses of lead in leaded gasoline formulations
landfills and leaded paint. Landfills contain waste from lead ore mining and industrial
activities such as battery and information technology production and ammunition
manufacturing.
Past and present atmospheric emissions therefore contribute to the amount of lead in soil.
Areas of high traffic flow or near industrial sources are likely to have a greater
concentration of lead in soils and dust than more remote areas (ATSDR, 1993). Soil
represents a major sink for heavy metals in the terrestrial environment. Due to the non-
biodegradability and cumulative tendency of Pb, emitted lead from the vehicles
accumulates in the surface soils in the long run (Sutherland et al., 2000). The
concentration of Pb in the roadside soils is influenced by gasoline quality, traffic
intensity, as well as meteorological conditions like the velocity and direction of wind and
to some degree by precipitation (Viard et al., 2004).
Agricultural practices, such as irrigation using wastewater, insecticides, fertilizers and

sewage sludge, are usually regarded as the main sources of heavy metals in agricultural
soils (Chen et al., 1997; Vidal et al., 2004; Huang et al., 2007). As one of the most toxic
elements to human health, Pb has attracted increasing amount of researchers (Mirlean et
al., 2005; Hooker and Nathanail, 2006). Unhealthy effects caused by Pb include
neurological impairment and deficits in the functioning of the central nervous system
(Counter et al., 2005; Toscano and Guilarte, 2005).
24
Table 4: Estimated Pb inputs (% of total) to agricultural soils in Germany, Netherlands,
Switzerland and the United Kingdomb (Eckel et al., 2005) and WHO (2007).
Mineral Atmospheric Average total input

Manure b (%) ª
fertilizers (%) deposition (%) rate (kg/km2/ )
Germany 15 12 66 8.6
Netherlands 21 12 54 8.0
Switzerland 12 3 66 6.0
United Kingdom 6 2 78 7.0
a
Inputs from sludges, corrosion, dredgings and hunting were not considered.
b
Solid manure and slurry from breeding cattle, pigs and poultry.
Lead is released by various natural and anthropogenic sources to the atmosphere and to
aquatic and terrestrial environments and there are fluxes between these compartments.
The released lead (Pb) into the atmosphere is deposited on land and into aquatic
environments and some lead released on to soil over time is also washed out to aquatic
environments (UNEP, 2006). Much of the lead discharged to the air is ultimately brought
back to the ground or surface water through wet or dry deposition.
1.5. Objectives and Outcome of the Study
1.5.1. General Objective
The general objective of this study was to quantify Pb, Cr and Cd in soils around drinking
water supply sources of Addis Ababa and to deduce as soil could be one the possible
causes of Pb, Cr and Cd pollution of water from dams and ground water sources.
1.5.2. Specific Objectives
• To determine the concentrations of lead (Pb), chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd)
in soil samples around Legedadi and Gefersa dams and Akaki ground water
sources.
25
• To identify soil as one of the possible causes of lead contamination of drinking
water supply sources of Addis Ababa by comparing the mean values of the
concentration of lead in soil samples of this study with background values of Pb
in uncontaminated soils.
• To propose appropriate management systems for controlling the sources of lead
pollution of Addis Ababa drinking water based on the results of the findings.
1.5.3. Outcome of the Study
The outcome of the study will be very important in informing the decision makers or the
government bodies, health professionals, AAEPA, environmentalists, other scholars and
the society concerning the sources of lead pollution of drinking water in Addis Ababa. It
will help the decision makers or the government regulatory bodies together with the
federal EPA to set monitory systems in banning the use of materials causing leachate of
lead into drinking water of the nation wide. It also initiates the health professionals,
environmentalists and other scholars with related professions to study both the human
(especially children) health and environmental vulnerability due to the lead
contamination caused by variety of sources and informs the usefulness of remediation
measures in minimizing lead pollution.
26
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Instruments
Ceramic pestle and mortar were used for grinding and homogenizing and 1 mm mesh to
sieve soil samples; digital analytical balance (METTLER Toledo, Model AT250, and
Switzerland) and oven (Stuart Scientific, UK) were used for weighing and drying the
samples respectively. Quick-fit round bottom flasks (100 mL) fitted with reflux
condenser were used in Kjeldahl apparatus hot plate to digest the samples. BUCK
SCIENTIFIC MODEL 210VGP, USA) Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer equipped
with deuterium arc background correctors was used for the determination of Cd, Cr and
Pb. Other materials used in this study include; GPS for reading the coordinates of
sampling sites and pH meter (Professional Meter PP-21 Sartorius AG, Germany) for
measuring pH of soil samples.
2.2. Reagents and Chemicals
The reagents used in this study were all analytical grade. HNO3 (69-72 % Spectrosol,
England), HCl (38 %, Loba Chemie, India) for the preparation of aqua regia and 30%
H2O2 (ADWIC, Egypt). Stock solutions of the metals in the analysis (Cd, Cr and Pb),
1000 mg/L calibration standards were used.
2.3. Sampling and Analysis
2.3.1. Description of the Study Area
The capital city, Addis Ababa, is located in the geographical coordinate of 90 N and 380
45’ E, covering a total area of over 51000 hectares. It is a city of political and economic
significance being a base for African Union and many other international organizations.
The inhabitants are receiving drinking water from dire dam situated at the air distance of
20 km, Legedadi dam at the air distance of 19.50 km, Gefersa dam situated at the air
distance of 18.20 km apart from AAWSA office and Akaki water supply system and
spring waters and boreholes around the border of the city mainly Akaki sub-city (Fite,
2008).
27
The water from Dire and Legedadi is treated at Legedadi treatment plant and that of
Gefersa has its own treatment plant near Gefersa dam. The water from springs and
boreholes is treated at the sources and there is no treatment plant as such. The treated
water /or the water from the springs and boreholes is distributed to different reservoirs
around the city (there are 26 reservoirs in Addis Ababa). Then it is distributed to several
thousands of households from each reservoir.
Figure 1: Locations of sampling sites used in this study.
2.3.2. Soil Sampling
The areas selected for soil sampling were around Dire, Legedadi and Gefersa dams and
locations around Akaki boreholes. The sampling time was from 14th to 25th of March,
2009. A total of ninety triplicate composite soil samples from thirty locations were
collected randomly around the dams and the boreholes at a distance of about 250-500 m
and a depth of 0-10 cm using stainless steel shovel and plastic bags and taken to the
laboratory for Pb, Cr and Cd analysis. The coordinates for each sampling location were
recorded using a global positioning system (GPS). Soil samples were taken from
28
agricultural fields around the dams, sediment from industrial effluents around Akaki
boreholes and Akaki River and near to the highways to Nazareth and Desse.
2.3.3. Preparation of Soil Samples
The soil samples were first air- dried, then using oven at a temperature of 120 º C for 24 h
for complete dryness. The dried samples were ground with mortar and pestle and sieved
by a 1 mm mesh. The ground soil samples were placed in a plastic bag for storage and
homogenized before analysis.
2.3.4. Determination of Soil pH
The soil pH was determined following the method of Eckerts and Sims (Akinola et al.,
2008). The soil samples were dried and 5 g of the dried soil was mixed with 5 mL of de-
ionized water and stirred. The mixture was allowed to stand for 30 min. to allow it settle.
The slurry was decanted into a beaker and the pH was measured.
2.3.5. Digestion of the Soil Samples
0.5 g of the dried and ground soil sample was weighed using a digital analytical balance
and then transferred quantitatively in to a 100 mL round bottom digestion flask. 1.5 mL
of 30 % H2O2 and 6 mL of freshly prepared 3:1 (v/v) mixture of conc. HCl and conc./
HNO3 (aqua regia) were added to the soil samples (Ministerial Decree, 1999).
The sample was swirled gently to homogenize then fitted to a reflux condenser and
digested continuously for three and half hours on a Kjeldahl digestion block. The
temperature was adjusted with in certain time intervals from 180 °C to 240 °C as the final
temperature. The digest was quantitatively transferred to a 50 mL volumetric flask by
filtering with ARCO-110 mm / filter paper and then diluted to the mark with de-ionized
water. Each soil sample was digested in triplicate and hence a total of ninety digest were
made for the thirty types of soil samples.
All the digested samples were stored in refrigerator under 4 °C until analysis using AAS.
The solutions were used to determine the concentrations of the three elements by AAS.
29
For each of the digested samples three repeated measurements were performed.
Therefore, for each sample, the results were obtained from the mean of a total of nine
measurements.
2.3.6. Determinations of Metals in the Samples
Secondary standard solutions containing 10 mg/L were prepared from the stock solutions
that contained 1000 mg/L. These secondary standards were diluted with de-ionized water
to obtain four working standards for each metal of interest. Pb, Cr and Cd were analyzed
with flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer equipped with deuterium arc setting
corrector and standard air-acetylene flame system using external calibration curve after
the parameters (burner and lamp alignment, slit width and wavelength adjustment) were
optimized for maximum signal intensity of the instrument.
Table 5: Instrumental Operating Conditions for Determination of Metals in Soil

Samples Using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometer
Wavelength Detection limit Silt width Lamp

Element Energy
(nm) (mg/L) (nm) current (mA)
Cd 228.9 0.005 0.7 2.0 2.966
Cr 357.9 0.05 0.7 2.0 3.684
Pb 283.2 0.1 0.7 2.0 3.140
Immediately after calibration, the sample solutions were placed into the AAS instrument
and direct readings of the metal concentrations were recorded. Three replicate
determinations were made on each sample. The same analytical procedure was employed
in the determination of the metals in each three digested blank. The operating conditions
of AAS employed for each analyte are given in Table 5.
2.3.7. Recovery Test
The efficiency of the optimized procedure was confirmed by adding known concentration
of each metal in 0.5 g soil sample. The process of spiking was done as follow: 0.47 ml
(470 µl) from 100 mg/L Pb, 1 ml (1000 µl) from 1000 mg/L Cr and 0.2 ml (200 µl) from
30
10 mg/L Cd were taken and added (spiked) all together into 0.5 g soil sample. Then the
spiked samples were digested and diluted in similar way used for the soil samples. Each
sample was determined for its particular spiked metals by atomic absorption
spectrophotometer. For the sample triplicate spiked samples were prepared and triplicate
readings were recorded. The results are given in Table 7.
2.3.8. Method Detection Limits
Detection limit is defined as the lowest concentration level that can be determined to be
statistically different from an analyte blank or the minimum concentration that can be
detected by the analytical method with a given confidence limit. There are several ways
of determining detection limits of a given measurement. According to EPA
(Environmental Protection Agency) of America it is the minimum concentration of a
substance that can be measured and reported with 99% confidence that the analytical
concentration is greater than zero. The generally accepted and common definition of
method detection limit is the concentration that gives a signal three times the standard
deviation of the blank or background signal (Regassa, 2007). In this study, three blank
solutions were digested and triplicate readings were obtained for each sample. Then the
method detection limit of each element was calculated as three times the standard
deviation of the blank (3σ blank, n = 9), which is summarized in Table 8.
2.3.9. Statistical Method
One way ANOVA has been used in this study to determine the significance of variation
within the same and different soil samples. The computation was done by means of detail
calculations based on formula using computer with excel and Minitab (FNB, 2002).
Minitab was used to find out significance differences in the mean values of the
concentrations of the metals and pH of soil samples collected around the four sites
according to the following interpretations. No significance difference (p > 0.05) at 95%
confidence interval was determined for some soil samples within the same or different
sites. Significance difference (p < 0.05) at 95% confidence interval was also determined
for the mean concentrations of the metals and pH of some other soil samples. The graphs
of different data were obtained using origin Lab.
31
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Instrument Calibration
The character of results obtained for metals analysis using AAS are seriously affected by
the calibration and standard solution preparations measures. The instrument was
calibrated using four series of working standards. The operational standard solutions of
each metal were prepared freshly by diluting the intermediated standard solutions as
stated above. The concentrations of the intermediate standards, working standards and
value of correlation coefficient of the calibration graph for each of the metals are listed
below in Table 6. The calibration graphs for lead, chromium and cadmium are given in
Figures 2a, 2b and 2c.
Table 6: Working standards and correlation coefficients of the calibration curves for
determinations of metals using atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
№ Metal Concentration of standards (mg/L) Correlation coefficient

1 Cd 0.20, 0.40, 0.80, 1.60 0.99984
2 Cr 0.20, 0.40, 0.80, 1.60 0.99813
3 Pb 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 0.99773
32
0.025
Lead
0.020
Absorbance 0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Concentration(mg/L)
Figure 2a: Calibration graph of Cr standard solution (Y = 0.00104 + 0.00187 X;

R = 0.99813).
0.040
Chromium
0.035
0.030
Absorbance
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Concentration(mg/L)
Figure 2b:Calibration graph of Pb standard solution (Y = 7.1532E −4 + 0.00227X;

R = 0.99773)
33
0.16
Cadmium
0.14
0.12
0.10
Absorbance
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Concentration (mg/L)
Figure 2c: Calibration graph of Cd standard solution (Y= 1.55054E−4 + 0.00129X;

R = 0.99984).
The calibration curves for all the three metals, with regression coefficients values of
0.99813, 0.99773 and 0.99984 for Cr, Pb and Cd respectively, show well defined linear
relationships, and therefore were employed in determining the unknown concentrations
of the respective metals.
3.2. Modified Digestion Procedure for Soil Samples
The main goal in sample preparation for analysis is to find an optimum situation for
digestion. The optimum condition is the one which leads to minimum reagent volume
consumption, minimum digestion time, minimum residue (clear solution) and ease or
simplicity of the analytical procedure. The digestion of the samples in this study was
based on procedures used by Italian legislation given under Method C (Ministerial
Decree, 1999).
Minor modification was made in adapting the literature procedure. The digestion in
Method C was done using microwave oven. Since it was difficult to implement method C
as a whole using a Kjeldahl digestion block, some modifications were made for example
in temperature and time adjustments so that complete digestion achieved. The modified
procedure was to digest 0.5 g soil in 1.5 mL of 30 % H2O2 and 6 mL of freshly prepared
34
3:1 (v/v) mixture of conc. HCl and conc. HNO3 (aqua regia) within a given digestion
time interval for a total of 3½ hrs and temperature rang from180 to 240 °C.
3.3. Evaluation of Analytical Figures of Merit
3.3.1. Precision of Results
Analysts will always be concerned with the subjects of precision (repeatability of results),
that is, the harmony between a set of results. The agreement between the results can be
determined by standard deviation, variance, and coefficient of variance, relative standard
deviation, and variety of series measurements. In this study the precision of the results
were assessed by the pooled standard deviation and relative standard deviation of the
results of triplicate samples (n = 9) and three reading obtained for each sample. These
parameters are useful in estimating and reporting the probable size of indeterminate
errors.
The result of analysis was reported with corresponding standard deviation at 95%
confidence limit and relative standard deviation. It can be observed that the values of
percentage relative standard deviations (%RSD) are less than 10% for all the mean
concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd except for some mean concentrations with %RSD a bit
greater than 10% (i.e. 10.14, 10.15, 10.15, 10.45 for S7, S8, S10 and S13) for soil samples
collected around Legedadi dam in (Table 10), (S18, 10.43) in (Table 11) around Akaki
boreholes and (S29, 10.66) in (Table 12) around Gefersa dam for Pb and (S29, 10.34) in
(Table 12) around Gefersa dam for Cd. This verifies that the precision of the results
found by this method is good.
3.3.2. Validation of Modified Procedure
The efficiency of the modified procedure was evaluated by analyzing the digests of
spiked samples for soil samples. The recoveries of metals in the spiked soil samples were
93.8 % to 108 % for the collected soil samples. These values are within the acceptable
range of 100 ± 10% for analyses of biological samples such as plants (Regassa, 2007).
The results are given in Table 7. Thus, on the average good recoveries were obtained for
the metals in all the samples validating that the optimized procedure has good accuracy.
35
Table 7: Recovery Test for Soil Samples.
a b c
Conc. In Amount Conc. in spiked % Recovery
Metal
sample (mg/kg) added (mg/kg) sample (mg/kg) ± RSD
Cd 6.7 4 10.5 ± 0.23 95 ± 5.83
Cr 988 200 1165.6 ± 5.97 93.8 ± 2.98
Pb 469 94 572.4 ± 1.64 108 ± 1.74
a
average value of 9 measurements (mg/kg).
b
values are mean ± SD of triplicate readings of triplicate analyses.
c
values are mean ± SD of triplicate readings of triplicate analyses.
3.4. Determination of Metals
A blank solution consisting of the mixture of digestion reagents was used for the
calculation of method detection limits. Detection was calculated as three times the
standard deviation of the blank. The values of limits of detection for each element are
summarized in Table 8. Concentrations of the metals in the digested and diluted blank
solutions of the soil samples were determined with flame AAS employing external
calibration graphs. In a similar way, the average concentrations of Pb Cr and Cd in
digested and diluted solutions of soil samples were determined. The detail information is
discussed as follows.
Table 8: Method Detection Limits, (n = 9, MDL = 3σ in mg/L), for soil samples.
Metal Cd Cr Pb
Instrumental detection limit (mg/L) 0.005 0.05 0.1
Method detection limit (mg/L) 0.002 0.006 0.063
3.5. Soil Analysis
The soil samples were collected from four sampling sites such as Dire dam, Legedadi,
around Akaki ground water sources and Gefersa dam. The collected different types of
soil samples from the four sites were analyzed or the concentrations of Lead as the focal
interest of this study and other two additional heavy metals like Chromium and Cadmium
in the digested and diluted solutions of soil samples were identified with AAS. The mean
36
concentrations of the metals and pH of the soil samples with their respective %RSD
(Relative Standard Deviation) are given in Tables 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17.
3.5.1. Dire Water Supply
Dire is the newly constructed dam that is being used as one of the sources in providing
drinking water to the inhabitants of Addis Ababa as a supplementary source for Legedadi
dam. The water source areas of the rivers supplying to these dams are surrounded by
heavy agricultural activities with highly pronounced deforestation (Fite, 2008). The raw
water from dire dam flows together with its impurities like soil to Legedadi dam for
treatment and there by increasing the water supply to the inhabitants. The soil samples
were collected randomly around this dam and the concentrations of lead and other two
heavy metals were determined using AAS (Table 9). As it is shown in this table, out of
the five soil samples collected around Dire dam, S3 and S5 have relatively high lead
concentration(with significance difference at 95% confidence interval p < 0.05). The
rest three soil samples S1, S2 and S4 have almost the same lead concentrations which are
lower than that of S3 and S5. Further investigation is important to reveal why soil samples
3 and 5 have higher concentration of lead.
For chromium, S2, S3 and S5 have higher concentrations (with no significant different at
95% confidence interval and p > 0.05). However, S1 and S4 lower chromium
concentrations.
Table 9: Metal Concentrations for Soils for uncontaminated (background values) and
the recommended Upper Concentration Limit for Contaminated Soils (Hailu,
2007).
Concentration (mg/kg) dry soil

Metals
Background Recommended upper limit
Cd 0.1 – 0.5 3
Cr 11 – 22 100
Pb 2.6 – 25 100
37
Metal concentrations of soils around the world have been extensively reported and they
vary considerably from location to location, reflecting differences in the soil genesis
processes. In Europe, lead concentrations in top soils are spatially heterogeneous and
vary from below 10 mg/kg up to > 70 mg/kg. The median value has been estimated to be
22.6 mg/kg (CDC, 1991). The Swiss guide value of lead concentration in soil is 50 mg/kg
(Enayatzamir et al., 2008). Similarly; the background level of lead (Pb) in soil is 25.1
mg/kg in Beijing (Chen et al., 2004). In general the following average levels are accepted
for unpolluted soil, Cd = 0.35 and Pb = 19 mg/kg (Chang, 1996).
Table 10: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium Concentrations (mg/kg) and pH of Soil
Samples around Dire dam (n = 3). The values in parenthesis are percent
relative standard deviations (%RSD).
Sample Code Pb Cr Cd pH
S1 33.0 ± 1.6 (4.9) 18.2 ± 0.3 (1.7) 3.4 ± 0.3 (8.8) 5.62 ± 0.07 (1.25)
S2 36.2 ± 1.9 (5.3) 34.4 ± 0.8 (2.3) 3.3 ± 0.3 (9.1) 5.86 ± 0.03 (0.51)
S3 40.3 ± 2.3 (5.7) 30.0 ± 2.6 (8.7) 2.8 ± 0.2 (7.1) 5.76 ± 0.05 (0.87)
S4 35.3 ± 1.0 (2.8) 17.7 ± 0.6 (3.4) 2.3 ± 0.1 (4.4) 5.85 ± 0.02 (0.34)
S5 59.7 ± 3.1 (5.2) 31.3 ± 2.0 (6.4) 2.5 ± 0.1 (4.0) 5.40 ± 0.06 (1.11)
Out of the five soil samples collected around dire dam S1 and S2 have higher cadmium
concentrations (with no significant difference at 95% confidence interval and p > 0.05).
All of the five soil samples are acidic and their pH are in the interval between 5 and 6
(with significant different at 95% confidence interval and p <0.05) (Table, 9).
Discussion
Lead: The lead content in soil samples around Dire dam ranges from 33.0 to 59.7 mg/kg
with a mean concentration of 40.9 mg/kg. This range of Pb concentration is greater than
(6.02 – 17.66 mg/kg) which was reported in Hailu (2007) and the mean concentration for
lead in this site is less than 46.7 mg/kg, 110 mg/kg and 48.74 mg/ kg for Peacock, Kera
and Akaki Vegetable farms respectively and greater than 32.7 mg/kg for Kolfe reported
by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) in the study of metal concentration in Addis Ababa
38
vegetable farms. The mean lead concentration obtained in the present study for this site
exceeds the reported Canadian Environmental Quality Background value of 25 mg/kg
and lower than the EU upper limit of 300 mg/kg (Okunola et al., 2007) greater than the
median value of 22.6 mg/kg Europe soil (CDC, 1991), the background level of 25.1
mg/kg for Beijing (Chen et al., 2004) and the acceptable value of 19 mg/kg Pb for
unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996) and lower than Swiss guide line value of 50 mg/kg
(Enayatzamir et al., 2008).
Chromium: The chromium content in soil samples in this study around Dire dam ranges
from 17.7 - 34.4 mg/kg with mean concentration of 26.32 mg/kg and it is greater than the
value of (3.00 – 47.48 mg/kg) reported in Hailu (2007). Previous study conducted by
Fisseha and Olsson (2004) shows 81.0mg/kg, 115 mg/kg, 283 mg/kg and 86 mg/kg for
the farms peacock, Kera, Kolfe and Akaki respectively (Halu, 2007) and this mean
concentrations are greater than that obtained for Cr in this study . Tamiru (2006) reported
a mean concentration of Cr at Burayu (159.5 mg/kg) which is very much higher than the
value in this study and the mean value (26.32 mg/kg) is slightly greater than the upper
limit of the range of Cr content in uncontaminated soil (11 – 22 mg/kg) and less than the
recommended upper limit of 100 mg/kg for contaminated soil (Hailu, 2007).
Cadmium: The cadmium content in soil samples in this study around Dire dam ranges
from 2.3 - 3.4 mg/kg with a mean concentration of 2.86 mg/kg and the range of Cd
concentration obtained in this study is greater than the value (0.14 – 0.25 mg/kg) reported
in Hailu (2007) and the recommended limit value (1.00 – 3.00 mg/kg) given by EU
(Okunola et al., 2007). Another study by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) on other parts of
Addis Ababa, reported values of Cd mean concentrations 0.7 mg/kg for Peacock farm,0.4
mg/kg for Kera farm, 0.4 mg/kg for Kolfe farm and 0.95 for Akaki vegetable farm that
are less than the mean concentration for Cd for this site in the present study. This mean
value of Cd concentration is also greater than the accepted value of 0.35 mg/kg for
unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996).
39
3.5.2. Legedadi Water Supply System
The Legedadi water supply system is the largest of all in volume which supplies 165000
m3/day of water everyday (Fite, 2008). A total of ten soil samples were collected around
Legedadi dam. Out of these soil samples, S6, S9 and S12 have relatively higher Pb
concentration (with no significant difference at 95% confidence interval and p > 0.05).
On the other hand, S7, S8, S10 and S11 have moderate concentrations and S13, S14 and S15
have relatively low lead concentrations. For chromium, S6, S13 and S15 have relatively
higher concentrations (with significant difference at 95% confidence interval and
p < 0.05) (Table, 10)
Table 11: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium Mean Concentrations (mg/kg) and pH of Soil
Samples around Legedadi dam. The values in parenthesis are percent relative
standard deviations (%RSD).
S6 55.5 ± 4.8 (8.7) 36.4 ± 1.5 (4.1) 2.2 ± 0.1 (4.6) 5.97 ± 0.1 (0.2)
S7 50.3 ± 5.1 (10.1) 25.1 ± 1.8 (7.2) 2.1 ± 0.1 (4.8) 6.06 ± 0.3 (0.5)
S8 50.6 ± 1.1 (2.2) 26.6 ± 1.8 (6.8) 4.0 ± 0.1 (2.5) 6.64 ± 0.5 (0.8)
S9 59.1 ± 6.0 (10.2) 26.3 ± 1.0 (3.8) 3.3 ± 0.2 (6.1) 6.55 ± 0.3 (2.0)
S10 47.3 ± 4.8 (10.2) 23.8 ± 1.6 (6.7) 4.2 ± 0.3 (7.1) 8.07 ± 0.1 (0.1)
S11 50.7 ± 4.4 (8.7) 21.2 ± 1.2 (5.7) 3.1 ± 0.2 (6.5) 6.86 ± 0.4 (0.6)
S12 68.6 ± 6.5 (9.5) 29.6 ± 1.2 (4.1) 5.5 ± 0.5 (9.1) 6.47 ± 0.3 (0.5)
S13 35.4 ± 3.7 (9.5) 32.0 ± 0.1 (0.3) 3.3 ± 0.1 (3.0) 5.63 ± 0.3 (0.5)
S14 37.3 ± 2.2 (5.9) 31.2 ± 0.8 (2.6) 2.3 ± 0.1 (4.4) 5.92 ± 0.3 (0.5)
S15 38.0 ± 3.5 (9.2) 37.5 ± 0.9 (2.4) 2.8 ± 0.1 (3.6) 6.86 ± 0.3 (0.4)
As also shown in Table 10, S8, S10 and S12 have relatively higher cadmium concentration
(with significant difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). The pH of all soil
samples are between 5 and 7 (with significance difference at 95% confidence interval and
p < 0.05) and are acidic.
40
Discussion
Lead: The lead content in soil samples around Legedadi dam ranges from 35.4 to 68.6
mg/kg with a mean concentration of 49.28 mg/kg. This range of Pb concentration is
greater than (6.02 – 17.66 mg/kg) which was reported in Hailu (2007) and the mean
concentration for lead in this site is less than 110 mg/kg for Kera Vegetable farm and
greater than 32.7 mg/kg for Kolfe, 46.7 mg/kg for Peacock farm and 48.74 mg for Akaki
vegetable farms reported by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) in the study of metal
concentration in Addis Ababa vegetable farms. The mean lead concentration obtained in
the present study for this site exceeds the reported Canadian Environmental Quality
Background value of 25 mg/kg and lower than the EU upper limit of 300 mg/kg
(Okunola et al., 2007) greater than the median value of 22.6 mg/kg Europe soil (CDC,
1991), the background level of 25.1 mg/kg for Beijing (Chen et al., 2004) and the
acceptable value of 19 mg/kg Pb for unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996) and lower than Swiss
guide line value of 50 mg/kg (Enayatzamir et al., 2008).
Chromium: The chromium content in soil samples in this study around Legedadi dam
ranges from 21.2 – 37.5 mg/kg with mean concentration of 28.97 mg/kg and it is greater
than the value of (3.00 – 47.48 mg/kg) reported in Hailu (2007). Earlier study conducted
by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) showed 81.0 mg/kg, 115 mg/kg, 283 mg/kg and 86 mg/kg
for the farms peacock, Kera, Kolfe and Akaki respectively (Hailu, 2007) and this mean
concentrations are greater than that obtained for Cr in this study. Tamiru (2006) reported
a mean concentration of Cr at Burayu (159.5 mg/kg) which is very much higher than the
value in this study and the mean value (28.97 mg/kg) is greater than the upper limit of the
range of Cr content in uncontaminated soil (11 – 22 mg/kg) and less than the
Cadmium: The cadmium content in soil samples in this study around Legedadi dam
ranges from 2.1 – 5.5 mg/kg with a mean concentration of 3.28 mg/kg and the range of
Cd concentration obtained in this study is greater than the value (0.14 – 0.25 mg/kg)
reported in Hailu (2007) and the recommended limit value (1.00 – 3.00 mg/kg) given by
EU (Okunola et al., 2007). Another study by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) on other parts of
41
Addis Ababa, reported values of Cd mean concentrations 0.7 mg/kg for Peacock farm,0.4
mg/kg for Kera farm, 0.4 mg/kg for Kolfe farm and 0.95 for Akaki vegetable farm that
are less than the mean concentration for Cd for this site in the present study. This mean
value of Cd concentration is also greater than the accepted value of 0.35 mg/kg for
unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996).
3.5.3. Akaki Water Supply System
The source of Akaki ground water supply system is located on the Eastern side of the
city. It is the recently constructed water supply system of all the three supply systems,
which receives water from the ground water through boreholes. This water supply system
has a capacity of supplying 44,000 m3/day of drinking water to some areas of the
inhabitants. The water is directly pumped from the underground through the boreholes
and collected into the first reservoir located at the hillside of Tullu Dimtu, near the road
to Nazareth at Akaki customs check point. The flow direction of the water is from the
lower area to the higher and reaches Sebategna, western part of Markato.
This water supply system moves in the area where heavy industrial activities are
undergoing. It is also an area where high density of vehicles movement is taking place.
Mainly PVC pipelines are used for the water distribution systems around Akaki. Except
the chlorination procedures, the water does not undergo any treatment procedure, it is
directly supplied to the reservoirs and then to the inhabitants (Fite, 2008).
Out of the nine soil samples collected around Akaki ground water sources, three samples,
S16, S20 and S21 have relatively very high mean concentration of lead (with significance
difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). Nevertheless, S16 has the highest
mean Pb concentration which is 469 mg/kg and is because; this sample is collected in site
where it is directly behind Akaki spare parts factory which is in contact with the effluent
released from this factory. S16, S18 and S20 have high mean concentration of chromium
(with significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). From these three
samples, S16 has the highest chromium mean concentration of 988 mg/kg. For cadmium,
S16, S22 and S23 have high mean concentration (with significance difference at 95%
confidence interval and p < 0.05). S16 has the highest Cd mean concentration (6.6 mg/kg).
42
Almost all samples collected from this site have pH values in basic range (with
significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). However the pH of S16
and S18 are 6.5 and 6.9 respectively and are very weakly acidic (Table 11).
Samples around Akaki Ground Water Sources. The values in parenthesis are
percent relative standard deviation (%RSD).
S16 469 ± 6.9 (1.5) 988.0 ± 64.0 (6.5) 6.6 ± 0.5 (7.6) 6.53 ± 0.02 (0.31)
S17 35.8 ± 3.0 (8.4) 56.0 ± 1.7 (3.0) 3.0 ± 0.1 (3.3) 7.29 ± 0.05 (0.69)
S18 37.4 ± 3.9 (10.4) 65.6 ± 1.2 (1.8) 2.9 ± 0.2 (6.9) 6.91 ± 0.02 (0.29)
S19 44.2 ± 4.2 (9.5) 43.3 ± 1.1 (2.5) 3.0 ± 0.3 (10.0) 8.08 ± 0.03 (0.37)
S20 129 ± 6.8 (5.3) 65.3 ± 1.0 (1.5) 2.9 ± 0.2 (6.9) 8.49 ± 0.15 (1.77)
S21 200 ± 0.8 (0.4) 51.9 ± 1.7 (3.3) 3.1 ± 0.1 (3.2) 8.23 ± 0.05 (0.61)
S22 39.0 ± 3.2 (8.2) 44.2 ± 2.8 (6.3) 3.4 ± 0.2 (5.9) 7.39 ± 0.05 (0.68)
S23 49.9 ± 4.9 (9.8) 45.8 ± 1.5 (3.3) 3.2 ± 0.2 (6.3) 7.64 ± 0.10 (1.31)
S24 62.8 ± 3.2 (5.1) 48.3 ± 0.9 (1.9) 2.9 ± 0.2 (6.9) 8.21 ± 0.02 (0.24)
Discussion
Lead: The lead content in soil samples around Akaki ground water sources is with the
highest range from 35.8 to 469 mg/kg and a mean concentration of 119 mg/kg. This
range of Pb concentration is too much greater than (6.02 – 17.66 mg/kg) which was
reported in Hailu (2007) and the mean concentration for lead in this site is greater than
46.7 mg/kg for Peacock farm, 110 mg/kg for Kera Vegetable farm, 32.7 mg/kg for Kolfe
and 48.74 mg/kg for Akaki vegetable farms reported by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) in the
study of metal concentration in Addis Ababa vegetable farms. The mean lead
concentration obtained in the present study for this site is very much greater than the
reported Canadian Environmental Quality background value of 25 mg/kg and lower than
the EU upper limit of 300 mg/kg (Okunola et al., 2007) and is also very much greater
than the median value of 22.6 mg/kg Europe soil (CDC, 1991), the background level of
43
25.1 mg/kg for Beijing (Chen et al., 2004), the acceptable value of 19 mg/kg Pb for
unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996) and Swiss guide line value of 50 mg/kg (Enayatzamir et
al., 2008).
Chromium: The chromium content in soil samples in this study around Aakaki ground
water sources is with the highest range from 43.3 – 988.0 mg/kg with mean concentration
of 156.49 mg/kg and it is greater than the value of (3.00 – 47.48 mg/kg) reported in Hailu
(2007). Earlier study conducted by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) showed 81.0mg/kg, 115
mg/kg, 283 mg/kg and 86 mg/kg for the farms peacock, Kera, Kolfe and Akaki
respectively (Hailu, 2007) and these mean concentrations are less than that obtained for
Cr in this study. Tamiru (2006) reported a mean concentration of Cr at Burayu (159.5
mg/kg) which is almost similar to the value in this study and it is greater than the upper
limit of the range of Cr content in uncontaminated soil (11 – 22 mg/kg) and the
Cadmium: The cadmium content in soil samples in this study around Akaki ground
water sources ranges from 2.9 – 6.6 mg/kg with a mean concentration of 3.44 mg/kg and
the range of Cd concentration obtained in this study is greater than the value (0.14 – 0.25
mg/kg) reported in Hailu (2007) and the recommended limit value (1.00 – 3.00 mg/kg)
given by EU (Okunola et al., 2007). Another study by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) on other
parts of Addis Ababa, reported values of Cd mean concentrations 0.7 mg/kg for Peacock
farm,0.4 mg/kg for Kera farm, 0.4 mg/kg for Kolfe farm and 0.95 for Akaki vegetable
farm that are less than the mean concentration for Cd for this site in the present study.
This mean value of Cd concentration is also greater than the accepted value of 0.35
mg/kg for unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996).
The high mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd for this site are as a result of the
prevalence of different factories and high density of transportation system. Proximity to
roads to with high traffic density may contribute substantially to high soil heavy metal
levels. In addition, high levels of Pb content may be found in dust and soils of such areas
which may result in direct contamination of food and water (Happy et al., 2008). Near
industrial sources lead may reach 10, 000 mg/kg or more (WHO, 1972).
44
3.5.4. Gefersa Water Supply System
Gefersa water supply system, located on the western side out of Addis Ababa in the
Oromia regional state, is the oldest water supply systems in the city which supplies 24500
m3/day of treated water to segmented part of Addis Ababa especially to Asko, Gullelle,
Kolfe and subpart of Markato (Fite, 2008). There were a total of six soil samples
collected from this site and Pb, Cr and Cd concentrations were determined using AAS.
Based on the results of the analysis, S25, S26 and S28 have been investigated with relatively
high mean concentrations of lead (with significance difference at 95% confidence
interval and p < 0.05). S28 has the greatest lead concentration for this site that is 67.3
mg/kg. The same soil samples given above also have relatively high chromium
concentration (with significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p <0.05), but
S25 and S26 have the highest chromium mean concentration (86.7 and 88.6 mg/kg
respectively). For cadmium, S25, S26 and S28 have high mean concentration (without
significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p > 0.05). The mean pH of all soil
samples are less than six (with significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p
<0.05) and are in acidic range (Table 12).
Table 13: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium Concentrations (mg/kg) and pH of Soil
Samples around Gefersa dam. The values in parenthesis are percent relative
standard deviation (%RSD).
S25 50.2 ± 1.3 (2.6) 86.7 ± 4.4 (5.1) 3.9 ± 0.2 (5.1) 5.82 ± 0.02 (0.34)
S26 58.6 ± 1.9 (3.2) 88.6 ± 2.4 (2.7) 3.8 ± 0.3 (7.9) 5.21 ± 0.01 (0.19)
S27 48.4 ± 2.5 (5.2) 33.7 ± 0.8 (2.4) 2.3 ± 0.2 (8.7) 5.80 ± 0.07 (1.21)
S28 67.3 ± 6.5 (9.7) 67.8 ± 3.5 (5.2) 3.5 ± 0.3 (8.6) 5.59 ± 0.03 (0.54)
S29 36.6 ± 3.9 (10.7) 55.4 ± 0.7 (1.3) 2.9 ± 0.3 (10.3) 5.18 ± 0.02 (0.39)
S30 42.3 ± 1.7 (4.0) 47.3 ± 2.0 (4.2) 2.7 ± 0.1 (3.7) 4.82 ± 0.04 (0.83)
45
Discussion
Lead: The lead content in soil samples around Gefersa Dam is with the range from 36.6
to 67.3 mg/kg and a mean concentration of 50.57 mg/kg. This range of Pb concentration
is greater than (6.02 – 17.66 mg/kg) which was reported in Hailu (2007) and the mean
concentration for lead in this site is greater than 46.7 mg/kg for Peacock, 32.7 mg/kg for
Kolfe and 48.74 mg/kg for Akaki vegetable farms and less than 110 mg/kg for Kera
Vegetable farm reported by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) in the study of metal
concentration in Addis Ababa vegetable farms.
The mean lead concentration obtained in the present study for this site is greater than the
the EU upper limit of 300 mg/kg (Okunola et al., 2007) and is also greater than the
mg/kg for Beijing (Chen et al., 2004), the acceptable value of 19 mg/kg Pb for unpolluted
soil (Chang, 1996) and almost similar to Swiss guide line value of 50 mg/kg
(Enayatzamir et al., 2008).
Chromium: The chromium content in the soil samples in this study around Gefersa dam
is within the range of 33.7 –88.6 mg/kg and a mean concentration of 63.25 mg/kg and it
is greater than the value of (3.00 – 47.48 mg/kg) reported in Hailu (2007). Earlier study
conducted by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) showed 81.0 mg/kg, 115 mg/kg, 283 mg/kg and
86 mg/kg for vegetable farms of peacock, Kera, Kolfe and Akaki respectively (Hailu,
2007) and these mean concentrations are greater than that obtained for Cr in this study for
this site.
Tamiru (2006) reported a mean concentration of Cr at Burayu (159.5 mg/kg) which is

greater than two fold of the value in this study and it is greater than the upper limit of the
range of Cr content in uncontaminated soil (11 – 22 mg/kg) and less than the
46
Cadmium: The cadmium content in soil samples in this study around Gefersa dam is
within the range of 2.7 – 3.9 mg/kg with a mean concentration of 3.2 mg/kg and the range
of Cd concentration obtained in this study is greater than the value (0.14 – 0.25 mg/kg)
reported in Hailu (2007) and the recommended limit value (1.00 – 3.00 mg/kg) given by
EU (Okunola et al., 2007). Another study by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) on other parts of
Addis Ababa, reported values of Cd mean concentrations 0.7 mg/kg for Peacock, 0.4
mg/kg for Kera, 0.4 mg/kg for Kolfe and 0.95 for Akaki vegetable farms that are less
than the mean concentration for Cd for this site in the present study. This mean value of
Cd concentration is also greater than the accepted value of 0.35 mg/kg for unpolluted soil
(Chang, 1996).
The obtained concentration of lead, chromium and cadmium for this site may be due to
the application of fertilizer and other agrochemicals in agricultural fields and there was a
military camp in the former regime around Gefersa dam that may be the cause for Pb
release from ammunitions. Lead contamination at shooting ranges from the use of shot
and bullets (pellets) as ammunition is under increasing scrutiny as a potentially
significant source of lead pollution. Lead pellets are mainly composed of lead with lead
shot containing 97% and bullets containing 90% of metallic lead (Schuehammer and
Norris, 1995).
Previous investigations have shown that the annual flux of Pb in shooting ranges is
significant in some countries. Annual deposition of metallic lead of 200 to 6000 mg was
reported for the Netherlands, Denmark, Canada and England (Schuehammer and Norris,
1995). The use of lead containing pesticides may contribute to the increase in lead
content (WHO, 1972). Anthropogenic sources of Cd in the soil and groundwater include
the use of commercially available fertilizers and the disposal of sewage sludges as soil
amendments (Hailu, 2007).
3.5.5. Comparison of Pb, Cr and Cd Mean Concentrations and pH of the

Samples of the Four Sampling Locations
Out of all the soil samples collected from the four sites, those samples collected around
Akaki ground water sources and Gefersa dam have relatively high mean concentration in
47
mg/kg of lead (with significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05).The
mean concentration of lead (Pb) for all soil samples collected around Akaki ground water
supply system in mg/kg is 119 and it is the highest mean concentration for Pb from all
soil samples collected in the four sampling locations. There are also relatively high mean
concentrations of Cr in soil samples collected around Akaki and Gefersa (with
significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05).
The mean concentration of Cr is also relatively highest (156 mg/kg) around Akaki ground
water sources. The soil samples from Legedadi and Akaki have relatively high mean
concentrations of Cd (with no significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p >
0.05). The mean pH of all soil samples except those collected around Akaki ground water
sources are in acidic range (with significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p
< 0.05) (Table 13).
Samples and Pb Mean Concentrations (µg/L) of Water Samples around the
Four Sampling Locations. The values in parenthesis are the concentration
ranges in mg/kg.
Sampling Pb; in water Pb; in soil Cr; in soil Cd; in soil pH; in soil
sites samples samples samples samples samples
40.90 26.32 2.86 5.70
Dire * 30.18
(33.00 - 59.70) (17.70 - 34.40) (2.30 - 3.40) (5.40 - 5.86)
49.28 28.97 3.28 6.50
Legedadi * 21.46
(35.40 - 68.60) (21.20 - 37.50) (2.10 - 5.50) (5.63 - 8.07)
* 15.66 119 156 3.44 7.64
Akaki
(35.80 - 468.70) (43.00 - 988.00) (2.90 - 6.60) (6.53 - 8.49)
50.57 63.25 3.18 5.40
Gefersa * 14.98
(36.60 - 67.30) (33.70 - 88.68) (2.30 -3.90) (4.82 - 5.82)
* Mean concentrations of lead (µg/L) in raw water samples from the sources of drinking water of Addis
Ababa given in (Fite, 2008)
48
Figure: 3 below shows that the mean concentrations of the heavy metals (Pb, Cr and Cd)
for the soils samples collected around Akaki ground water sources are the greatest of all
soil samples collected in the sampling locations. It also shows as the samples around
Gefersa dam have the second rank next to those from Akaki Sampling Location on mean
concentrations of Pb and Cr. The mean concentrations of Pb for Legedadi and Gefersa
are almost equal.
160
140
Pb
Cr
Cd
120
pH
Concentration & pH
100
80
60
40
20
0
Dire Legedadi Akaki Gefersa
Sampling Sites
Figure 3: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium Mean Concentrations (mg/kg) and pH of Soil
Samples around the four Sampling Locations.
Soil samples collected around Akaki ground water sources have relatively the highest
range of lead (35.80 – 469 mg/kg), chromium (43.00 - 988 mg/kg) and cadmium (2.90 -
6.60 mg/kg) mean concentrations. The mean pH ranges for soil samples around Dire and
Gefersa show acidic range however, the soil samples from Legedadi Dam Akaki ground
water sources have a pH range between acidic and basic ranges (Table 13).
These highest mean concentrations of heavy metals (Pb, Cr and Cd) investigated around
Akaki ground water sources in this study is may be due to the presence of factories and
the flow of high traffic density. Nearness to roads with high traffic density contributes
49
substantially to soil lead levels of heavy metals (example, 403 mg/kg of Pb in the top
soil) (WHO, 1972) and this high Pb concentration is probably from vehicle emissions
(Okunola et al., 2007). The Cd content could be also due to lubricating oil and old tyres
that are frequently used and the wearing away of these tyres on roads (Okunola et al.,
2007). In addition, Cr is used in many factories for example, like in the production of
steel and other alloys, leather tanning, dyes and paints and can be released to the
environment in different ways (Hailu, 2007).
3.5.6. Comparisons of Pb, Cr and Cd Mean Concentrations and pH of

Samples near Highways, Agriculture and Sediment around Dire and
Legedadi dams
The soil samples near highways and agricultural soils collected around Legedadi and Dire
dams have relatively high mean concentrations of lead (with significance difference at
95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). The three types of soil samples (near highway,
agricultural soils and sediment) have almost similar mean concentrations of chromium
(with significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). The agricultural
soil and sediment samples have relatively greater mean concentration of cadmium (with
significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). Soil samples near
highways, agricultural soils and sediments have similar pH (with no significance
difference at 95% confidence interval and p > 0.05) (Table 14). The pH values are in the
acidic range.
50
Table 15: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium Mean Concentrations (values) and range
(mg/kg) and pH of different types of Soil Samples around Dire and Legedadi
dams.
Type of Soil
Pb Cr Cd pH
Samples
x x x x
Soil Samples near 52.13 29.37 2.77 6.22
Highways (50.3 - 55.5) (25.1 - 36.4) (2.1 - 4.0) (5.97 - 6.64)
y y y y
46.99 27.75 3.26 6.24
Agricultural Soils
(35.4 - 68.6) (17.7 - 34.4) (2.3 - 5.5) (5.40 - 8.07)
z z z z
35.50 27.85 3.26 6.24
Sediment
(33.0 - 38.0) (18.2 - 37.5) (2.8 - 3.4) (5.62 - 6.86)
x
mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd metals and pH of (n = 9) soil samples.
y
mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd metals and pH of (n=30) soil samples.
z
mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd metals and pH of (n=6) soil samples.
Figure 4 below shows that the soil samples near highway collected around Dire and
Legedadi sampling locations have relatively highest mean concentration of Pb and the
mean concentrations of Cr in agricultural soils and sediment are nearly similar and it also
true for Cd and all with nearly similar value of pH.
50 Pb
Cr
Cd
40 pH
Concentration & pH
30
20
10
0
Near Highway Agricultural Silt from dam
Type of Samples
Figure 4: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations (mg/kg) and pH of

different type soil samples around Dire and Legedadi dams
51
The highest mean concentration for Pb investigated in soil samples near highway around
Dire and Legedadi water sources is 52.13 mg/kg with a range of (50.3-55.5 mg/kg). This
concentration range for near highway soil sample greater than (6.02 –17.66 mg/kg)
reported by Hailu (2007) and the mean concentration 52.13 mg/kg for this sampling
location is greater than 46.7 mg/kg for Peacock, 32.7 mg/kg for Kolfe and 48.74 mg/kg
for Akaki and less than 110 mg/kg for Kera vegetable farms reported by Fisseha and
Olsson (2004) in the study of metal concentration in Addis Ababa vegetable farms.
The mean lead concentration obtained in the present study for this site is greater than the
the EU upper limit of 300 mg/kg (Okunola et al., 2007) and is also greater than the
mg/kg for Beijing (Chen et al., 2004), the acceptable value of 19 mg/kg Pb for unpolluted
soil (Chang, 1996) and the Swiss guide line value of 50 mg/kg (Enayatzamir et al., 2008).
The reason for the investigation of this highest mean concentration of lead in soil samples
near highways for these sampling locations could be due to the fact that the dams are
constructed near a main highway joining Addis Ababa and Desse on which a large
number of long and other vehicles flow. The concentration of lead could be attributed to
lead particles from gasoline combustion which consequently settles on roadside soils.
Proximity to main roads with high traffic density may contribute substantially to soil lead
levels (WHO, 1972).
3.5.7. Comparisons of Pb, Cr and Cd mean concentrations and pH of Soil

Samples near Highways, Agricultural Soil and Sediment around Akaki
Boreholes
From the four types of soil samples collected around this site, the samples near highway
and near the factory effluents have relatively high mean concentration of lead (with
significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). However, the soil
samples which are collected near the factory effluents have the highest mean
concentration (334 mg/kg) of lead. The same soil samples given above have relatively
high mean concentration of chromium (with significance difference at 95% confidence
52
interval and p < 0.05). Chromium has the highest mean concentration in soil samples near
industrial effluents (520 mg/kg). For cadmium, the agricultural soils and soil samples
near factory effluents have relatively high mean concentrations (with significance
difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). The pH of soil samples near
highway, agricultural soils, sediment and the samples around factory effluents are in the
range between 7 and 9 ( with significance difference at 95% confidence interval and p <
0.05). All the pH values of the soil samples are in the alkaline range (Table 15).
Table 16: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations (mg/kg) and pH of
different types of soil samples around Akaki ground water sources. Values
given in parenthesis represent the concentration ranges of the respective
metals.
Type Of soil
Pb Cr Cd pH
samples
a a a a
Soil samples near 129 65.3 2.9 8.49
Highways (121.5 - 133.6) (64.4 - 66.4) (2.7 - 3.1) (8.32 - 8.60)
b b b b
41.26 50.98 3.1 7.46
Agricultural Soils
(35.8 - 49.9) (43.3 - 65.6) (2.9 - 3.4) (6.91 - 8.21)
a a a a
62.8 48.3 2.9 8.21
Sediment samples
(60.8 - 66.5) (47.6 - 49.3) (2.7-3.0) (8.19 - 8.23)
c c c c
Soil samples near 334 520 4.85 7.38
factory effluents (199.7 - 468.7) (51.9 - 988.0) (3.1 - 6.6) (6.53 - 8.23)
-a mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd metals and pH of (n = 3) soil samples.
-b mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd metals and pH of (n = 15) soil samples.
-c mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd metals and pH of (n = 6) soil samples.
Figure 5 below shows that the soil samples collected near factory have the highest mean
concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd. The Cd mean concentrations for agricultural soils and
sediment are almost similar.
53
550
Pb
500
Cr
450 Cd
pH
400
Concentration & pH 350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Near Highway Agricultural Silt Near Factory Effluents --
Type of Soil Samples

different type of soil samples around Akaki ground water sources.
Discussion
Lead: The soil samples near factories around Akaki ground water sources have highest
Pb mean concentration (334 mg/kg) with range of (200 – 469 mg/kg) and this range of
concentration is very much greater than (6.02 –17.66 mg/kg) reported by Hailu (2007)
and the mean concentration 334 mg/kg for this sampling location many folds greater than
46.7 mg/kg for Peacock, 32.7 mg/kg for Kolfe and 48.74 mg/kg for Akaki and three
times greater than 110 mg/kg for Kera vegetable farms reported by Fisseha and Olsson
(2004) in the study of metal concentration in Addis Ababa vegetable farms.
This mean lead concentration soil samples near factories investigated in the present study
for this sampling location is very much greater than the reported Canadian Environmental
Quality background value of 25 mg/kg, the median value of 22.6 mg/kg Europe soil
(CDC, 1991), the background level of 25.1 mg/kg for Beijing (Chen et al., 2004), the
acceptable value of 19 mg/kg Pb for unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996) and the Swiss
guideline value of 50 mg/kg (Enayatzamir et al., 2008) and a bit greater than the EU
upper limit of 300 mg/kg (Okunola et al., 2007).
54
Chromium: The chromium content in soil samples near factories in this study around
Akaki ranges from (51.9 - 988.0 mg/kg) with mean concentration of 520 mg/kg and the
range is very much greater than the value of (3.00 – 47.48 mg/kg) reported in Hailu
(2007). Earlier study conducted by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) showed 81.0 mg/kg, 115
mg/kg, 283 mg/kg and 86 mg/kg for the farms peacock, Kera, Kolfe and Akaki
respectively as given in (Hailu, 2007) and these mean concentrations are less than that
obtained for Cr in this study . Tamiru (2006) reported a mean concentration of Cr at
Burayu (159.5 mg/kg) which is three times less than the value in this study. It is also very
much greater than the upper limit of the range of Cr content in uncontaminated soil (11 –
22 mg/kg) and the recommended upper limit of 100 mg/kg for contaminated soil (Hailu,
2007).
Cadmium: The cadmium content in soil samples near factories obtained in this study
around Akaki ground water sources ranges from 3.1 - 6.6 mg/kg with a mean
concentration of 4.85 mg/kg and this range of Cd concentration is greater than the value
(0.14 – 0.25 mg/kg) reported in Hailu (2007) and the recommended limit value (1.00 –
3.00 mg/kg) given by EU (Okunola et al., 2007). Another study by Fisseha and Olsson
(2004) on other parts of Addis Ababa, reported values of Cd mean concentrations
0.7 mg/kg for Peacock , 0.4 mg/kg for Kera , 0.4 mg/kg for Kolfe and 0.95 for Akaki
vegetable farms that are less than the mean concentration for Cd for this sampling
location in the present study. This mean value of Cd concentration is also greater than the
accepted value of 0.35 mg/kg for unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996).
3.5.8. Comparisons Pb, Cr and Cd Mean Concentrations and pH of Samples

near Highways, Agricultural and Sediment around Gefersa dam
From the two types of soil samples collected around this site, samples near highway and
agricultural soils have mean concentrations of lead(with significance difference at 95%
confidence interval and p < 0.05). However, the soil samples near highway have
relatively higher lead mean concentration (67.3 mg/kg). Chromium has mean
concentrations in soil samples near highway and agricultural soils (with significance
difference at 95% confidence interval and p < 0.05). As the obtained result, the soil
samples near highway have higher mean concentrations of chromium. The same soil
55
samples have mean concentrations of cadmium (with significance difference at 95%
confidence interval and p < 0.05).
The mean concentration of Pb is higher for soil sample near highway. The greater mean
concentration of lead for soil samples near highway could be the lead released from car
exhaust from leaded gasoline and wearing down of vehicle tires. How ever, additional
investigations are mandatory to assess the real sources for Pb pollution of soils around
highways. Accumulation in the street dust due to the waste tyres is one of the major way
through which heavy metals may find their way into soils and water, enter the food chain
and subsequently living tissues of plants, animals and human beings. The mean values of
pH of the soil samples near highway and agricultural soils around Gefersa dam are in
acidic range (Table 16).
Table 17: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium Mean Concentrations (mg/kg) and pH of
different types of Soil Samples around Gefersa dam. The values given in
parenthesis refer to the range.
Type of soil
Pb Cr Cd pH
samples
m m m m
Soil samples 67.3 67.8 3.5 5.59
near Highways (62.6 - 74.7) (64.3 - 71.3) (3.2 - 3.7) (5.56 - 5.61)
n n n n
Agricultural 47.22 62.3 3.12 5.37
Soils (36.6 - 58.6) (33.7 - 88.6) (2.3 - 3.9) (4.82 - 5.82)
-m mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd metals and pH of (n = 3) soil samples.
-n mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd metals and pH of (n = 15) soil samples.
Figure 6 given below shows that the mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd for soil
samples near highway are greater than that of agricultural soil samples. The mean
concentrations of Pb and Cr for the same type of soil samples are almost similar.
56
70
Pb
60
Cr
Cd
pH
50
Concentration & pH
40
30
20
10
0
Near Highway Agricultural
Type of Samples

different type of soil samples around Gefersa dam.
Discussion
Lead: The soil samples near highway around Gefersa dam have higher Pb mean
concentration 67.3 mg/kg with range of (62.6 − 74.7 mg/kg) and this range of
concentration is greater than (6.02 – 17.66 mg/kg) reported by Hailu (2007) and the mean
concentration 67.3 mg/kg for this sampling location is greater than 46.7 mg/kg for
Peacock, 32.7 mg/kg for Kolfe and 48.74 mg/kg for Akaki and less than 110 mg/kg for
Kera vegetable farms reported by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) in the study of metal
concentration in Addis Ababa vegetable farms.
This mean lead concentration soil samples near highway investigated in the present study
for this sampling location is greater than the reported Canadian Environmental Quality
background value of 25 mg/kg, the median value of 22.6 mg/kg Europe soil
(CDC, 1991), the background level of 25.1 mg/kg for Beijing (Chen et al., 2004), the
acceptable value of 19 mg/kg Pb for unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996) and the Swiss guide
line value of 50 mg/kg (Enayatzamir et al., 2008) but nearly five times less than the EU
upper limit of 300 mg/kg (Okunola et al., 2007).
57
Chromium: The chromium content in soil samples near highway in this study around
Gefersa sampling location ranges from (51.9 - 988 mg/kg) with mean concentration of
520 mg/kg and the range is very much greater than the value of (3.00 – 47.48 mg/kg)
reported in Hailu (2007). Earlier study conducted by Fisseha and Olsson (2004) showed
81.0 mg/kg, 115 mg/kg, 283 mg/kg and 86 mg/kg for the farms peacock, Kera, Kolfe and
Akaki respectively as given in (Hailu, 2007) and these mean concentrations are less than
that obtained for Cr in this study . Tamiru (2006) reported a mean concentration of Cr at
Burayu (159.5 mg/kg) which is three times less than the value in this study. It is also very
much greater than the upper limit of the range of Cr content in uncontaminated soil (11 –
22 mg/kg) and the recommended upper limit of 100 mg/kg for contaminated soil (Hailu,
2007).
Cadmium: The cadmium content in soil samples near factories investigated in this study
around Akaki ground water sources ranges from 3.2 - 3.7 mg/kg with a mean
concentration of 3.5 mg/kg and this range of Cd concentration is greater than the value
(0.14 – 0.25 mg/kg) reported in Hailu (2007) and the recommended limit value (1.00 –
3.00 mg/kg) given by EU (Okunola et al., 2007). Another study by Fisseha and Olsson
(2004) on other parts of Addis Ababa, reported values of Cd mean concentrations 0.7
mg/kg for Peacock, 0.4 mg/kg for Kera, 0.4 mg/kg for Kolfe and 0.95 for Akaki
vegetable farms that are less than the mean concentration for Cd for this sampling
location. This mean value of Cd concentration is also greater than the accepted value of
0.35 mg/kg for unpolluted soil (Chang, 1996).
3.5.9. Comparison of Lead Mean Concentration in Soil Samples around

Addis Ababa Drinking Water Sources with that of Other Cities of the World
The mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd in soil samples from the four sampling
locations around the drinking water sources of Addis Ababa are 64.82, 68.76 and
3.20 mg/kg, respectively. The concentration ranges of the metals are observed to be
(33.0 ± 1.6 – 469 ± 6.9), (17.7 ± 0.6 – 988 ± 64.0) and (2.1 ± 0.1 – 6.6 ± 0.1) mg/kg. The
mean concentration of Pb found in this study for Addis Ababa is very much less than that
of the cities from china which is 1350.51 mg/kg with a range of mean concentration of
28.6 – 25380.55 mg/kg (Binggan Wei and Linsheng Yang, 2010) greater than the Zagreb
58
region 25.9 mg/kg Pb less than Ibadan 95.1 ± 126.68 mg/kg Pb, Mortagne du Nord
(Northern France) 230.8 ± 146.3 mg/kg Pb) and Thrace region 133 mg/kg Pb (Yuebing
et al., 2009).
Pb in soil of Shenyang, China was up to 75.29 mg/kg with a range of concentration

(0.12 – 533.29 mg/kg) (Yuebing et al., 2009) which is also greater than the Pb mean
concentration observed in soil around Addis Ababa. Mean concentrations of Pb in
Fadama Soils in Kano City, Nigeria (0-15 cm Depth) around Residential, Industrial,
Commercial, Mixed, But Largely Residential and Mixed, But Largely Industrial areas are
53.7 mg/kg Pb, 153.6 mg/kg Pb, 20.5 mg/kg Pb, 18.4 mg/kg Pb and 13.5 mg/kg Pb
respectively ( Mashi and Alhassan, 2007) and only the soil samples collected around
industrial areas for Kano city have higher Pb concentration than soils around Addis
Ababa the rest four have lower Pb mean concentrations .
The mean concentration of Cr investigated for soil samples around drinking water
sources of Addis Ababa is 68.76 mg/kg with a range of (17.7 ± 0.6 – 988.0 ± 64.0) and it
is less than that of soils in all cites of China 78.43 mg/kg with a range of 23.1 –
194.7 mg/kg (Binggan Wei and Linsheng Yang, 2010), residential soil of Kano city,
Nigeria 166.0 mg/kg, soils around Industrial areas of Kano city, 194.3 mg/kg and
greater than that of soils around commercial areas of Kano city 15.6 mg/kg, Mixed, But
Largely residential areas, 15.6 mg/kg and Mixed, But Largely Industrial areas of Kano
city 15.6 mg/kg ( Mashi and Alhassan, 2007).
The mean concentration of Cd investigated in soil samples around the drinking water
sources of Addis Ababa is 3.20 mg/kg with a range of (2.1±0.1 – 6.6±0.1) and this mean
concentration is greater than those soils in all cities from China 1.58 mg/kg with a range
of 0.15 – 8.59 (Binggan Wei and Linsheng Yang, 2010), Hong Kong (0.36 ±0.16 mg/kg),
the Thrace region 0.2 mg/kg, the Mortagne du Nord, Northern France 1.92 ± 0.81 mg/kg
and Cd in soil of Shenyang, 0.42 mg/kg with a range of concentration of 0 – 2.08 mg/kg
(Yuebing et al., 2009) and lower than Ibadan, Nigeria 8.4±19.78 mg/kg (Yuebing et al.,
2009), in soil samples of residential areas of Kano city, Nigeria 9.5mg/kg, Industrial
59
areas, 15.0 mg/kg, Commercial areas 14.2 mg/kg, Mixed, but Largely residential, 4.2
mg/kg and Mixed, but Largely Industrial, 24.2 mg/kg ( Mashi and Alhassan, 2007).
Table 18: Correlation (Pearson) Coefficient Matrices between Metal Concentrations of

Soil Samples in the four Sampling Locations (within two Metal Mean
Concentrations)
Metals Mean Correlations between Mean

Sampling
Concentrations Concentrations of Metals
Locations
Pb Cr Cd Pb vs. Cr Pb vs. Cd Cr vs. Cd
Dire 40.9 26.32 2.86
Legedadi 49.28 28.97 3.28
0.988953 0.780759 0.72642
Gefersa 56.57 63.25 3.14
Akaki 118.53 156 3.44
Pb vs. Cr = Correlation between the mean concentrations of lead and chromium.
Pb vs. Cd = Correlation between the mean concentrations of lead and cadmium.
Cr vs. Cd = Correlation between the mean concentrations of chromium and cadmium.
There are positive correlations between mean concentrations of Pb vs. Cr, Pb vs. Cd and
Cr vs. Cd. However, there is highest correlation between the mean concentrations of
Pb vs. Cr in soil samples of the four sampling locations (Figure 7A-D).
These positive correlations may have an indication that these metals have a similar source
60
3.5
160
140 3.4
120 3.3
Cr Concentration
Cd Concentration
100
3.2
80
3.1
60
3.0
40
R = 0.98895 2.9
20 R = 0.72642
2.8
40 60 80 100 120
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Pb Concentration
Cr Concentration
Figure 7A: Pb vs. Cr Figure 7B: Cr vs. Cd
3.5
120
3.4
100
3.3
Pb Concentration in Soil
Cd Concentration
80
3.2
60
3.1
3.0 40
2.9 20
R = 0.78076 R = −0.53705
2.8 0
40 60 80 100 120 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.020 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.030 0.032
Pb Concentration Pb Concentration in Water
Figure 7C: Pb vs. Cd Figure 7D: Pb Water vs. Pb Soil
Figure 7: Correlation Coefficients of Heavy metals for Soil and Water Samples around
Drinking Water Sources of Addis Ababa.
The correlation values obtained for the concentrations of lead in soil and raw water
samples from the four Sampling Locations are summarized in Table 19.
61
Table 19: Correlation (Pearson) Coefficient Matrices between Lead Mean Conc. of
Water Samples and Soil Samples in the four Sampling Locations in mg/kg.
Sampling Locations Pb; in water Samples Pb; in Soil Samples Correlation

Gefersa 0.015 50.57
Akaki 0.016 118.53
Legedadi 0.021 49.28
Dire 0.030 40.90 -0.53705
As can be deduced from the table, contrary to the expectation, there is a negative
correlation between mean concentrations of lead in water and soil samples from the four
sampling locations. However, careful observation of the data indicates that the negative
correlation value is resulted due the relatively high scattering of the data.
Even though there is a negative correlation in the mean values obtained in this study for
lead in soil and water samples in Fites’s study around the sources of drinking water of
Addis Ababa, it is impossible to deduce that soils around the dams and ground water
sources couldn’t be one of the possible causes of lead pollution of the drinking water. The
highest mean value of lead is obtained in soil samples around Akaki boreholes or ground
water sources. However, in Fite’s study it was the site for the investigation of smaller
mean value of lead which is nearly similar to that of Gefersa dam. Since the drinking
water sources from Akaki are ground waters, the extent of exposure of these sources by
lead from the top soils is rare. Because there is no direct contact between the ground
water and the contamination sources.
At the same time when water flows from the surface to the ground waters the rocks can
reduce the contaminant concentration by physicochemical processes. The average mean
values obtained for the soil samples around Addis Ababa drinking water sources are very
much grater than the background level of lead for unpolluted soil and could be one of the
possible causes of lead pollution of the drinking water sources of Addis Ababa. Except
Akaki boreholes the rest three sources of the drinking water of Addis Ababa are dams
which easily be contaminated by any pollution source.
62
4 .CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1. Conclusions
Soils become contaminated by heavy metals as a result of deliberate dumping of waste

products containing the metals, storage of ores or through air and water pollution, as well
as direct application of compounds containing the metals to soil. Since these activities are
predominant in the urban areas than rural zones it is expected that soils in urban areas
contain higher level of heavy metals than those in rural areas. Large quantities of heavy
metal concentrations in urban soils of developed world were reported in many studies.
The extents of heavy metals in urban soils of the developing world are somewhat lower.
However, this study has shown that there is considerable soil Pb, Cr and Cd pollution
around drinking water sources of Addis Ababa. The concentrations of Pb, Cr and Cd
were measured in soils around the drinking water sources of Addis Ababa and from the
investigated values; there are areas that have higher mean concentrations of Pb, Cr and
Cd than some guideline values and that of some urban areas of Africa and other
continents. Though, the concentrations obtained for Pb, Cr and Cd are not very high,
there are increasing trends of concentrations of these metals from non industrial sites and
less dense traffic sites to industrial and denser traffic areas.
The soil samples around Akaki ground water sources have the highest level of Pb, Cd and
Cd and this could be the signal for the increase in the level of heavy metals in the
environment from anthropogenic sources like industries and high traffic densities. The
least mean concentration of Pb is obtained from soil samples around Dire dam in this
study. In general the mean values of the heavy metals (Pb, Cr and Cd) investigated under
this study are very much greater than the background values for unpolluted soils and the
soils have a considerable amount of these metals to contaminate the drinking water
sources of Addis Ababa. The increase in the number of industries and vehicles in
Ethiopia, particularly in Addis Ababa makes the heavy metal levels in soil and other
environmental mediums in future; as a result, the human exposure to Pb also increases.
Hence, many efforts have to be made on the protection of environment. Enforcement of
regulations concerning heavy metal pollution, like strict use of non leaded petroleum fuel
63
needed to be applied. Routine monitoring of the heavy metal levels in the environment, in
air; water and soil samples should be established in Ethiopia since these levels are likely
to change with time.
4.2 Recommendations
Based on the levels of heavy metals investigated in soil samples collected around four
sites of the sources of Addis Ababa drinking water, the following are recommended:
• Since chemical pollution soils around the drinking water sources of Addis Ababa
by some heavy metals like Pb, Cr and Cd is confirmed by this study, other studies
on plants in the same site may be crucial so as to evaluate the degree of pollution.
• To asses the correlation of trace metals concentration in soils with that of the
overlying water bodies whose samples are taken in the same study using low
detection limit instruments to predict the potential hazards due to excessive
accumulation of metals in soils of these sites.
• There should be a legal enforcement on industries in Addis Ababa especially
around the water sources to continuously monitor their effluents and take the
necessary actions by treating waste water before discharging to the environment.
• Improvement of process management practices and employing substitution of less
polluting chemicals in agriculture and industries around the sources of drinking
water in Addis Ababa.
• Further studies are required to locate and quantify the possible contributing
pollution sources of drinking water in Addis Ababa.
• Amendments of acidic soils contaminated with lead, chromium and cadmium
with agricultural lime [calcium carbonate or dolomite (Mg CO3 and CaCO3)] to
prevent their leachate to drinking water sources of Addis Ababa.
• Use of metal accumulating plants to remove pollutants or toxic metals from soil
(phytoextraction) around the drinking water sources.
64
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79
APPENDIX: Site descriptions for Soil Samples collected around
the sources of drinking water in Addis Ababa.
No Name Code Location Latitude/ Date No of

Longitude samples
. for each.
1 Soil sample from S1 Dire. N 09009.694’ 03/14/09 3
Dire dam a,b,c E 038056.089’
(sediment).
2 Soil sample S2 Dire. N 09 010.084’ “ 3
around Dire dam a,b,c E 038055.641’
catchments.
3 Soil sample S3 “ N 09010.192’ “ 3
catchments.
4 Soil sample S4 “ N 09010.033’ “ 3
catchments.
5 “ S5 N 09009.905’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038056.002’
6 Soil sample S6 Legedadi (near N 09006.018’ “ 3
around Legedadi a,b,c the highway to E 038059.114’
dam. Desse).
7 Soil sample S7 Legedadi N 09006.355’ “
around the a,b,c (about 100m E 038059.299’
catchments of away from the
Legedadi dam. highway).
8 “ S8 Legedadi (near N 09006.095’ “ 3
a,b,c the highway to E 038058.362’
Desse).
9 “ S9 Legedadi. N 09005.992’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038058.409’
10 “ S10 “ N 09005.794’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038058.462’
11 “ S11 “ N 09005.759’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038058.249’
12 “ S12 “ N 09003.811’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038058.088’
13 “ S13 “ N 09003.594’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038058.572’
14 “ S14 “ N 09003.441’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038058.703’
80
Appendix :( Continued).
15 Soil sample (Sediment S15 “ N 09003.515’ “ 3

from Legedadi dam). a,b,c E 038058.669’
16 Soil Samples from S16 Akaki N 08050.715’ 03/15/09 3
Akaki GW supply a,b,c E 038048.196’
system (Soil samples in
contact with effluent
released from Akaki
spare part factory (1km
away from the highway
to Nazareth).
17 Soil samples from S17 “ N 08050.370’ “ 3
Akaki GW supply a,b,c E 038047.759’
system (around Akaki
GW pump stations,
boreholes).
18 “ S18 “ N 08050.137’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038047.980’
19 “ S19 “ N 08050.627’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038048.439’
20 Soil sample very near to S20 “ N 08050.856’ “ 3
the highway to a,b,c E 038048.773’
Nazareth.
21 Soil sample in contact S21 “ N 08050.603’ “ 3
with the effluent a,b,c E 038049.176’
released from Barguba
soft paper recycling
factory.
22 Soil sample around S22 “ N 08049.983’ “ 3
Akaki GW (boreholes). a,b,c E 038048.516’
23 “ S23 “ N 08049.804’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038047.691’
24 Soil sample (sediment) S24 “ N 08050.504’ “ 3
from Akaki river. a,b,c E 038046.780’
81
Appendix: (Cont.).
25 Soil sample S25 Gefersa. N 09005.077’ 03/21/09 3

around the a,b,c E 038038.350’
catchments of
Gefersa dam.
26 “ S26 “ N 09005.387’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038038.349’
27 “ S27 “ N 09005.532’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038038.262’
28 Around Gefersa S28 “ N 09005.249’ “ 3
dam about 50m a,b,c E 038038.029’
away from the
highway to Nekemt
29 “ S29 “ N 09003.250’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038037.021’
30 “ S30 “ N 09003.082’ “ 3
a,b,c E 038037.243’
GW= Ground Water.
Samples were collected by Getu Sima (Student in AAU, Science faculty, Env.Sc. Prog.)
and Mr. Zeleke Teferi (Head of AAWSA Water Quality Control).
82
Declaration
I, the undersigned, declared that this is my original work, has not been presented for a
degree in any other university and that all sources of material used for the thesis have
been duly acknowledged.
Name: Getu Sima

Signature: …………………
This thesis work has been submitted for examination with my approval as university
advisor.
Name: Dr. Feleke Zewge
Signature: …………………
Place and date of submission: School of Graduate Studies,

Addis Ababa University
February 2011

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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME

POTENTIAL SOURCES OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION IN

DRINKING WATER OF ADDIS ABABA.

DRINKING WATER OF ADDIS ABABA.

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Adds

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

POTENTIAL SOURCES OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION IN

DRINKING WATER OF ADDIS ABABA.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME

Dr. Feleke Zewge ------------------

Prof. B. S. Chandravanshi ------------------

Dr. Mesfin Redi ------------------

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ………………………………………………………..VII

1.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................... 1

1.2. HUMAN EXPOSURE TO LEAD ....................................................................................... 6

1.3. HEALTH EFFECT OF LEAD ........................................................................................ 16

1.4. LEAD POLLUTION OF WATER ................................................................................... 19

1.5. OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOME OF THE STUDY............................................................. 25

2.1. INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................................................ 27

2.2. REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS ..................................................................................... 27

2.3. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 27

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………………………..32

3.1. INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION ...................................................................................... 32

3.2. MODIFIED DIGESTION PROCEDURE FOR SOIL SAMPLES ......................................... 34

3.3. EVALUATION OF ANALYTICAL FIGURES OF MERIT ................................................. 35

3.4. DETERMINATION OF METALS ................................................................................... 36

3.5. SOIL ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................... 36

4 .CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………….63

4.1. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................... ..63

4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................. 64

Figure 1: Locations of sampling sites used in this study ……………………….............28

Figure 2: Calibration graph of Pb, Cr and Cd Standard solution…………………..33 - 34

Figure 3: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of soil

Samples around the four sites………………………........................................49

Figure 4: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of

different type soil samples around Dire and Legedadi dams………………….51

Figure 5: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of

different type of soil samples around Akaki GW sources…………………….54

Figure 6: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of

different type of soil samples around Gefersa dam….......................................57

Table 2: Worldwide Emissions1 of Lead into Soils (1983)………………………..........10

Table 3: Estimated Worldwide Anthropogenic Emissions of

Table 4: Estimated Pb inputs (% of total) to agricultural soils in Germany,

Table 5: Instrumental operating conditions for determination of metals in soil

Table 6: Working standards and correlation coefficients of the calibration

Table 7: Recovery test for soil samples………………………………………………....36

Table 8: Method Detection Limits for soil samples………………………………..........36

Table 9: Metal Concentrations for Soils that are not expected to be

Table 15: Lead, Chromium and Cadmium mean concentrations and pH of

Table 18: Correlation (Pearson) Coefficient Matrices between Metal

Table 19: Correlation (Pearson) Coefficient Matrices between Lead

AAEPA Addis Ababa Environmental Protection Authority.

AAP American Academy of Pediatrics.

AAWSA Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority.

AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program.

ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.