Bit is a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 1.

Binary digits are a basic unit of information

storage and communication in digital computing and digital information theory.

character is a unit of information that roughly corresponds to a grapheme, grapheme-like unit,

or symbol, such as in an alphabet or syllabary in the written form of a natural language.

 Alphabet characters
 Numeric characters
 Symbolic characters

Fields, a set of characters.

 In computer science, data that has several parts can be divided into fields. For example, a
computer may represent today's date as three distinct fields: the day, the month and the
year.

Records, are composed of fields or data item.

 a row—also called a record or tuple—represents a single, implicitly structured data item

in a table.

File, an organized data related to a particular subject.

 Files, composed of related records.

Database, a collection of one or more related files.

Computer Database

 is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system.

 is a collection or one or more related files.

Database management system (DBMS)

 is a computer software designed for the purpose of managing databases.

 is a software that defines a database, stores the data, supports a query language, produces
reports, and create data entry screens.
 Is a computer system organized for the systematic management of large collection of
information that integrates the database and provides different views to different users.

Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system

(DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd. Most popular
commercial and open source databases currently in use are based on the relational model.
  A short definition of an RDBMS may be a DBMS in which data is stored in the form of
tables and the relationship among the data is also stored in the form of tables.

Database model, a theory or specification describing how a database is structured and used.

1. hierarchical data model

 is a data model in which the data is organized into a tree-like structure. The
structure allows repeating information using parent/child relationships: each
parent can have many children but each child only has one parent. All attributes
of a specific record are listed under an entity type. In a database, an entity type is
the equivalent of a table; each individual record is represented as a row and an
attribute as a column. Entity types are related to each other using 1: N mapping,
also known as one-to-many relationships.
2. network model
 is a database model conceived as a flexible way of representing objects and their
relationships. The network model original inventor was Charles Bachman, and it
was developed into a standard specification published in 1969 by the CODASYL
Consortium.
3. relational model
 is a database model based on first-order predicate logic, first formulated and
proposed in 1969 by Edgar Codd.
4. entity-relationship model (ERM)
 in software engineering is an abstract and conceptual representation of data.
Entity-relationship modeling is a relational schema database modeling method,
used to produce a type of conceptual schema or semantic data model of a system,
often a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down fashion.
5. object-relational database (ORD) or object-relational database management system
(ORDBMS)

 is a database management system (DBMS) similar to a relational database, but

with an object-oriented database model: objects, classes and inheritance are
directly supported in database schemas and in the query language. In addition, it
supports extension of the data model with custom data-types and methods.

conceptual schema or conceptual data model is a map of concepts and their relationships. This
describes the semantics of an organization and represents a series of assertions about its nature.
Specifically, it describes the things of significance to an organization (entity classes), about
which it is inclined to collect information, and characteristics of (attributes) and associations
between pairs of those things of significance (relationships).

 schema (pronounced skee-ma) of a database system is its structure described in a

formal language supported by the database management system (DBMS). In a
relational database, the schema defines the tables, the fields in each table, and the
relationships between fields and tables.
  Schemas are generally stored in a data dictionary. Although a schema is defined
in text database language, the term is often used to refer to a graphical depiction
of the database structure.

Levels of Database Schema

1. Conceptual schema, a map of concepts and their relationships.

2. Logical schema, a map of entities and their attributes and relations
3. Physical schema, a particular implementation of a logical schema
4. Schema object, Oracle database object

Objectives of Database

 Data Integrity with the use of database, inconsistency in file duplication when changes
are made to data could be solved by storing in one place, and allowing each application to
be accessed.
 Data Integration is maintained links between data and data centralization in order to
meet its objectives. It is possible to easily access data records using a wide variety of
search keys. This will lessen the cost for new applications where multiple references are
made to the same data.
 Data Independence changes an organized data without the need to reprogram and can be
modified without reorganization of data.

Functions of Database Management Systems

 Protects data against unauthorized access

 Safeguarding data against corruption
 Provides immediate recovery and restarts facilities when a hardware/ software fails
 Positions frequently-used data in accessible form

Database System refers to an organization of components that define and regulate the collection,
storage, management and use of data within the database environment.

Importance of Database System

 Data Independence is a separation of data from the application programs to another

data. The organized data can be changed into important applications of processed data.
 Sharing Data allows all the authorized users in an organization to share its data. It
provides the user view of data required to make a decision or perform some functions
without making the users aware of the overall complexity of the database.
 Integrated Data is considered integrated for any item of data that can be used to satisfy
an inquiry or a report. This related to the reduced redundancy advantage, for data can be
retrieved from any place in the database.
 Data Accessibility and Responsiveness provides multiple retrieval parts to each item of
data, provides the user flexibility in locating and retrieving data than with data files. It
results to retrieving better information the easy way.
  Uniformed Security, Privacy and Integrated Controls improve the data protection,
centralized control and standard procedures that provide dispersed data file system. The
database will be vulnerable than conventional files which are exposed to more users if
proper controls are not applied.
 Reduced Redundancy Data which are carried in separate files that are possible to repeat
the same data, that information appears at least only once.

Disadvantages of a Database System

 Access. This refers to users who have improper access to a database. The employees must
be trained to the correct ways of using database management system, especially in a large
organization.
 Expense. It is usually expensive to set up and maintain a database. The employees must
be trained to use the database properly.
 Excess. In an organization that carries more data than expected, it is theoretically
possible for a database to carry unsuitable data.

Major Parts of Database System

1. Hardware. All system’s physical devices, like microcomputer, minicomputer or a

mainframe computer. It also includes the types of computer hardware.
2. Software. Refers to the collection fo programs used by the computers within the database
system.

 Operating System Software manages all hardware components and makes it

possible for all other software to run on the computers.
 DBMS software manages the database within the database system.
 Application programs and utilities software are used to access and manipulate
the data in the DBMS and to mange the computer environment in which data
access and manipulation takes place.

3. People. Includes all users of the database system.

 Systems Administrators oversee the database system’s general operations.

 Database Administrators (DBA’s) manage the DBM’s use and ensure that the
database is functioning properly.
 Database Designers design the database structure. They expanded to cover new
dimensions and growing possibilities.
 Systems Analyst and Programmers design and implement the application
programs. They design and create the data entry screens, reports, and procedures
through which end user’s access and manipulate the database’s data.
 End users are the people who use the application programs to run the
organization’s daily operations.
 4. Procedures are instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the database
system. It enforce the standards by which business is conducted within the organization
and with customers.
5. Data covers the collection of facts stored in the database.

Types of Database System

 According to Number of Users

1. Desktop Database, a single user database that runs on a personal computer.

2. Workgroup Database, a multi-user database supports a relatively small number
of users within a department in an organization.
3. Enterprise Database, a multi-user database in an entire organization.

 According to the Site Location(s)

1. Centralized DBMS, a DBMS that supports a database located at a single site.

2. Distribute DBMS, a DBMS that supports a database distributed across several
different sites.

 According to the Expected Type and Extent Use

1. Transactional Production DBMS, a DBMS that powers a database primarily

designed to support “Immediate Response”.
2. Decision Support Database (DSD), focuses primarily on production of
information required to make tactical or strategic decision at middle and high
management level.

File Organization is a physical arrangement of data using storage devices and is organized in
different ways and different method of accessing its records.

Types of Files

 System Files. It is an operating system program where data files hold data that is related
to applications software.
 Application Software Files. It is a software needed for a specific application that the
user need.
 Data files. The input data created in organization like in school or company.
Data Types of Processing Files

 Master File. It is a file that consists of permanent or semi-permanent data consolidated

for referencing and updating. It is to be updated to reflect the current status of the data
contents like Payroll Master File, Stock Master File, Student Enrollment File and others.
 Work File. It is temporary file used in sorting of immediate data for further processing.
 Transaction File. It is a file that contains source data or transaction data about recorded
events used to update the master file. It is a temporary file created during processing for a
specific use like customer details extracted from master and transaction files to form
statement detailed file. This is used for printing of monthly customer statements.
 Security or Backup file. It is a backup copy of a file to safeguard against damaged or
loss of current versions.
 Audit File. A particular type of transactions file that enables the auditor to check to the
correct functioning of computer-based procedures by keeping a copy of all transactions
that cause permanent files to be changed.

Ways to Retrieve Information

To retrieve information is one of the file processing methods which aim to produce
accurate and useful information:

 Retrieval. It is the act of transferring a record from secondary storage to main memory to
access data within a field.
 Insertion. It is the process of adding a new record to an existing file.
 Writing. It the process of transferring records from main memory to secondary storage.
 Updating. It makes change to the contents of a record maintained on a file to reflect its
new status.
 Merging. It could be a record merging or a file merging. It is combination of two or more
files in same sequence into a single output file.
 Sorting. It is the act of rearranging the records in a file to produce ordered reports.
 Searching. To satisfy specific criteria that involves looking for records with a certain key
value.
 Matching. To compare two or more records against other records in order to ensure that
there is a complete set of records for each key. Mismatch records are highlighted for
subsequent action.

The Database Objects

 Table. It is a collection of stored data that is organized into fields. It consists of organized
data into column and rows. Each row represents a set of information called record. Each
column represents specific information called field. You store data only once that gives
more efficient database and fewer data-errors.

 Query. It filters a database to view, change, and analyze records in different ways to
meet specific criteria used to retrieve a specific group of record from a table.
 Form. It is where you can enter a new record, study existing data, view data from a table
or a query, or simply print information or any combination of these tasks.

 Report. It is carefully organized presentation of data from a table of query. It can show
group of data with subtotals from a summary of information from a table or query. One
can print the data in acceptable manner, which is easier to read using report, but you
cannot edit data in it.

Strategies in Planning A Database

A quality database design ensures that your database is easy to maintain. You
store data in tables that contains data about only one subject.

For example: you enter faculty names of a certain school, and you want to
update a particular piece of data, such as address in just one place, and this change
automatically appears throughout the database.

The different types of queries that display the information you need can be
considered a well-designed database. A query might show the subset of data, such as all
faculties in Manila, or combinations data from different tables, such as salary information
combined with faculty information.

1. Determine the purpose of your database.

 Know the information you want for your database and determine what
subjects you need to store facts about (the tables) and what facts you need
to store about each subject (the fields in the tables)

 Discuss your designed database to the person who will use it. Sketch out
the reports you want to produce, and gather the forms you currently use to
record your data

2. Determine the fields that you need. The information stated in each table should
contain the same subject and each field in a table should contain individual
information about the table’s subject.

 Convey each field to the subject of the table.

 Avoid using calculated or derived data (pertains to data as the result of an

expression).
  Involve all the information you need for your field.

 Store information starting from smallest rational parts (for example:

Surname, First Name, instead of Full Name).

3. Determine the tables you need in the database.

 The information gathered should be analyzed

Example: Information for Students’ Admission

Student Student Address Course Year, Adviser

No. Name Section

1000 Madrid, Sikap St. BS Math III-A Miss

Ruby Mandaluyong Evangeline
City Hirata

1001 Dailisan, Jorge St. BS II-B Mrs.

Kathleen Marikina Psycho Susan
City Rose

From this example, you may design your table and name it as Student’s
Information table that includes Student’s No., Student’s name, address, year &
section and its adviser.

 Be sure that the table does not duplicate any information. Each table
should contain information about one subject and know what field is
needed in the table. When each piece of information is stored in only one
table, you update it in one place. This eliminates the possibilities of
duplication of entries that contain different information.
Student Table

Student No. Number

Student Name Text

Address Text

Course Text

Year/ Section Text

Adviser Text