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Section.l.
Section-ll
Expected Ouestions Paper Solutions

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 Expected Questions lGliapterwise)
Chapter 1 lntroduction to @rnputer Networks
o
l"a-a..IL-,L4 Chapter 2 Network Models
urEr0[Ptlrucrmil$ Chapter 3 Transmission Media
39/1, Budhwar?etb, Appa Balwant Chowk, Pune - ?.
website: ww'w.visioDpune,coB Chapter4 The Physical Layer
emai.l.i t,[email protected]
[email protected] Chapter 5 The Data Link Lapr
Chapter 6 The Medium Access Sublayer

Computer Networks-l
T.Y. B.Sc. (Computer Sclence) Sem /
Paper Solutions

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1. Onalne book stor. (Chock.Seloct.Buy)

2, Know dlflBnnl coursoiat a glanco.
Answer the followln 1 trark Question$
Matus for these euestions nay varyron I to 2
3. Comploto conlsnt! & othor detalls al a glance.
1.
4. Oulck Soarrh tor books of dlfferont Unhalsl$os.
_
Solution
State the relationship botweqlseruices
and protoco l, @pnl ZO11)
5. Opon your account & got dllcount polnF on each purchase.
Service is a set of operations that a hter can proyide
6. Gottho book at your door, don't waltollmo t monoy on petrol. to thc layer above it pmtocol is a set oI

7, Knoyv the top !3lllng & lpoctal boott along wlth new ardval!.
rules which govems thjfonnat and mearig
ofa;". p.;k;;;-;;;ffiiauj
betwe€n the peer entities. Entities use prcfrcols - '*' hirg e*"harg.a
to implement rheir sJ;;.
- I Ono solutlon forally6ur need! . Text BooI!, papor Soludon & Compefl ve Exam!.
2. Define ths unacknowledged cq|nectionless
.
Solulion
servics, 6pnl2011)
It is a connectionless service. A messry is sent with a high probibility of arival but there is no
guarantee i.e. no acknowledgement
is sent-

1
How does information get passed from
one layer to th6 noxt in the lnternet
model?
(Apit2011)
Solution .
In intemet model information is oasserlthrough
interface b€tween 1 layer t0 next layer. Through
io*!,
{ftOllrci[
service Access poinrs (sApS) *r,i.r,
services are provided
*
*uiiuii.-u;';; t;;rf"* ;ili;,i"ina r. ,"*t ruy.,
16(t ald information is Fsed

4. Define home networks.

Solution Wtil2011)
These are the networks which are usefl at
home. The shndalone home computr is connected to
perform several things like bank transactio, pay
bills, erc.

5. Define Computer Network,

(October 201 ) 1
I
Solution
A computer network, also refened to sjust a network,
consists of two or morc conputers, and
typically other devices as we[ (such as ol*en,-"r,tern"t
linled.together so that they can'com.unitde ,ri$
tura a1iv"r, *oa.r, *i.r,"ro, *.
,rru
*.f, otf,er.a tfrir.if r*.firg, **ura, ,ra
share data. hardware and other resources.

5.. Which topology requiros a mutpoint connection?

(October 2011, Apnt2012)
Solution
[email protected] Bus topolory requires a multipoint corEctioo-

:, ..:..i:, , l
T.Y. P lll.Computer Networks-t I E t lntroduction to Com puter l,lsthrls o.
ut8t0n

\
 LY, P lll. Computer Netwo.ksl I @ r lntroductlon to Compulor Networks o
ur8t0[
T.Y. P lll. Compuler Notworb-t . t lntroductlon to Computer Nstworks a
0t$0I
7. What is multicasting? (Octobar 2011, Apfl 2012)
Solutlon
Multicasting is a technical term that means that you can send a pierce of data
(a packet) to multiple sites at the dame time,

8. Defino Protocol, Wil 2012)

Solution
A protocol defines rules and conventions for communication betwQen network devicas. Protocols
for computer networking all generally use packet switching techniques to send and receive messages
inthe fum of packets
.Rlng Topology
9. Dofine mosh topology. (October 2012, October 2013)
Solution E Answer the followl 5 Marks Questlons
Mesh topolory is a network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected Ma*s for lheso Qussr,b ns npy vary han 4 to 5.
with one anotha, allowing for most tansmissions to b€ distdbuted, even ifone ofthe connections gri
1 Compare server based LAN and peor LAN: (October 201 1 , 201 3, Apfl 201 3)
down.
Solulion
10. Define Routing. (Apfl 2013)
Solution Via user/group lists of permissions; single paesword Via password lisls by Esourca; each
When there are multiple paths between source and destination are available, a ioute must be Access provides a user access to anly thsragourcos on his resourca lgqulros a s€parat€ password;
control list; users can be given several different l€vels of all-or.nothing access; no csntraliz€d user
chosen depending upon certain criteria. Criteria may be curent traffic or situation ofsubnet. Criteria
access.
is called routing protocol ald this process is called as routing.
Hlgh bicause access is onfoltedlh Low because knowing the passirord
user or by
11. Givo diagrammatic repr€sentation ofbusand ring topology. (Apfl 2014) Security
group idonlily. gives anybody access to a shared
resource.
Solutlon
High becauss the server doesn'l waste tim€ or Low becaus€ servers oien act
Following diagram illustrates the bus netwo* topolo$/. A bus topolory uses a single Performanc€
resources handling wo*stalion taske. workslations.
as
communication backbone for all devices.
High, due to specializ€d deEign o, s€rvei higll.
Hardware Low because any workslaiion can
p€rfomancs nalure of harduare, and rcdundancl
Cost becomg a server by sharing ngources.
features,

License le€s per worl$tation ussr ar6 part of the Its free: all clienl software is included
Drop Drop 0rop Drop Soffware cost o, the Network Oporatjng Sysl€m server with any rel8ase of Windows 9x,
line line line line Cost software (Windows NT and Windows Wndows NT Workstation, Windows
Cabl6 Cable
2OOO Serve(
I
. NET Server, and Novbll NeMare).
2000 Professional, Windows Me, and
end
Tap Tap Tap Tap I WndowsxP.
Centralized when data is s'tored.on s€rver; enables Left to user d€cjsion; usually mixture of
Bu8 Topology Backup use of high-speed, high-capacjty tap€ backups wjth backup devic€s and praclls€s at each
advanc€d cataloging. wo*station.
Following diagam illustrates the ring network topolory. A ring topolos/ sends messages
Duplicate power supplies, hotsweppablo drive No true redundancy among eilher peer
clockwise or counterclockwise through the shared lbk.
Bedundanc'I,
arrays, and even rcdundanl sgryeB arg @mmon; 'servers' or clients; failurBs require
network OS normally is Gpable ol using redundant manual intorvention to con6ct. with a
devices automatically. high possibility of data loss..
 T.Y, P lll. Computor Notwo*s,l a a o
2.
a

Explain any five goals of Computer Networks,,

lntroduction to Computer Networlg

(Apfl 201 2, October 201 2)

T.Y. P lll. Computer Network{ | E I lntroduction to Computer Networks
0llt0[
4 Describe different issues tor the layers.
Solulion (October 2013)
Solution
A compul€r nctwork is I system in which computers are mnnected to share information and
.
Following are the detign issux oftlz layer:
rcsources, Nctrrorls are collcction of computers, software, and
help fteir usas work togetha.
hardware tlr.t ,o * ;i;;;;;;d Addressing: Every rayer needs a mechanism for
identirying senders and receivers. since a
netwo*-normally has mary coryuters. some of which
harJ muhiph processa, a means is
Following are the goal of conputer nitworlcs; needed for a proces on on. madhe to speciry,
*t ii *.t"? ,illir'"o*.qr.n*
i. Resource sharing: the main goal ofnetworking is ,'Resource sharing,',
and it is to make all
of having multiple destinations, some form or"ig,
uaor.*rin! i, ", *J; ; or.di to speciry a
progranB, data and equipment availablc to anyone on the network specific destination.
without the regard to the
physical location oftlrc rcsourcc and thc user. lI. Data trrnNfer: Arother set of &sign decisions concems
the rules for data Eansfer, In some
ii' Proyiditrg high.reriabirity: A serond-goar is to provide bigh reriabirity
by having arternative 1_..rJlll
dl? trarel in one direeion (simplex communjcation). fn orfr* rf,.V
can travet in
sources_ of supply, For exanple; all files could 6e rcpticariO on rwo oi tt*ee but nor.simultancously (half duplex communicarion).
maihines, so if ::1",1T:Tl. In other rley travel in
onc ofthem is unavailable, the other copies could be
available. I
1t_1 1I*1,.p:t
once ( l duplcn communication). The prorocol must also derermine
how
many
iii. Cost,teduction: Aaother goal.is savlng money, Small computers have
a much betta
rogrcal channels the connection conespond to. and what
networls provide at least two logi""l channels per connection,
their priorities are. Maly
price/pcrformance ratio ftan larger ones. Mainframes
are roughly a factor of ten times faster
o;; f;; noil"t auiu una on, to,
than.the fastest single chip micropmcesson, but they coit 'tlril; fu;' ;;;;'Til; I
urgent data.

lmDatance has caused many system dosigners !o build Error.control: Error control is m important iszue because physical
systems consisting ofpowerful personal communication circuits
computcn, onc per us*, witlr data kept on one or ror. ,hr.d nt. are nor perlect. Many erlor detocting and aror
,..r.". mlchines. fhis goal conecting codes are kno\ryn, but both ends of
connectior must agree on which one is being used. In
leads tonetworks with many compllters located in 0re
same building. Such a netwok is called il1t adiition, rhe
way oftelling the sender which nressage havJbeen conectly
;;iv;;;;t
have some
a LA-l{ (local Area Network). receiveJ-J"r,i.iiur. ,",.
iy' High performance: Another closery relateil goal is to in*ease the
systems performance as the
iltt tv Large mersages: Anofter probl€D that must be solved
at several levels is the inabilify ofall
work load-increases by just adding ,or. accept arbitrarily long messages, This property leads
i...rroo. w,,h ;;;#';#;rres, when rle !r."."ri,.b
orsaslembtrng, tansmittng,
to mechanisms to
system is full, it must be replaced by a Imger one, usually and tban reasembling messages. A related issuo
a g..i .rp.*. and with even whm processes insist upon rransniting dara i, urlin
is what to do
gester disruption to the users, thut ir, ,o *ai-[uir.niirg ,n.
v, Communicatiotr medlun: Computer networks
Fovide a powerful communication mcdium.
separately is inefficient. Here the solution. is to gather
toward a common destination into a single largie messa[e
together several ,ruii ,.rrug., "".r,
l,.uOing
14.
file..thal was modified on a netwQrk can be seen by ttre
ottrer usen on ttre netrrort.
and dir;;;;;th;-lrg" ,**g",
at the othcr side.
lmmeolateN.
Explain listen, connect, recsiw, send and disconnsct
3, Write a note on l0 base E. (October 2012)
5
s6rvice primitives,
Solution (Apfl 2014)
sotution
10 bas€ 5 is a type of Ethem€L EthernEt isthe
most ]r,idely-installed local area network (LAN)
,"
jr:":"0*:l-::lice. is,provided
by ser ofprimirives or operations present to user from process
technoJ6ry.specified in a standard, IEEE 802.3. a, ro access. lhe pnmlttves tell the servic€ to perform some
special g'ades of rwisted pair wires. Ethemet is also
'- *-
Btf,"*ri-t_atilpiJf,',ics coaxial cable or
peer.entity. The primitives are system calls when
action or report on an action taten by a
used in wireless Li'N;. i fie protocol ,r*kr'.r. pi..rnr in rhe OS. The
pnm)trves lor connection-oriented service differ
from those of connectionless servicc.
10 base 5 is often refsned to as Thiclglet. l0 base
5 was rhe frst incamation of Ethemet Five service primitives for implementing a simple connection-oriented
technologr. The industiy used rhicknet in the.1980s service:
until tonasei Thila aifearea. comparea to
Thicknet. Thinnet offcred thc advanrase.of rhinner
,irrirr*'rr-ii:iliiir.,*; *a Primitive Meaning
O ,or"
flexible cabJing making it easier to wirJoffice ilairg t f.r'iii"*.i LISTEN Block waiting for an incoming connection

The most common form of taditional Ethemet, however, CONNECT Establish a connection with a waiting peer
is l0Base_T. lOBase-T offen bettsr
electrical properties than Thicknet or Thinnet, u..uirr. "unslieraeo
ros*r-i.Jrls uirirze
RECEM Block waiting for an incoming connection
rwrsteo
Pah,(U1?) wiring rather rhan coaxiar. lOBase-T also
proved ,.i. ."ilii*r". trran altematives
SEND Send a rnessage to the peel
like fiber optic cabling.
DISCONNECT Teminale a connecrion
 n
T.Y. P lll. Computer Networks.l r E r lnuoduction to Computer Networts.
Uft0i
The following steps show how a comection orient€d data communication takes place benveen a
server and a client machine using the service primitives.

i. The server executes LISTEN to wait for incoming connections.

I
ii. The plient isues a CONNECT request to the server process. The client process is blocked
f
until it receives a response from the server. tr Answer ihe toltowl { Mark Questions
iii. The server receives the CONNECT request, setJ up the connection and sends an
Mafus for lhese Ques,bns may ya
ry tnm I to 2.
acknowledgement.
1. Which dsvics oporatos at tho netwo* layer of the OSI
model? (October 2011)
iv. The clientprocess uses 0re SEND primitive to send request for data- Solution
v. The server uses the RECEIVE primitive to receive the request and uses SEND to s€nd data to Router operates at $e network layer offte OSI model.
client.
2. Which device oporates at tho transport layer of the OSI
modet?
vi. When communication is over, the client issues a DISCONNECT. This blocks tlre client
Solutlon
6pnt2O12)
proc€ss.
Bridge, Router, Gateway devices opemte at the ransport
layer ofthe OSI model.
vii. The server issues its own DISCONNECT as an acknowledgement of the client,s request and
releases the connection. 3. What is socket address? (October 2012)
viii. When the client receives the acknowledgement, the client process is relealed and the Solu$on
conneclion is terminated. A socket address is the combination of an Ip address and a po,. number,
much like one end of a
telephone conriection is the combination ofa pl.,one ,urt.,
,ra'u purti.Jar'exrension. S.sed on this
Cllent machlne Seryoa machlne
address, internot sockets deliver incoming data packets to
thrcad.
the aiffiie
ffication process o,
CONNECT- conneclion
Clientprocess
ACK
Server prccess
4, Give merits of OSI reference model. (October 2012, 2013)
SEND . Request for data Solution
RECEIVE - dala Following are tle nerits ofoSl relerence nodel:
System Syslem
calls
DISCONNECT - termination l. Reduces compleity
calls
Operatinq sydem 0ISCONNECT - temination ii.
Operating syslem Standardizes intqfaces

Client€erve, comm unlcation t[. Facilitates modular engineuing

hteroperability between vendon
Q" Ensures inttroperable tcchnolory
ut8t0il
5, What are dynamic ports? (October 201 2)
Solution
A dynarnic port is a send port that do€s not have I destination address and
. adapter type associated
with"it. A. dynamic send port allows the association of the destination
aadress an'd aaalL type wittr
ibelf during,runtime. execution, thus providing flexibility in using rhe same pori
for'ienaing
|: messages to different destinations using differ€nt adspter types.
I

T.Y, P lll.Computor Networks.l a

Lrl t Network Models a
ut80t
 T,Y. P lll. Compuler Netu,orks.l . a I NetrYort Models o
urtl[i
T.Y. P lll. Computer Netwo.ts.l t i Network Models a
ur$0i

6, Give merits of OSI reference model. (October 2013) Answer the following 5 Marks Quest!ql9 i
Mafus fot tfuse Quostions nay vq fam 4 to s
Solutlon
Following arc lhe nerils of OSI reference model:
L Wlth axample explain the ffirencg betwsen port address, logical addr6s and
i. Reducgs complexity a physicaladdrGs 6pil 2011)
ii. Standardizesinterfaces Solution
iii. Facilitatcsmodularengineering Physical rddress: Also known as aMAC address. It is a local addrcss. It is unique locally but
iv. Interoperabilitybetwccnvendors not unique univenally.
v. Ensuresinteroperabletechnologr Packet from souce to destination ht pass tlrough physical networks. Hosts and routers are
recognized by thcir MAC addreses.
7, State the responsibilities of tho transport laysr. (Apil 2014)
Size and fomat yaries depending m the naturc of nehvork e.g. Ethemet (LAN) usas a 4g-bit
Solution (6-b1te) address. It contains 12 hexarhcimol digits 0g:63:4c:g1:08:1D. Data link layer defines the
The fansport laya provides tansfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer physical address of the sender and./or ftEEiyer of the frarne.
services to tle uppcr layers.
Logicrl address: AIso known rs an IP address. It is an intemetwork address.
The [ansport layer prcvides for the scgrnentation ofdata and the control necessary to r*ssembl€ It is ulique universally, Network laya&fmes the logical ad&ess. At the nehyork level, hosts and
these pieces into the various communication streams. Its prifiary responsibilities to accomplish this routers are recognized by their IP addreses or logical addresses,
arc:
E.g. In intemet curently 32-bit adt6s is used.
i. Tracking the individual communication between applications on the source and destination
a

hosts. Port-address: The main objective dintemet is the process ro process connnunication. For this
ii. Segmenting data and managing each piece. label or name to the processes are necesary.

iii. Reassembling the segments into streams ofapplication data. The label assigned to a process is c&d as a pofi address. port ad&esses is a 16 bit address. The
iv, Idcntiling the dillerart applications. port address is defined by t}e hansport hyer.

8, How todistinguish a unicast address from a multicast address? 6pnt ZO14) 2, Stat€ all functions of Notwo* Layer. (Apil 2012)
Solution Solution
A source addres is always a unicast address; the frame comes tom only one station. lfthe least f,'unctions of Network Layer
significant bit of the fi$t byte in a destination address is 0, the address is unicast; otherwise, it is
multicast. The Network Layer transmits the dti md decides which route the data must follow through the
A unicast destination address dcfures only one recipient; the relationship betwc.en the sender and intemetwork. The network layer rec.eii,crd&-packets from the upper layer from the transmitte;, and
the receiver is one-to-one, transmits these by so many connectiorsmd subsystems as needed to reach it destination. Following
are tle main responsibilities of the netrek layer:
A multicast destination address defines a goup of addresses; the relationship between the sendo

t. and the receivers is one-to.many.

9,
i, togical addressing: Every deviocthal communicates over a nerwork has associated with it a
logical address, sometimes calld a layer three address. For exanple, on the Intemet, the
DefinE the terms: protocol stack and poers. (Apfl 2014)
Solution Intemet Protocol (P) is the netrllt layer protocol and every machine has an Ip address.
Protocol stack ii. Routing: Moving data aqoss a sies of interconnected networks is tle main function of Lhe
The protocol stack used on the intemet is the intemet protocol Suite. It is usually called Tcp,ilp
network layer. It is thejob of tlE devices and software routines that function at the network
after two of its most prominent protocols, but there are othcr protocols as .\a,ell.
layu to handle incoming packelxtom various sources, detsrmine theh final destinatjon, and
The TCP/IP model is based on a fiveJayer model for nctworking. From bottom (the linl) to top
then figure out where they need bbe sEnt to get them where they are supposed to go.
(the usa application), these are the physical, data link, network, harsport, and application layirs.
Peers
The 'peers' arc computer $ystems which are connected to each other via the Intemet
 !

T.Y. P lll- Computer Networks,l r f,;l r Network Models o

ulll0!
T.Y, P lll. Compuler Notworts.l a
E l Network Models &
0t$0t
I

i
iii. Datagram encapsulation: The network layer nomally encapsulates messages rccciyed from Follawing table aplains u diferences between these two models:
higher layen by placing them into datag"ms (also called packets) Vith a network layer
header.
i. lmplemenlation ot OSf model. Reference model
iv. tr'ragmentation and reassembly: The network layer rnust send messages down to the data
Model around which lntemet is This is thsoretical model.
I
link layer for transmission. Some data link layer trchnologies have limis on the leng0r ofany \ dev€loped.
message ftat can be sent. If ttre packet that the network layer wants to send is too largq the lt. Has only lour layers. Have seven layers. I
netwo* layer must split the packet up, send each piece to the data link layer, and then have
Considered more roliable Considered a reference tool
pieces reassembled once they anive at the network layer on the destination machinc.
Protocols arB nol stdclly detinod Sticter boundaries tor lhe protocols.
v, Error hatrdliDg !trd diagnostics: Special protocols are used at the netwo* layer to allow Horizontal approadr. V€rtical approach.
devices that are logically connected, or thal are [ying to route m.ffic, to exchange information
Combines the session and presentatjon Have separate gession and presentalion layers.
about the status ofhosts on the netwo* or the devices themselves. layers in th6 application layer.

Protocols were developed first and then Madol was develgped before lhe devolopment of
3. How TCP/IP model is ditferent from OSI rofsrsnce model? Explain. I
lhe model was developed. protocols.

Pctober 2012) ix. SupporB only conn€cljonless Supports conneclionloss and connec'tion-oriantod
sorurion communication in the nEtwo* layer. communi€tion in lhe network layer.

Transmission Control Protocol is used by Intemet applications like email, world wide web, FTp, Protocol dependent standad. Protocol independent stardard.
etc. TCPIP was developed by the Department of Defence(DoD) to connecl vadou devices to a
common network (lntemet). 3, Comparo between TCPTIP and ISOOSI model, (October 2013)

The main purpose behind dweloping the protocol was to build a robust and automatically Solutlon
recovering phone line failue while on the battlefield, Transmision Contol Pmtocol is used by Int€met applications likt.email, World Wide Web,
On the other hand, open Systems Interconnection was developed by the Intemational FTP, etc. TCPflP was developed by the Department ofDefense (DOD) to connect v$ious devices to
Organization for Shndardization (lSO). This model was made up of two components, namely, a common network (lnternet).

seven-layer model and the subset ofprotocols.

The main purpose behind developing the pmlocol was to build a robust afld automdtically
Following table shows the layer-wise difference these lwo models recovaing phone line failure while on the battlefield. On the other hand, op€n systems
interconnection was developed by thb Intcmational Organiation for Standardization 08O). This
model was made up of two components, namely, seven-layer model and the subset ofpmtocols.
Application Layer
The nain sinilafities between the two modeb hclude the following:
Presentalion Layer Application Layer

Session Layer
i, They share similar architecture: Both lhe rhodels share a similar architectue. This can be
illustrated by the fact that both ofthem are consfucted with layers.
Transporl Layer Transport Layer

Network Layer
ii. They share a common appllcation layer: Both the models share a oommor "application
lnternet Layer
layel'. However, in practice this layu includes different services dspending upon each model.
Data Link Layer
Ljnk Layer iii, Bolh models have comparable transport and network layers: This can be illustrated by lhe
Physical Layer fact that whatever filnctions are performed between the presenhtion and netwo* lsyer of t]c
OSI model similar funotions are performed at the bansport layer oflhe TCPIP model.
Both lhe TCPIP and OSI model work in a very similar fashion. But they do hsve very subll€
differences too. Th€ most apparent difference is the number of layers. TCp/p is a four-'layercd The nain diferincx beneen the no nofub are as follows:
structure, while OSI is a sevenJayered model.
i. TCP/IP Pmtocols are considererl to be shndards around which fie intemet has developed.
The OSI model however is a'generic, prolocol- independent standard."
 T.Y. P lll. Computor Networks.l . l,;l r Net!,york Models o
11. TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer
isucs into its application layer.
iii. TCPflP combincs thc OSI data link anrt physicallayers
into the network acctss laya.
iv. TCP/IP appears to bs a simpler model and this
is mainly dric to the fact that ir has fewer
Iayers.
Answer the tollowi 1 Mark Q estions
The OSI model consist of7 architectural layers wheress the TCp/lp only has 4
layers. Marks for fhese Quesrlo ns nay vary frcmI to 2.
4. Explain any threo responslbillties df appllcation
layer, 6pnl 2014) l. What are the two typ6s of fansmission media?
Solution
Solutlon
i lhe application raycr anbles the user, whether human
or software, to access the nctwork. The tralsmission media is classifid into two types;
ii. It provides user htcrfac€s and support
for i. guided
services such as e-ma , sharcd database
ii.
management and other types of distibu;d info_rrio;;;;;. unguided
iii. Specific serviccs provided by the application
layer include the following: i

a" Network virtual terminal 2, How i! guided medium cla$ifisd?

Solutlon
b. File Transfer, Acpess and Management (FTAM
c. Mail saviccs '
The guided media classified as:

d. Directory Services
i. Twistcd pair cable
ii. Coaxialcable
iii. Fiber.optic cable

o, 3, Stats tho advantago of twisted pair cable.

Solu6on
ut8t0[ Advantages
i. Inexpensive.
ii. Thin, flexible, easy to install.
iii. Large numbu ofwires can be crried through the sane duct

4. What aro tho types of twlsted pair cables?

Solution
Twisled pair comes in fieo varielies:
i
i. Unshielded Twisred pair (UTp)
ii. Shielded Twisted Pair (ST?)

' T,Y. P lll€omputor Notworks.t . i (h

I E Transmlssion Medla
ullloi
 ()
T.Y. P lll- Computer NetworbJ t E a Transmission Media
0tEt0! T.Y. P lll Conputer Networks-l a a Transmisslon Medla a
ut$0'l
5, List applications of UTP.
E Answer the followi 5 Marks Questlons
I
Solution
Mafus for these Questions may vary hon 4 to 5.
i. Telephone system, Basic rate interface in ISDN.

ii. Token Ring networlc.

1. Explain Twisted Pak Cable in detail.
Solution
iii. Earlier used for l0Base-T Ethemet to carry voice.
iv. Telephone networks, token ring, I0BASE-T, and 100BASE-T4 networks for voice and data. Outer
insulator
Solid copper
corduclorg
v. Ethemet LAN, telephony, video.
I\Yisted Pair
vi. Fast and Gigabit Ethnnel.
vii. Gigabit ethemet, Data cenhes, Backbone networks, High speed LAN,s.
Wires in 0re twisted pair are twisted together in pairs. Each pair consist ofa wire used for the +ve
dah signal ard a wirc used for the -ve dato signal.
viii. Ultra fast ethemet, Cornrnercial premises spanning a mnge of3 km, Data centses.
When noise occurs on both the wires, it cancels or nulls itself out al the receiving end. Makes
them less susceptible to acting like 8n ant€ona and picking up radio frequenry inforoatioir or
6, List the msdium used for line of sight communication, appliance noise.
Solution Twisting de$eases the crosstalk int€rferenc€ betwefl adjacent pairs in lhe cablq by using
Intared waves are widely used for short-range, line-of-sight communications like Remote different Nist length for neighboring pain.
contsols used on T.Vs, V.C.R.s and stereos. Telephone company uses twistcd-pair copper wires to link telephones.
Less expensive and most widely used.
7. List the purpose ot 4 wires used in CAT5/6 cables. A twisted pair consist of2 cnnductors, each,with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One
Solution ofthe wire is used to carry signals to the rceiver and the other is used only a ground referencc.
These wires are twisted into 4 pairs of wires, each pal has a common color theme. One wire in Therc are two categories of Twisted Pair
the pair has a solid colored wire and the other being a white wire with a colored stipe. The wire
pairs are:
i. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Ior exanple, ordnary telephone wte. Subject !o extemal
electomagnetic interference.
i, Orange (O) and White/Orange (o or Ol)
ii. Green (G) and WhitdGreen (g or G,)
iii. Blue @) and White/Blue (b or B,/)
iv. Brown (Br) and White8rown (br or BR/)
Plastic cover

8, What is c mping?
Unshielded Twisted Pair (uTP)

Solution ll. Shielded lVisted Pair (STP); Shielded with a metallic braid or sheath Reduces interference.
Crimping is the process of connecting the wire to the connector. A special purpose tool called Better perfomance at hi$er data rates. More expensive and difficult to work 8s comparcd to
fiimping tool is used tojoin the cable and the connector, I
UT?,

9. What is the purpose of a lins testing tool? Metal shi€ld

Solution
A Network line testing tool is used to test the Network Cable to see if it is not bmken, cut or
damage by using electricity to test the cable for continuity. It can detect open wires, crossing pairs,
cable shorts and other problems in wiring. LED indicators on the tool indicate the wires whichhave Plastic cover Shiolded Twistod Palr (STP)
problems.
 T.Y. P lll. Computor Netvrorts.t . F;] I TrarEmbslon Medla
2. Draw a figure of Coaxial cable and explain, T,Y. P lll. Compular llEtworlll . t Transnbslon Media a
0tJ0i
Solulion Opical fiben cone in two typt:
L co-axial cablc mnsistr oftwo conductors. Thc inner colductor is hckr inside
an insurator with i. Single-modc fiben
woven. around it providing a shiekl. An insulating pmteclive
!.".IT--Tle*
calted I Jacket covexl the out€r conductor
coating ii. Multi-modc fibers

Single-mode fiben have small cons (about 3.5 x t0{

Jacket Shleld lnsulatoa Conbl
liTill ,fiT* laser_liglrt (wavelengh = r,300 to 1,s50 inches or 9 microns in diameta) and
;;;.;i;;ii-mode fibers have
conduclor rarger mr€s (about 2.5 x l0', inches or
62.5 microns b diameter) and tmnsmit infrared lighr
(wavelength = 850 ro 1,300 nm) tom
tight+mitting OioOeslf_rOj. -'
-- "-'
Some optical fibers can bc madc fionr plastic.
Ihese fibers have a lage corc (0.04 inches or I
mm dianaer) and ransmit visftle red ligh
lw*.f.rgtf, = OSO ,rl t"r'iii'"'
ll. the outer shield protccts thc inner conducior from outrirtc electical signals.
lll. The distance betwefi $e outer 0onductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the type of
4, Wrlte a short nots on radlo wa\ros,
naterial uscd for iruulating the inner condudoi O.t"irin. tfr. .uUf. pr.pJ_i", I Solution
_p"a**. Radio waves are in the frequency
lv. Ilpcs of coutal cable raqc of3 kllz to lGHz This range covers AM and FM radio
ul* rrcqu"n'cy 6nrqLo ve,y HisrlFrcq;;
i;iii;;;;,.,.
a. 50 ohm cable . uscd for digial ransmission. :^Tl
arc easy T lish
to generate csn bayer rong", ditu)c€s ana
Radio waves
so are widily used for communication.
b. ?5 ohm cable - used for analog hansmision" Radio wav* 4rc onni{i*ctional Lc' they Eav€r in
all tlirections tom the source. Hence the
Due to the shield provided this cable has excellcnt noise transmitter and rec€iver ne€d not b€ aligDed.
immunity. Ornl-alrectionat uniennas are usJrritt raAio *ar.s.
vi It has large bandwidth and mw losses.
i. AM and FM Radio

3. W to short note on Fibor optic cabl6s. ii. Cordless phones

Solullon iii. Television

A fiber opic cable is I netwo* cabr€ that contains strands of gra$ fibers insidc iv. P"gng
i
an insurated
casing. These cables are dasigned for long disran* *d ,.,y hifi;*i;idttrlffiit speea; netrrort Adrantoges
i
communications. i. Suited for long distanG bansmission in tlre sky propagation
mode.
,Fiber
opic cables cffry communication signals usilg pulses of light. Wrilc expensivg ii. Since the waves are omnidirertioml, the tansmittrr
cables ore increasing.ly being used instead of -tuOitionof".ipp"
these and rec€ivff do not have to be ali$ed
capacity and is Jess suscEtible to electrical interference. .
.uif.rll**. nu" ofen more
properly.
iii.
If we look. closely at a single opicat
f;ber, you utill rhal it l.] f9.*p frequency waves can pbnerrate walls rhereby allowing receivers ro receive
stgnals even wlthin a room.
see hss the follwing parls:
i. Core: Thin glass center oftlre frber where the light
travels. Disadvantages
ii. Cladding: Outa optical material surcunding the
corc that rcflecr thc light back into the core.
The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent.
At high frequencies, they bounce off
iii. Buffer coating: plastic coating that protects rle fiber
obstacles.

Hundreds or thousodt of ticse optical fiben

&om damagc and moisture.
ii. Since the waves are onnidirectiooal, they are susceptible
to interferenc€ tom signals from
are anangcd in bundles in optical cables. The other antennas.
bundlesareprotectedbyt}eobIe,soutercov.'i,g,;iJ;,il;'..
iii. They arc absorbed by rain.
iv. they are subjecl to intcrf€r€nce
ftm motors and otha elecrical equipment,
v. They have low bandwidth for data communication.
 T,Y. P lll. Computer NetworksJ I 0"
i
I
a Transmisslon Medla
ur3r0[ T.Y, P lll Comput€r NetworksJ . E r Transmlselon Medla a
5. What ls wireless transmission? Explain infrarEd as wirelo3s transmiE8ion. propagation is tsicky as radio uansmissions can
not be completely focused. Infra red waves are used
ur$0!

Solutlon for the short range communication such as those between

a PC and the. peripheral devic€
Wireless ransmission involves the transmission of information over a distanc€ without help of
wires, cables or any otha forms of electrical conductors. The transmitted distance can be anywhere 7. Write differences between Co€xial Cable and Twisted palr.
betneen a few meten (for exanple, ateletision's rcmotc contsol) and thousands of kilometses (/or. Solulion
e x anp I e, ndio c ommvicalion).

\{ireless transmission uses electomagnetic energ/ to tansport sipals tom a power source to an i.
Physical It is rDre robusl as compared to It is less robusl as compared to
constucUon twisted pair. twisted pair.
electrical load. Signals are tansmitted without tlie use of wires 0lat connect one sourc€ to another.
The technolory used in microwaves and lasets is one example ofwireless hansmission. ii. oata rate
Data rale spesd in mogabytes (MB). oata rate sp€€d in kilo bytes

Infrared as Wir€less Trsmmission: Infrared 0R) Iight is a wavelength of enersr that is l[. CostWeight ll is more expensivo . It is less oxpensive.
invisible to the human eye. The most common source of this energy is heat; objects can have their
Distance It ls used tor lbngor dislance. Not suitablg for longer dlstance.
relative temperatures measued by how much of this enerry they give of{ Lower wavelengths or
nearinfrared closest to the visible light color red More .suscEptible to nois€
- are not hot, and axe often used to transmit
- Noise lmmunity
Better noise immunity. Crosstalk not immunlty. Ctosslalk is presont
data in elechonics. A remote conldlol,for emmpl4 may use a particular wavelength ofnear infrared occurs during th€ transmission. du6 to presence of multjple
to communicate with a radver, sarding pulses of li$t that tansmit a signal tn thc dcvice, telling it twisted palrs.
what to do. More diflicull to install as comoared Easy to install as comparo to
lnstallalon
lo tv/isled pair cabl€. co-axial ceble.
A form of energr, IR is part of the electomagletic spectrum. This spectum is comprised of radio
waves; microwaves; infrared, visible, and ultraviolet lighq x-rays; and gamma rays. Each form of Varieties
Available in Thinnet and thicknet Available in CAT'I to CAT 5
broadband cable. cable.
energr is ordered by wavelength; infrared falls between microwaves and visible light waves
Conngclors 8NC connedor and T conneclor RJ 45 conneclor ls us€d.
because its waves are shorter than miffowaves but longer than those ofvisible light. used used.
The prefix infia comes fiom the Latin word which means ,,belowf,the term means ,,below re(,, Less number of arnplifieB used in
tx. Amplifers used More numbsr ot amplifiss are
indicating its position in the elechomagnetic sp€ctrum. visible light has a range oflvavelengths that coaxial cable, used in twisled pair.
arc manifqsted in tle seven colors ofthe rainbow; red has the longest wavelength and violei has the Power loss due to conduclion.
Power loss Power loss due lo abrorplion,
shortest. Infrared, with wavelengths longer than the color red, is invisible to the human eye. scattedng, dispersion.
Short chcuit betwe€n Short circuit is not posslue
6. Explain Unguidod Msdia.
xt Short circuil
conductoE is possible.
Solutign xli Eandwidth Moderalely high bandwidth. Very high bandwidth.

The unguided media is the wireless media. It simply transports electomagnetic waves without
using any physical conductor. Signals are normally broadcast though $e air and thus are available 8, Explain Propagation Methods.
to anyone who has the device capable of receiving them. Unguided signals can be travelled from Solution
source to thc destination in several ways. These ways include ground propagation, slry Ptopsgatiot Methods
Fopagation
and line ofsight propagation. I
i
Propagation methods are classified into tlree categories:
ln the ground propagalion, the radio \ryaves travel tlrough the lowest portion of
hugging the earth. These very low tequurcy signals emamte in all directions from Fansmitting
atnosphere, i. Ground wave propagatiol: Radio waves in the VLF (Very Low Frequency) band propagate
in a ground or surface wave. Thc wavc is connected at onetnd to thc surface orth
antenna and follow the curvahue ofpianer. caritr-a,'a
to the iolosphere at the otlrcr.
In propagation the higher frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphae, where
. sky
they are reflected back to the earth. The sun's rays cause the ions to form which slowly recombine. The prop8gation of Bdio
waves in $e presence of ions is drasticelly diffenent than in air, which is wiry-thc ionosphere
ln tcl,e line of sight ptorygation, very high tequency signals are transmitted in sbaight lines plays aIl important rolc in most mod€s of propagation. Ground waves bavel bctween
two
directly from the anterula to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other and either tall linits, ttre earth and the ionosphere which acts liie a duct. Since, the duct curves witl the
enough or close enough together not to be affected by curvature of the earth. The line of sight earth, the groud wave will follow. Thoefore very long ra[ge propagation is possible
using
gound wave.
 l

]-Y. P lll- Compuior llet o*r.l . F;l r Tranlml$lon Medla

lt. Sky wavc propsgatlou: Radiowaves il thc LF (,ow Frequarry) and MF (Mcdiuo
Frequarq) may also prcpagatc as gound r+,avcs, tut srrfer signincant loses or arc
ranges_
attrnuaro4_padiculrly at higher tequencies. But as the ground wave ,iod" fado out,
n*
mode dwilops the slry wave. "
Sky waves are reflections tom the ionosphere. Sky waves in tlis frequency band
are usually Answer the tollowin { lf,ark Questions ):
only possihle at niglr! whar the concentation of ions is not too grcaf sinc€
tle ionosphae als'o Matus fot these Questions fitay vary fiom 1 to 2
tsnds to aftcnuate thc signal. Long rang* arc possiblc in thiimode also
upo hunrkeds of
mil6. Howeyo, at night, there are just enough ions to reflect the wave but jo not reduce its '1, What is Baud Rate?
(April2012)
pfficf too much. Solution

m.(H,.gb Frequency) band operatcs aLtrost cxclusively with sky wave. Ilre higher
I.
frequencies have les attenuation and less -lvtr -
Baud rate is a number relalEd to the speed of data transmission in a systeD (usually this term is
rcfraction in thc ionosphere'as compared o
(Mediun Frequency). At the high end thc wavcs completdy penetrate
related !o modems). The baud rarc of a db cor-*i.uti; t;; i, ti. ni,r,ii", oi ,yruot, p.,
rhe ioriosphere and socond trdnsfen€d. The higho the baud ralc, the more bifs pa secona
b€comc apac€ wsvcs. At thc low en( they arc always riflected. Thc ,f,r, ,.'oanrf.".a.
Hf banJ;perdles with
both these effects ahnost all the time. 2. Defino line coding.
(Apil, October 2012)
I
Solutiori
llr Lile-of-slglt:. In the VHF ryny High Frequcncy) band and ug the proDacation
tends ro Line coding consists of reDrescnrino tlrc digital signal
straighten into (LOS) ]vavcs. Howevcr, the frequency is stitt iow enoug l,o be transported, by an amplitude- and
.out _Linc-of-Sight for optimaily tun'ed fo, tt. ,p."iri. p.i.nio'oi,i.iiiii*r .m,.r
somc signifi cant cffccts.
:lT.j"o^,-r::::lfl1,hat.is
me recelvlng equlpment). 1ana
"r
nronagation, Very High Frequency (VHF) signals arc bansmitted in sraight II
f1lil;otljStrj
xnes d[ecuy trom antenna to antenna. Antennas rnust be directional, J Follolvin g figure shows diflerential Manchesle, coding,
facing each other and
stream?
What is the data
cither tall enough or close enough together not to bc affectcd Uy thc'curv-aife (October 201 2)
of tf,"o.t .
Lme-ol-srght propagation is bicky because radio tansmission carurot
be completely focused.
waves emanatc upward and downward as welr as forward and can reflect
olfilie surface ofthe
earth.or pans ofthc atuosphere. Reflected waves lhat anive at the
reccirinjanienna fater tfran Tim6
the dircct portion ofthe transmission can comrpt the receivcd
signal.

Solution

o, From the given Manchester codine_ y're data s[eam is (,Transition

l00l00l0l l0l00l00l l00l0l.
on Low, is considered):

,]
ut8t0lt
4. What the term signal mqans? Givo its types.
it (April 2013)
Solution
rl
The t€rm signal rcfers to methods for using electromagnetic
eners/ to communicate.
r
Types of signal are:

I Analog sig4als
ll Digital signals

T.Y. P Ill.Com puter Netwo*s.l . LI r The Physical Layer (h

utEt0i
 r I
@ r The Physicallayer
T.Y, P lll. computer Networks.l
T,Y. P lll-Compuler stvrortc-l o Tha PhysicalLaysr
ur#n UISIOT

5. Draw NRZ-L €ncoding for bit pattern 00110110. (Apfl 2013)

1111
Solution
Anplitude
000
0 0 0 0 NRZI EDcoditrg for 00U0U1
In NRZ-I (Nontenrm !o zem invene) encoding one is represented by no changc and zero is
NRZ.L Time
I
repres€nted by change in level. Following figuc shows NRZI enmding foi001tot t I bit steam:
1i1 1i 1
. 01,1
6. What is bit length? Stato tho formula to calculato bit length, Wfl 2014) 0 0 .1 1 1

Solution
2, Explain Clrcuit Switchlng. (Apnl2o12)
Bit-length is the length of a one-bit signal. -Fo r exanple, we are in communication channel wh€re soruron
the data-rate is l0Mbps, which means that one bit is transmitted in l/107 seconds this is ihe time-to-
circuit swiiching is the transnision tcchnology rhat has been used since the first commuication
transmit-one-bit. Since signals propagate in a medium at about 200,000 kjn/s, i.e. 2 x 108 n/s, the
networla in tll nineteenth crnhry. Thc phooe systcm us€s circuit switching, When a phoac call is
birlength will be l0-7 , 2 " 108 meters, ttrat is, 20 meters. In general,
madc, a set of switches must be closed to
Fovi& a complete palh tom Oi sending jtatioa to the
SpeedOfLight receiving station. These switches must remaiD closed for the rhnaion oftbe phone cal. rhis type of
BiFlengrh=l;; i;- switching is very reliable and simple to desigD, but it is not an effrcient way to uii Ure
communication charmel ifthe circuit is not coDstrntly h use.
The largcr th€ bit-length ofa channel, the slower is that channel.
Advanhges
7. Deline circuit switching technique (Aprit 2014) i. Once the circuit has been set up, communication is fast and wilhout enor.

Solution ii. It is highly reliable.

Circuit switching is the most familiar technique used to build a communication network, It is used DkadvsrttgrJ
lbr ordinary telephone calls. It allows communication €quipmenl and circuits to be shared among i. Involves a lot ofoverhcad, during channel set up.
users. Each user has sole access to a circuit functionally equivalent to a pair of copper \a,ires during
ii. Wasles a lot ofbandwidtlq especial in speecl whereby a user is sometinres listening and not
nefwork use. hlking.
iii. Channelset up may take longer.

E An"*"r the followin 5 Marks Questions) In circuit switching a caller must fint establish a connection to a callee before any
Matus tor lhese Queslions may vary lnm 4 lo 5 clmmunication is possible. During the connection establishment, rcsouc€s are allocated between the
caller and the callee. Generally, resouces arc ficquency inlewals in a Frequency Division
1. State NRZ-Land NRZ-I encoding pattern forstroam:00110111. (April 2012) Multiplexing (FpM) scheme or more recently time slots in a Time Division Multiplcxing (TDM)
Solution scheme. The set of resources sllocatcd for comection is called a circuit A path is a seq-ucnce of
-a
Non-return to zero encoding is commonly used in slow speed communications hterfaces for both linla located between nodes called switches.'lhe path taken by data between its souce and
synchronous and asynchronous transmission. Using NRZ, logic I bit is sent as a high value and a destination is determined by the circuit on which it is flowing and do€s not change during 0re
logic 0 bir is srnt as a low value. lifctime oflhe connection. The circuit is lcminatei when the connection is closed.

NRZL Encoding for 00110111

In NRZ-L (Non-retum to zero level) encoding, the polariry of the signal changes only when the
incoming signal changes from a one to a zero or lrom a zero to a one. Following figure shows NRZ-
L encoding fbr 001 l0l ll bit stream;
 I

T.Y, P lll. Compute, Networls.l . r The PhyslcalLayer a0i

u T.Y, P lll. Computor Notworks{ a
@ r Tho Physlcal Layer
(k
uldoI
ISDN ofers following benefib wheo it is used for busines:
l. Voice calls: With an ISDN srvice it is posible to have
digital-qualig sound with less
interference ald a much-reduced chance ofdropped calls disrupting the communications with
custome$. A standard ISDN line can usually be hamessed to make voice calls while other
digital tasl6 are being canied out at the same time. ISDN can be used to add multiple
Physlcal switches extensions and even connect FC worlstations so that entire operation is streamlined and
must bo ctosod digitized. which results in efliciency savings.
lt. Video conferencing: Because ISDN connections can handle more complex data packets at
faster rates than an analogue s€rvice, it is possible to enjoy advanced comrnunication tools
such as video conferencing in the oIfice. Some businesses prefer to use yideo coufaencing
bccausc it reduccs the levels ofconfirion often associated with voice-based conlerence calls,
+- which can often make them awkward and impenonal.
t III. Data transfer: Using an ISDN rhta conncction one can tsansfer fil€s across long distances in

t seconds. This makes it, easier to collaborate with colleagues and pass on information to
potential customers quickly and clfectively.
Path dedicatod
for duratlon of 4. Show Manchostsr and difforential Manchester encoding pattern for bit stream
communlcatlon 10111000, (Apil 2012)
Solution

Mancherter encoding pattern for l0lll000: Manchoster encoding is a type ofdigital encoding
that is used in data transmission. Within the structure for Manchester encoding, the data bits in the
transmission arc representcd by a series of states.tliat occur in a logical sequence. This approach to
data transmission is somewhat diffennt, as many encodilg methods tend to assign a high or low
state of voltage to each bit and use that information as the criteria for affecting the transfer of the
3. Explain ISDN sy8tem for business uso. (Apd 2012) hirs.
Solutlon
The chief advantage of Manchester encoding is the fact that the sigral synclronizes itself. This
ISD"N is an abbreviation for Integated Services
Di$tal Network. It ig the noxt-generation, digital minimizes the enor rate and optimirEs reliability. The main disadvantage is the fact that a
tel?hone network that intogates circuit-switched voict and data rerrices ove, i
facility, There are two lypes of ISDN lines. Basic Rate ISDN
-rro,
u.."*, Manchester-encoded signal requires that more bits be transmined than those in the original signal.
@RI) is designed for residential
customers and small business. Pdmary Ratc ISDN ln the standad Manchester encodirg, there is a transition at the middle of each bit period. A
@RI) is de3igned for larga business.
binary I corrcsponds to low - to - higt transition and a binary zero conesponds to high to - lo* i
For business customers, ISDN offers cost savings tbtough the integration of voice and data
transition in the middle.
services. PRI Fovides a geat backup solution for leased data lines. pRl offem high4uality video
conferencing capabilities. PRI costs about tlrc sane as standard "channelized rl" servicas. ISDN Ampliludo

I
PN is an ideal business voice and data solution for: 1to 1 1 o lo 0
,. OIIices using a PBX solution, phone system or customer premises equipment
Timo
ll. Large call centers
lll, Room-sizad video conferencing
I
,v. Backing up dedicated private lines
An ISDN PRI connection supports 23 individual 64 kbps B.channels and one 64 kbps D+hannel Differentirl Manchester Encoding Pattern for l0l I 1000
over a high-speed circuit. 23 channels can be used in various combinations for specific Differential Manchester encoding is a method of encoding data in which data and clock signals
communications needs, are combined to form a single self-synchronizing data sheam, It is a differential encoding, rrsing the
 T.Y. P lll. Computsr Notworks.l . tr a The Physical Layer o
0lll0t T.Y. P Ul. Computsr Netwo*s+ . I Tho Physlcal Layer o,
uH0i
presence or absence of tmrsitions to indicate logical value. This gives it several advantages over
standard Manchester encoding:
6. ' Explaln packet switchlng ln dotatt, ' Wil 2013, October 2012)
Solutlon
i. Detecting tansitiom is oflen less enor-prone than comparing against a threshold in a noisy
Packet switching is the approacb used by sone conpuler network
envimnment. iirotocols io deliver data across
a local or long distance connection. Bxamples ofpack* switrhing protomls arc Framc Relay, Ip ond
ii. Because only the presence ofa [ansition is important, diffqential coding schemes will work x.25.
exactly the samo ifthe signal is inverted.
Packet switching entails packagiag data in specially fonnatted unib (called pactets) that are
In the differentialManchesler encodin& inversion in the middle of each bil is used for typically routed fiom souc€ to destination using n€twork switches and routers. Each packet containo
synchronization. The encoding of a 0 is represenM by a presence of tarsition both at th€ beginning address infonnation that identifies the seodiry computff and intmded recipi€nt. Using these
and at the middle and I is rcpresented by tansition only in the middle of bit puiod. ad&€sses, netwo(t swirches and rorters rtetermine howb€st to bansfer the packlbenrecn iops on
Amplltudo the path to its destination,
0 1 0 0 0 Packet switching is the alt€rnative to circuit switch.ing protocols dd hjstorically for telephone
+ (voice) networrs and som*imes with ISDN conncctions.
Tlmo
Comparcd to circuit switching packa w chitrg offers the following:
i. Morc efficiaf use of overall netwo* bandwidth due to flexibility in routing the smaller
packets over shared links.

5, Calculate maximum bit rets using Shannon's thoorem for a channel having
ii. Longer delays in receiving messages due to the time requir€d to package and routa pac&ets.

bandwidth 31000 Hz and S/N rado 20 dB. (ebber 2012) iii. Potential for network s€curity risks due to thc use of shared physicat links.

Soluiion
Sharu:on's Theorem gives an upper kiund to the capacity ofa link in bits per second (bps), as a
7. Calculate maximum bit rate tor a chennol having bandwldth 1800 Hz if

function ofthe available bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio ofthe link.
The theorem can be stated as:
Soluton
I SlllllililL,% (Apn2u3)
C=B*log2(l+SN)
) where C is the achievable channel capacity, B is the bandwid0r ofthe line, S is the average signal
l. S/ N rrtio is 0 dB
Sincr SN ratio is in dB we need to corivert it to SNR
powu and N is the average noise power.
.: SNR6 = l0logl6SNR
The signal-to-noise ratio (SA{) is usually expressed in decibels (dB).
0 = l0 logleSNR
Given SN ratio is 20d8.
The signal-to-noise ratio (SN) is usually expressed in decibels (dB) given by tbe formula:
0 = l0 logro.SNR .. m = logx is equivalent to aE =x
0 = logro.SNR
SN in dB = l0 * logro(S/N)
l0o = SNR
20=10*logr(SN)
.'. SNR = I
Log(100) is 2.
.'. SN= I
So. we get SN ratio = 100.
Maximumbirate=wx log(l + SN)
No$,, putting the yalues in theorem formula, w€ get
wherc w = bandwidth = 1800 Hz
C=31000*logr(l+100) .'.'maxiurumbitratc = 1800 x lo&(l+l)
C=31000*log2(l0l) = l800los(z)
c=31000*6.65
C = 206150
= 1800 x I '.' lo&2 = I
= 1800 kbps
So the maximum bit rate is 206150,
 T,Y, P lll. Compubr lletrvorts.l I l-,;;l r The PhyllcalLay€r a
tr,!t
11. Explaln any three rosponsib,li es of physlcal layer, 6pd ZOla)
Soludon

Thc physical laycr petforms savi@s requested by the data link

- laya, which is the .layer directly
above iL lts najor /nnalorc and sewlces are:
i. the establi$ment and tcrmination of connections to a communication mediurn e.g., h{isted Answer the followin I Mark Questions
pair cablc or optical fiber cablc. Mafus fot thess Questions nay vary fnn I to 2
ii. . conv,sion bctrvecn 0rc rcprucntation of digitar dats in computers or other network
devices 1. Which eror detection method lnvolves polynomlal?
aod dre conesponding signals tfansmithd ovcr thc communicaiion
(Apfl 2012)
medium. Solutlon
iii. Participation h the cfiicicnt lharing among inultipro dcviccs of thc communication
medium CRC (Cyclic Redundanry Check) method involves polynomial.
lbmugh thc usc of flow contol and collision resolution i.e,, rccovery from
simultan8ous I
hansmission by two or more devices.
2. Apply blt stufflng on tho pattorn 01001{1t l j(}t I I I10. (October 2012)
I Solutlon
Thc given pattem is: 0l00ll II {l0l I l1l0
After bit stuffing:
0, 01001I I I lgl0l III l0! (bit in red color are stufed bits)
ut8r0[ Whenever sender data link laycr encounlers five consecutiy. ones in the data stream, it
automatically stulfs a 0 bit into the otgoing stream.

I 3. State drawbacks of stop and wait protocol.

6pfl 2013)
Soluton
Drcwbacb are:
i. Timc needs to bc set for each individual tame. I
ii. Transmission process is low. I

iii. lrss efficient. I

4.
. ..Shte any two advantage of
ppp . Opil 2013)
Soludon
i. It supports eror detection and option negotiation.
ii. It is usefirl for roul€r-tGroutrf, traffic and home user.tGlsp Faflic.
I
5, State domorlb of wait and stop protocol. (Octobet 2013)
I Solu0on
The nain disodvanage of stop ord wait protocol is:
i. It is incffici€nt.
ii. It mak$ the fansmission proccss slow.
iii. In this protocol single iamc tavers from sour* to destination and single acknowredgment
travels from destination to so,,ce. As a result each frarne sent and recJived uses the-entire
time needed to havene the link.
iv. If two devices arc distance spa4 a lot of time is wasled waiting for ACKS that leads !o
incrcase in total tansmission time.

T,Y, P lll,Computor Notwo*t.l . a lho 08ta Llnk Layor t2''

lmtoi
 T.Y. P lll. Computer NetworkJ I I The oata Llnk Laysl a T.Y. P lll. Computer Notwo*sJ a . Tho Data Llnk Leyer a
0t$0i
6. Explain any two advantages of PPP, (October 2O1g)
ii Secondary stdio : lt ts contolled by the primary station and practically it has no
I

Solution responsibility. It always responds to the primary station only and is activated by primary
i. Offers authentication using various flavon of authentication techniques such as pA?, CHAP station.
and EAP. iii. Conbircd stdion: It is combination ofprimary and secondary statiotrs, These stations
I
ii. Offers optional featues surh as cncryption, compression and link aggregation. : aro ablo to send Erd rmeivc responses. For this, thcy dont need any pcrnission too
iii. Supports synchronous and asynchronous, full or halfduplex linls. any ofthe other stations on 0re link These stations are selfcontsolled.

7. Derine flow control. pctober 2013)

b PPP: The Point-toPoint kohcol (PPP) provides a sandad nethod for tansporting multi-
pmtocol datagams over point-lcpoint link. PPP is comprised oftl[ee main cooponetrts:
Solutlon
In data communications, flow contsol is the process of maaaging 0re rate of rlala bansnission
i. A meftod for encapsulating multi-pfotocoldatagrard.

between two nodes io Fevent a fast sender tom overwhelming a slow receivcr. It provides a
ii. A Link Contol Protocol (LCP) for establishing conliguring and testihg the data.link
connection,
mechanism for the receiver io conhol the fansrnission speed, so that the rcceiving node i9 not
overwhelrned with data from tmnsmitting node.
iii. A family of Network Control Protocols (NCPg for establishing and configudng
diffelent network-layer protocols.
8. . What is tho role of data tield usgd in HDLC? (Apfl 2014) Fearures oIPPP

Solution i. It has built-in enor detection.

Data field contains the user data received ftom the network layer. It r{Il
ii. Morritoring the quality ofthe lirik before selding frames.

in integral number ofoctels.

be ofvariable length but
iii. Capability to encapsulate fames and carry them ova various layers. WAN terhrologies
such as Ethemel frarne relay and ATM.

9. Give tho bit values used for start bit and stop bit in asynchronous
iv. Offas authentication using various flavon of authenticstion techniques such as PAP,
CIIAP and EA-P.
transmission, 6pil 2014) v. Offers optional feahrcs such 8s encryption, compression and link aggregatiol.
Solution vi. Slpports sJnchonous and asynclronous, full or halfduplex linJs.
An asynchronous link sommunicates data as a series of characteis offixed size and format. Each
character usually represented by an ASCII code is preceded by a start bit indicated by bit value 0 and 2. Explain simplex stop and wait p (October 201 2)
followed by I or 2 stop bits indicared by L Solution
Protocols in which thg sender sends on &ame and then waits for an acknowledgement before

tr Answer the followi 5 Marks Que 9!!-o!9) ol\)l\o- proceeding are called Stop-and-wait pmlocols
This protocol drops the reshiction that receiving host can process incoming data without the
Maks for thase Quostions nmy vary trcm 4 to 5. MP

1.
Solution
a.
Write short note on:
.a. HDLG b yry
HDLC: HDLC stands for High-Level Data Link Control protocol. HDLC is a Layer two
Apil
o\\\\\lo
20 12)
having to ]rail
This is achieved by the receiver providing feedback to the tnnsmittlr in dre form of an
acknowledgemeit tame (a ftame without a message) which indicates that a data framc has been
received and processed and the receiver is ready for the next frame.
Although message flow is simplex (mesage flow one way only) the channel must be capable of
protocol. HDLC is a simple protocol used to connect point to point serial deyies. E.g., you carrying data both ways, i.e.; half duplex (tsammission one way at any instant) or fulI duplex
have point to point leased line connecting two locations, in two different cities. HDLC would (sirnultaneous transmission bo0r ways).
be the protocol with the leasl amount of configuration required to connect these two locations. Followinglgure demonstates the sinplcx stop and wait protocol:
HDLC would be running over the WAN, betwe€n 0rc two locations. Each router would be A Simpler Stopand-Wait Pmtocol
derncapsulating HDLC and tuming dropping it off on the LAN. IIDLC performs enor
conection, just lik€ Ethemet.
i. Simplex: Data transmission in one direction.

HDLC specifies the following types ofstations for dara link conkol:
ii. The receiva may not bc slwsys rcady to rcceive the next &ame (finite buffer storage).

i. P mary station: It has the responsibility of controlling the othcr stations on the link,
iii. Enor-tee communication churnel asumcd. No retransmisions us€d.

organizing data flow on the linl and enor recovery at the daa link level. iv. Maximum channel utilization .r (time to tansmit ftamdround tip tim€)r d(d + h)
rdl@rR)
 T.Y. P lll. compufi ilotwo*r.l . E . Tho otla Llnklayor &
!t8r0i
T.Y. P lll- Conpulgr Notwolkst I r Ths Data LIok Laysr

Maximum daa0fouglryut rs charnel utilization I charmel b;dwidttr 1001 110111 01

loolJl
"d(btR)rb=dilR 01001 ,
1001+
0000'l
lime -0
Round bip 11
. tinr, R I -00
10
,,
110
01
00 11

Sonder
- 00
Receiver 1110
-1
010't 1
't 001
I 0<-Remainder
3, Explain l-bit slldlng vuindow protocol. P (April, October 2013) / M1x;= 1'10111100101
Solullon Remainder = : '10

i. It is also oalled as stopand-wait one bit sliding winrlow protocol.

Tbe transmitt€d frame is
110111100011

ii. Here, 110111100011

a. the size of sending and reeiving ri,inrtow is I , i.e., tbe
sender can send only one fi,ane 5. Given a 12 bit sequonco 10tH,t 1010000 and a divisor of {001, Find
at a time and the rcceiver can receive only onc framc. CRC;
b. The sender tansmits a frame and waits for an acknowledgunent before sending $e next (october 2013)
one. sotution
c. Since only onc frame is sent or received at a time, a onebit sequence number is enough.
In given 12 bit sequence, we encode tlrc bits ofmessage with a 3-bit CRC.
Ihe sequence numberr are 0 and I . Since the given divisor i.e. the gen€aior polynomial, G, is l00l.
iii. Process IfG = i + l, whsre r is the remaindet ofthe binary division.
a. Thc seader initializes sequ€nce number to 0.
thenr=G-l=3(bitr).
The sending machine's data link layet gets a packet florn network layer, builds a ftame
The grven m€ssage hrst padded wit[ zeroes conesponding to the bit length
with squence number 0 and sends iL The receiver expects tame 0. .
the calculation for computing a 3-bit CRC:
J of the CRC. Here is
b. Whcn receiver rcceives tame, it checks to see if it is duplicale one. lf it h the expected
ftame then it is accspted, an acknowledgement is send and the rereiver windowls sfid The.argorithm_acts on the bits diredy above the divisor in each step.
The result for that iteration
up, i.e,. it expccts tamel. is the bihvise xoR oftrre porynomial divisor with the bits above it.
The bits not above tne aivisor are
c. The acknowledgement field contains the number ofthe lasl fiame recived without error. limply
gopied directly.berow. fm that srep. The divisor is then shifted one bit to ihe right, and the
process ts repeaM until the divisor rea&es the right_hand end of$e input row.
The s€flder checl$ this numbo with sequancc-number. If they mahll thc sender loows
that it has b€en r€csived conectly. The sender then slides up its sequeDc€ number to Here is the entire calctlation:
I and
can now send a new frame. Ifthey do not match, it has to resend thi same frame. l00l ll0l 0000 000 <-- input right padderl by 3 zero bits
I
I 4, Glven a 12 bit soqusnco 110,111100,10,1 and a divieor of 100i, Find the CRC. 1001 <-- divisor

Solutlon
wit2013) 0000 I l0l 0000 000 <- resul! fu* four bits are XOR, remaining unchanged

Here ftame xr2 M1x) = 110111100101 and G(x) = l00l where G(x) = Generator
1001 <-- divisor

I t
I
 TJ, P lll. Computer Networks.J . I The Daia Link Layer 0.
urst0tt T.Y. P lll. Computer Networks-l r . The Data LInk Layer o.
ut$0n
0000 0100 0000 000 the outgoing bit stream. This is. called bit stuIfing. When the receiver sees five
100 I
0000 0000 1000 000
1010
0000 0000 0010 000
10 01
0000 0000 0000 010
i
010 <-- remainder (3 bits).
7, Wrile a note on pipslining. \ /' -
(APfl 2014)
Since, division algorithm stops here, quotient is equal to zero. sorution Vt-
Remainder for the given 12-bt sequence 1001I 1010000 is 010. In networking and in oth., *.*, u turk i, offrn begun before the previous tlsk has ended. This is
Hence the final CRC will be 100111010000010 for the given message. known as pipelining. There is no pipelining in stopand-wait ARe because ve need to wait for a
frame to reach the destination and be acknowledged belore the next frame can be sent. pipelining
6. Define framing and explain methods of framing. (October 2013) improves tlre efficiency ofthe transmission ifthe iumber ofbits in transition is large witlr respect ti
Solution the bandwidth-delay product.
-
Data link layer breaks the datagram passed down by network layers and conved them into Iiames The pmblem is that stopand-wait limits us to sending one frame for every round-trip delay. This
ready for hansfu. This is called as ftaming. is auseful point; the performance ofa network can be geatly influenwd by the choicc oiprotocol.

The physical layu merely accepts and hansmits a steam ofbits without any regard to meaning or The stopand-wait poblern is not limited to satellite linla. It really applies to all linls such ttrat
structure, it is up to the data link
layer to create and recognize frame boundaries. This can be the [ink tansmission rate nultiplied by the propagation delay is large compared to the fiame size.
accomplished by attaching special bit pattems to the beginning and end of the frame. If these bit This is sometimes called the bandwidth-delay product or pipe size beCause it measures the number of
pattems can accidentally occur in data, special care must be taken to make sue these pattems are not bits that can physically be stored on the physical link. since the speed of light has be€n constant for
inconectly interpreted as frame delimiters. centuries, but transmission rates keep improving the bandwidth-delay product keeps inoeasing.

The four franing nethods thal are widely used are ...Forallthesereasons,pipelineddatalinkprotocolsareessential.Ofcoursqmosthigh-speeddafa
link protocols do not do enor recovery, so this problan does not arise. Hoiryever, tran$port prctocols
i. Charact€r count: This method uses a field in the header to specify the numba of characters
have the same problems
in the frame. When the data Iink layer at the destination sees the character count, it knows how .end-to-end, and thus it is mucial that they use pipelined *orir.ou.ry
protocols.
many characters follow, and hence where the end of the frame is. The disadvantage is that if
the count is garbled by a transmission error, the destination will lose synchronization and will
8. Explain the uso of PPP in internet. Wil2O14)
be unable to locate the san olrhe nexl frame. So. this method is rarely used.
ii. Chsract€r stuffingr In the second method, each frame starts with the ASCII chamcter Solution
IEqIeTcE-DEESTX and ends with the sequence DLE ETX.(where DLE is Dara Link Eicape, PPP(Poinrto-Point hotocol) *as devised by intemet engineering task force to create a data linl
STX is Start of TeXt and ETX is End of TeXt.) This method overcomes the drawbacls of the protocol for poht to point lines that can solve all the problems present in sLIp (serial Line Intemet
character count,method. If the destination ever loses synchonization, it only has to look for Protocol).
DLE STX and DLE ETX characters. lf howeveq binary data is being transmitted then there PPP is most commonly used data link protocol. It is used to connectthe home pC to the server
of
exists a possibility ofthe characters DLE STX and DLE ETX occrming in the data. Since this ISP via a modem. This protocol offers several facilities ttrat rryere n ot present n SLD. So e of these
can lnterfere with the framing, a technique called character stuffrng is used. The sendels data lacilitiei are:
link layer inserts an ASCII DLE character just before ttre DLE character in the data. The i. PPP defines the format ofthe frame to be exchanged between the devices.
receive/s data iink layer removes this DLE before this data is given to the network layer.
However charactff stuffing is closely associated with 8-bit characters and this is a major
ii. It defmes Link Controlhotocol(LCp) for:

hurdle in hansmitting arbitrary sized characters. a. Establishing the link betrrycen two devices.

iii, Bit stuffing: The third method allows data frames to contain an arbihary number of bits and b. Maintaining ttris established link
alkMsfr&acter codes with an arbitrary number of bits per character. At the start and end 0f c. Configuring this link.
ofthe special bit pattem 0111 1l 10. Whenever the sendels
each frame is a flag byte consisting d. Terminaling this link after the hansfer.
data link layer encounte$ five consecutive ls in the data, it automatically stuffs a zero bit into
 T,Y, P lll. Conpuhl l{.tmrts.l I tr r Tho thl! LlnI Leye, a
!m0i
iii. It defmcs how ncirork lsy€r data arc cncapsulsted in data link frame.
iv. PPP pmvides cnor dcrcction.
v. Unlikc SLIP that suppotu ollly IP, PPP supports multiplc prolocols.
vi. PPP allows thc IP addrcss to be assigned 0t thc conne.iion time i.c. dynamically. Thus a
temporary IP addras can be assigned to each hosL
vii. PPP provides multiplc nctwo* laycr serviccs supponing a varicty of network layer pmtocol.
tr;{41y9r 1t9 lel|gryilc {1 _r!-a{! a!re9!!9t9)
For this PPP wes a pmtocol callcd NCP (Nctwork Contol kotocoD.
MaAs for lhese Queslons nay vary lnn 1 to 2

viii. It also defines how two dsvicca can authenticat! each other. 1. What is the maximum throughput of pur6 ALOHA? (April2012)
_ PPP uses sweral. olher pmtocols to establish lin( authenticate usen and to carry the network Solution
laycr data"
The maximum throughput of pure ALOllA is 0.5/e frames per frame-time (reached when
9. Explaln the sonder slde of stop and wait protocol. gpfl 2014)
G = 0.5), which is approximately 0.184 frames per frame-time,

Soluuon
2. What is 1-persistent CSMA? (Apnt2112)
Consider thc following algorithm for senda sidc slop and ]yait protocol.
Solution
1. while (true) // Repeat foreve!
2. cansend . tlue // AlIo!, the first frame to go CSMA is actually a family of protocols which vary by the morhod which they wait for the
3. I medium to become idle, known as the persistence shatos/. In l-persistent CSMA strates/, when a
4, waitPorEvent 0 ; // sleep until an event occurs device wantJ to send a message, it fi$t lislens to the medium. If it is idle the message is sent
5, if (Event ( (ReguestTosend) And cansend)
5. { immediately, howevu, if it is busy the device continues to listen to the medium until it becomes idle
7. GetDataO; and lhen sends the message immediately.
8. MakeFlare 0 ;
9. SendFrame0; l/ send the data frame 3. Give the functions ol LLC sub layet,
10. cansend . falae; /l Caljrot send until AcI( arrives (October 2012)
11. ) Solution
12. irai tForEvent ) , (
// Sleep until an evelt occura LLC (Logical Link Control) dictates the logical topolory of the information flow, also il
13, if (Event (ArrivalNotification) // m eCf has arrived encompasses several functions such as framing,
14. I flow control and enor control.
15. ReceiveFrane O ; / / geceive Lho ACK flame 4,
15. cansend . true; Define pure ALOHA. pctober ZOIZ)
17) Solution
18. )
The pure Aloha protocol is the basic protocol in the famiiy ofthe Aloha protocols. lt considers a
Hcrc two events can occw: a request from the network layer or an anival notification from tlre singie-hop system with an infinite populatjon gen€rating packets of equal lengh T according to a
physical laya. Thc responsB to these everts must altanate. In oth€r wor&, afta a tsame is seng the Poisson process with rate lpacketVscc.

algorithm must ignore anotha network layer rquest until that frarnc is acknowledged, we know that
two ffrival ev€nb cannot heppen'one aftgl dnotha because thc channel is cnor-free and does not 5. Which Channelization techniques are used in multiple access method?
duplicate ftc franics. 'lhc rEqu6ts from the network layer, however, may happen one after another 6\fl 2013)
without an anival event in betwecn. We need to Fevent the immcdiate sending of the data frame. sorurion
Although thcre am several methods, we have used a simple canscnd variable ttrat can either be tsue i. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
or falsc. When a frame is s€nt, the variablc is sa h false to indicat€ tllat a new network rcquest ii. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
cannot be sent until cansend is true. when an ACK is rcceived, cansend is set to true to allow the
sending ofthe next frame.
iii. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

I
Q,
utst0il
T.Y. P lll-Computer Networks"l r . The Medium Access Sublayer 0"
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 @ t
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T,Y, P lll. Computer Networksl a The Medlum Acce$ Sublayer
ut$0n T.Y, P lll, Computer Networks-l a
l';l . Tho Medlum Accosr Sublsyor a
6. List out channol allocation stralegios. (October 2013)
send at the same timq a collision is said tn occur and the fiames are discarded" Each &vic€ then
0llt0r

Solutlon
waits a random amount of tine and reties until successfirl in getting its Eansmision senL
In radio resource ma.nagement for wireless and cellular nerworlq channel allocation schemes are CSM,{/CD is specified in the IEEE 802.3 stabdard
required to allocate bandwidth and communication channels to base stations, access points and
i
CD (Collision Detexlioo) defines whal hrppem when two devic€s sense a clear crmnnel then
teminal equipment. i atte.mpt to tan$nit at lhe sarle tine. A collision occurs, and both devices stop talsmissio4 wait for
-Following are lhe strategies that ore followed for channel allocation: a randdm amouat of tine, and then retansmir This is the technique used to acc€ss the 802.3
i. Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA) Ethemet netwo* channel. This method hafllles collisioDs as thcy occu, ht if 6e bus is constantly
ii. Dynamic Channel Assignmenl busy, collisions can, occur so often that perforoanca drcps drasticsly. It is estinstcd thst net]vork

iii. traffc must be less rhan 40 pcrccot of the bw capacity for the network to opoalc effciently.
Hybrid Channel Assignment
If distances arc lotr& time lags occru that may resulr in inapprcpriato canier sensing and hcnce
iv. FCA with Bonowing collisions.
v. Directed Retry
vi. Load Sharing 2. Explain CSMA/CA. wit2012)
7, ldentify ths typs of perslstent method: $pfl zua)
Solullon

Canier &ns€ Multiple Access (CSMA) is a network access method used on sharcd network
topologies such as Ethernet to contol acc€ss !o thc lctwork. Devic€sathched to thc nctwod( cable
I
Wait
Channel? listen (ccrier sense) befor€ taumitin& If tbe channel is in use, devicrs wait before tsalsmitin&
I
Busy randomly
MA (Multiple Access) indicatrs tbat many d€vi@s catr connect to and sharc the sam€ oetwo* All
ldle deyic$ have equal ac{ess to use the network when it is clear. Even though devices a&mpt to sense
Slation can transmit whetha thc nctwo* is in use, there is a good chanc€ th&t two stations will sttsmpt to acc.ss it at the
Solution
same tho. On large networks, the tansmi$ion time between one end of the cable and another is
Itis the non persistent method, a station that has a frame to send, senses the line. Ifthe line is idle,
enough that one statioo may accss the cable even though another has alresdy just ac{€ssed it
it sends immediately. Ifthe line is not idle, it waits a rardom amount of time and then senses tlre line
again. CSM.AJCA (Carrier &nse Multlple Accesycousiou Avoidancc) is a method to avoid
collisions. CSMIJCA is the chowel occess mcclranism used by most wircb$ L,ANI in the ISM
tr Answer the follow Marks Question A channel access mechanism is the pad oftheprotocol which specifies how tho node uses the
bands.

Matus lor lhase Questions may vary fnm 4 lo 5 medium: when to listeq when to transmil In CA (Collision Avoidance), collisions are avoided
because each node signals its intent to tansmit before ach:ally doing so. This method is trot popular
1. Explain CSMA/CD. (Apil 2012,2013) because it requiru exc€ssive overhoad that reduces perfomnance.
Solution
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a nehryork access method used on shared network
h CSM.AJCA as soon as a nodc receives a packet that is to be sent it checks to be su€ th€

topologies such as Ethemet to contol access to the network. Devices attached to the network cable channel is clear (no other node is bansmiting at the time). If the channcl is clerr, then the packet is

Iisten (canier sense) before hansmitting. If the channel is in use, devices wait b€fore tammitting. sent. lfthe channel is not clear, the node waits for a randomly chosen period of time, and then chccks

MA (Mu)tiple Access) indicates that many devices can connect to and share the same netwo*. All agaia to see if the channel is clear. This p*iod of timc is called thc backoff faclor, and is counted
devices have equal access to use the network when it is clear. Eyen though deviGs attempt to sense down by a backoff countsr. lf the channcl is clcar when the backoff countlr rcach€s zero, thc node
whether the network is in use, there is a good chance that two stations will aftempt to access it at the Eansmits tho packet. If the channel is not clear when fire backoff counhr resch€s zcro, 6e backoff
same time. On large networks, the tsansmission time between one end of the cable and another is fac{or is sct again, ond lhe proce$ is r€pestcd.
enough that one station may access the cable even though anothcr has alreadyjust accessed it.
CSMA"/CD (Canier Sense Multiple Accesycollision Detection) is a method to avoid the The basic principles of CSMI{"/CA are listen before tslk and contention. This is ao asynchronous
coilisions. It is the protocol for canier transmission access in Ethemet networks. On Ethemet, any mesage passing mechanism (connectionless), delivering a best effon senice, but no bandwidth and
device can try to send a frame at any time. Each device senses whether the line is idle and therefore latency guarantee. Ir main advantales are thst it is suite.d for network prohcols such as TCP/IP,
availablc to be used. If it is, the device begins to uansmit its first ftame. Ifanother device has tried to adapts quite well with the variable condition ofhallic and is quite robust against intrrferences.

i1
 T,Y. P lll. Computer No|rorks.l r a Tho Medlum Access Subtayer a T.Y. P lll- Computer Networtd I r Tho Medium Accesg Sublayet aI
3. Writ8 a note on FDMA, (October 2012) Prlmary B
I
Explain FDMA in dotail. (October 201 3)
Solutlon

.. -F!!.ff i: the signal multiplexing technolory used in thc Advalced Mobile phone Service
(AMPS) analog vasion of cellular phone technolog.

Access @DMA) is one of three methods used for allocating

","l:J:iZ
channelsh _?,y"1 Yrllr,.
ussm over the shared wireless comnrunications medium
communication: thc others are Time Division Murtipre Access (TDMA)
in cellular phon!
and code oivision uuhipte
Access (CDMA).
How It Works
FDMA is inlrementcd at tho Mcdia Access contor (MAc)
^ Iay., of the data-rink layer in the
Data
gpen Syslets Inrercomection (OSI) referurce model for net*oriing p.ioJi".f".
based on the Frequency-Division Mulriplexing (FDM)
foUa i,
technique useJ iiriioi.r. n.t**Ung.
*".is
assigrcd a specific frequenry band in the elechomagnetic
,..I_FP$,_.Y
oumg a cdt ullt uscl is &c only one who has the right to accss
apecirum, and
the specifiJband. In the Alvfs
cellular phone system, tlese frequency bo.s arc alli,cated t-o.
n" .t'."rorugn.tic spectrum as When tlc primary wanb to send & ibell it fint.notifios the destbation station by sending a I
follows: select (sEL) m.taining tlc stdir's ad&ess. Aftu it
fi-arne.
rcceiv;ilai m the station, the
i. Transmission by mobilc station: 824
Mllz to g49 MHz
primary hansmits the dats frame to thctation
)
ii.
Transmision by basc station: E69 MHz to g94 MHz
5. ALOHA protocol is used b share 56 Kbps satellite channBl
lf each packet is
Two difrerent fre4ucncy bands arc used to arow firlr{uplex communication
b€tween base and . bits long, Find maximo throughput in packets/sec. -
mobile stations. Botb ofthese bands are then dividerf into discrete
channels tt uir. fO Uf, ,ria" in
^
Solution
..'100 6pil 2013)
I bandwidti,
Satellite channel = 56 kbps
I

I Channel = 56 x 1000 birs/sc

I
(30 kHz 824-an9
I
---+ MHz
Bandwidth =56,000'bitvsec
wide)

ffi
I
I frame or I packet = 1000 bits
Tlroughput for pure Aloha is 0,184"
l channel %
Mobllo statlon (30 kHz 869{94 . . we cao utilize 0.184 x 56 kbps = 103 k@
l . wide)
<- MHz
Baso statlon

4. Explain polling system used in controlled access. (October 2012) .. Maximum throughput
Solution = 10.3 kbps

. Polling uses a centsal contsoler or arbiter. This merhod is uscd on to;rologies in which
one device = 10.3 x 1000 kbps
is designaM as a primary strtion or contsolter. Th" orh*;;;;;d;;"*. The primary = 10,300 bps
device conEors the link. It acts as the media acccss a&ninistrator.
Iia..iao'"iii,tution i, arorr.a = 10,300 bits per sec
to use the channel at a given time.

It does thh by asking the secondary devices ifthey have any data
to send. Ihis is called pollirg . . maximum throughput i, packetslse" = !ffi
It uses the p,ll function to ask each secondary station tum by turn. The
I s*ondary responds wlth
a NAK frame if it has nothing to send or with a aata tame. Wfri,n rfr. piimary receives Maximum throughput = I0.3 packets/E
I
it retums an acklowledgement (ACK) fiame as sfro"n in
a Oata t ame,
tf:e foffo*hf7gr.J
 I
I

T.Y. P lll Computer Notxorb-l I a The lredlum Ac6e3! Subhyer a

$$!t
l
I . T.Y, P lll. Computar ature*r"i r' , Ths Modium Accas! Sublayoi

6. State the maximum throughput tor pure ALOHA and 8lofiod ALOHA, @il 2014)
rri
The frame dumtio4 i.e., tun*i*io, tim
(20t bits/tame)
=6ffi6
:
SolutloI
,i
Let throughput S (franes/second) which defines average number of tames successfirlly Saturation = 1000 fraureVsec
transmitted per unit time.
1

Assuming average frane length r(s) and fixed channel ra&, lizme tansmiision can bs modeled G = f,ualion x sah:ration = I millisecond.
:
by Poisson dislribution with mean anival rde 1, (fiames/second).
S= ,135 or 135 Sames/second.survive on average.
Normalized channel Faffic or average numbu ofold and new fiames submitted per tame time is

C = ?'rf(unit in Erlang) This means that lhe throughput is 1000 x 0.135 = 135 frames.

The ttroughput is then givar by

Only 135 franes ourt of 1000 will probably survive.
S = G " Prob (no collision)
Probability that a time does not sufer tonn a colligion is given by
8, Writo a note on rosorvation method u8ed ln controlled accos8,.
Wit 2014)
Po = e-2G for Pue ALOHA
Solu on
Po = e{ for Slotted ALOHA
In conrolled access, the stations consult ode anoth* to fmd which sration has
_ oe ri$t to send
The throughput/ftame time is then A station cannot s€nd urlxs it has been auhorized by other srations. ore ofthe popularicontoled-
g= Q 16'20 for Pure AIOHA
aca6s methods is res€rvation.

S= G , e{ for SlotJed ALoHA . Jl

the rcservation metho( a station needs !o make a reservation before sendiag data.
divided into intervals' In each interval, a reservation frame precedcs ttra d*a trames
Time is
sent in that
Maximum throu$put ofPure AIOHA: interval.

# - .-'o-zG.'o=0=>G*=
If there are N stations in tlre system, there are €xaclly N reservation minisrots in the ruervation
t/2=>s*,,= je-t=0.1839
tame. Each minislot belongs to a sbtion. When a station needs to send a data framc, it
makes a
reservalion in its owfl minislot. the stations that have msde reservations can send
Maximum throughput of slothd A.LOllA: lheir data frames
after the reservation tane.

S = "'-c.*=0=>G*,= I => S*, = dt = 0.3679 lollowinglgure shows a situation with five stations and a five.minislot res€rvation fzmo. In the
first interval, only stalions l, 3, and 4 havc made rcservations. In the second inhrval, only
station l
hds made a reservation.
7, A pure Al,OttA, i8 used. to shar'a. and transmils 200 bitB ftemo on O0 satsllito
chsnnol, Find throughput in packetg Bscondr if systEm produg3s 1000 tramee
porsecod. (OctofE/r 2013) Data Data Dats Data
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
stalion 1 station 4 station 3 shtion
1 1 1
Solu0on 1

Reseryation Reservation
tra[E trams
The tluoughput can be calculated as th€ rate of hansmission-attempts multiplied by the
probabiliry ofsuccess.
9. Write a note on logical ring and phFlcal topology in tokon paEsing accegE
method. 6ptiliTl4)
A puo ALOHA throughput efficiency percentage S, is computed using
Solulion

S = Gre'c
li
a roken'wsirlg ,etwor( stations do not have to be physically connected in a ring. rhe
ring
can be a logical one. Following figure shows four different'physical topologi* that
lo$cal ring.
cin oeate i
where, G = duration x sah[ation,
 T.Y, P lll- compuler Netrvo s-l r @
'r The Medlum Access Sublayer o
!t'l0!t

(a) Physlcalrlng {b) oualrlng

(c) Bur rlng (d) Star rlno

Loglcalrlng and phyllcal topology ln token-p8sslng accs!! method I

lnrhe physical ring lopolo&/, when sen& the token to its successor, the token cannot be
a station )
seen by other stations; the successor is the ncxt one in line. This means that the token does not hay€ Section-!l
the address of the next succesor. The problem with 0ris topolory is tlrat if one of the lir a-the
medium between two adjac€nt stations- fails, the whole system fails.
Question Paper Solution (yearwise)
T\e dual ring apolog uses a second ring that is auxiliary ring which operates in the reverse
direction compared with the main ring. The second ring is for emergencies only. If one of the linla in
the main ring fails, the sysiem automatic0lly combines the two rings to fom a temporary ring. AfteI
the failed link is restorad, the auxiliary ring bectmes idle again. For this topology to worlq each i
station needs to have two transmitter ports and two receiver potu. The high-spccd token ring
networks called FDDI (Fibcr Distibuted Data Interface) and CDDI (Copper Distributed Data
Interface) use this topolosr.
In the 6ru ring topolog, also callcd a token bus, the shtions arc connecled to a single cable
called a bus. They, however, make a logical ring because each station knows the address of its
successor and also prcdecesor for token malagement puposes. Wlen a station has finished
sending its dat , it releases thc token and inserts the address of its successor in the token. Only the '
station witl the addrcss matching th€ dcstination address ofthe token gets the token to access the
shared media. The token bus LAN, standadized by IEEE, uses this topologr.
ln a star ng lopologt, the physical topolory is a star. Therc is a hub, however, that acts as the
connector. The wiring inside the hub makes tlre ring; the stations are connected to this ng through
the two wirc connections. This topology makes the network less pront to failure because if a link
goes do*n, it will be bypassed by the hub and the rest of the stations can operate. Adding and
removing stations from the ring is also easier. This topolory ii; used in the token ring LAN designed
by IBM.
A
ul$0r

I
 October 20lS
Computer Networla - I

l. Attempt all of the followingr flxl0=10t

m;t
ldentify th6 type of data flow given below: (ch 1)

oirection qt data at time 1

tst"ill(-- lss l

Dhection of data at timE 2

Solution
Half duplex.
IfEI
Stato tho concopt of oncapsulation, (ch 2)
Soludo!
The podion of a packet at leycl N - 1 canies the whole packet (data and header and maybe
-data
trail€r) tom level N. The concept is called encapsulation.
TEI
Caiculato th-e- trangml$lon limo for a 20 kbyle message through a notwork having a
bandwidth oll cbps pi4)
Solutiotr
Transmision time = Message size / Bandwidth
= 2000018 /l0e = 0.16 ms
Ifa-]
Llst outlh€ applications of lnfrarod transmlssion. ph 3)
Solutiol
The applicstions of inlrated transmission are:
i. To transmit digital data lryith a very high data mte.
ii. For communication between devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs, and printers i.e. Inftared
signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using lin+of-sight

1E
Find out tho bit soquonco for thg polynomial x7 + x5 + I and the generator polynomlal xi + l.
(ch 5)
SolutioD
Bit sequence for polynomial: 10100001
Bit scqrience for the generator polynomial: 1001

T.Y. PlllCornputer otworfs{ r! r 2015 October @l o

ut$0n
 T.Y. P.lllComputer Networb-l r E a 2015 October a
1E f.Y, Plll Compuhrtebort3.l r r 2015 October a
Whyfhs CSMA mothod I! cafled i.psrslstgnn ph
iv, Jitten Jitter refen to the varitio in the packet aniyal time. It is
the uneven delay in the
6) delivery of audio or video pdets. For exanple,
let us assume that video packets are sent
thc CSMA mcthod is called l-oersistent becausc the host tansmits every 3D ms If some of the pdeb arTlv€ with
with a probability of I 3 D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms

m whenwo it finds the chamel idle. delay, an

unwen quality in the video is tb result.

LIst the protocols of transport layor ln Tcp/lp protocol

Eb-l
oout
suilo. ph 2)
Discuss the various lssues when mges aro us€d to connect diffsronLLANs. ph S)
The protocok oftransport layer in TCp/Ip prolocol
suile qre;
TCP UDP, SC"I?. A bridge should be abrc to connectlANs using differEnt protocors
at thc data link rayer, such as
an Ethernet LAN ro 8 wkeless L{N. &rcves rh; * ,*il;;;"i. **ii".a,
How dah blt 0, data bit 1 and sllenco ls reprossntod
Solutlo4
tn CDMA? (ch 6) t TT. fgTl! Esch LAN rlF ha its own frame format (compare an Etbanet
tame with a
wireless LAN franc).
Ifa shtion needs to send a 0 big il enodes it as -l; if it necds
When aststion is idle, it sends no signal, which is intcrpreted
to send a I bi! it €ncodes it as +l ii. Marimun drtr sizc: If an incming-framc,s
size is too large for the desthation tAN,
-t"-r"ass"mureathe data
1ll as a 0. must be tagmented into seruar tames. rrre data
aestina{o.n. How6vsr, rs prohcol at.the-dara
thJ n."J-io at tr,"
Lbldlfforent crltsrla ottramparent bfdgos, ph reassanbly offrames. The bridg! must therefore
lirk l.r;;i;";ttr-e tagmentation ana
S)
...
iii, d.iscard any fram", Lo trrg. fo, it" ryrt.r.
i. Framg must be fonvardirl ftom one station to another. Drta rate: Each LAN type hs ib own dra rate. (Compare
,h" id_Mb;, data rare of an
ii. The forwarding tablc is automatically made by leaming
frame movements in the nehyork.
Ethemet with rhe l.Mbps iaa ae of a wireless
Lllt.iff[. Uiig" ,*"Juffer t],e frame ro I
compe,nsate for this difference.
iv. Bit order:-Each LAN type har its own shates/ in the
*' ""'
sending oI biB. Some send rhe most F
' Slato tho vadous way8 significanttrit in a byre frs( orhs send rhe lerit,ig,in.*,
of serlal transmisslon.
(ch 4) v. bli?;."
Solution Security: Sgme LANs, such aswirelas fals, im"ptemeni
r.*r*;;; in the da,, Iink
The variow wrys of seridl lranimission are: Iaya. other LANs, such as Ehx! do not. wfr.r,'. uriit. ,.*iri..
ffir" to, u *i..t"r,
u
Asynckonous, synchronOus, and isochronous. LAN, it nceds to decrypt the msage before fo**airg
i, i" an E hrr.il;{.
vi. Mrltinedis support: Lll.ls-support muhimedia and the quality ofservices
2. Attempt an y two of lhe followl ng:
Some
this qpe of communication;or.bs do nor.
needed for
12x5={01
I
what b data communlcadon? Explaln tto fundamental
characiorlsfcs for tho offaslivsnes! of
a dab communlcatlon! 3ysbm. Explain multimode stsp.lndsx Flborrnd multimodo graded.inder
Solution Gh 1) liber. Oh 3)
Data comnunications ax€ the exchange of data bctween two devices via somc form of
hansmission medium such as a wire cablc.
r.r,f1!: jTp:index fiber, rhcieDsity of rhecore remains (instant
from the cenler to the
The effectiveness of a dah communications system
^,I
::9.:.A b:T 0t tight moves tluo'g lhis constant density in a shaight line until it reaches the
- depends on four fim.amental characteristics:
*d claddiryAl rhe inrerface. ,rr,i. iran ilip,.rrrree due to a lower
delivery. accurary, timeliness, and jitter. :l:*:..E*.lT I. of the h.rnt motion. The
oensrry; uts atters the ancle "the
i. Dellyery: The system nust dcliver data to the conect this change, which conb.ib:ures ro the drdtio,
term step index rifers to suddenness of
fire intended devict or uer and only by that devi""
destination.
---
'''----"-' Data must
"'- be received by ofth. rigr"i';l;;;.rif".r-J
ii" nU.r.
or rsa. Multimode graded-index fiber. deoaccs this disrodon
ii. Accurecy: The system must deliver $e data accurately.
Data that have been altered in index here refers to the index of refraim.
ofthe signal throulh the cable. .Ihe word
bansmission and left unconected are unusable
As we saw above, the index of refraction is related
densiry a graded-index fiber. therefts is.one with r&;'d*#;;.';;;ii'ty^is
to
iil. Timelines: Thc systcm mu$ d;liver dafa in I
timely manner. Data delivered late arc usel€ss. center ofthe core and decreases gadr y to its lorert at rle .jg..
tigh.,t ut tt.
In the casc ofvideo and audio, timely delivery ,.u*
-- * *
a.tirrrirg ttu thi-*r proau.rA, in
the same order that they are producej, and without
signifi;i"''
delay. Ihis kind of delivery is called real_timc Eansmission.
 T.Y. P.lllComputer Notworksl r E .2015Octobor a t/.
ut8t0l T,Y, P.lllConpulsr N€tworksJ I Er 2015 Octobor 0rErolt

3. Attempt any two of the followingr [2x5=10] Fo!nd

idle
Sz€:
1

blnary 6xpon€ntlal ll
a
Explain tho diffsr€nt tunctions psrformod by presenbton layer of OSI Model. (Ch 2)
Contiouously sense

Solutio! IFS Il
Specific functiorc of the presentation layer include the following:
i. Translation: The processes (running program$ in two systems are usually exchanging
ilil Iil Tlme
inionnation in the form of character stings, numbers, and so on. The irfomation must b€ Busy Conlanllon wlndow Sgrd tramo Tlmo out

changed !o bit stseams before being tansrnitted. Becauso differcnt coDputErs use difersnt
encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for intnop€rability between these In Inbrtame Space (lFS) firs! collisions ae avoided by defening transmision even if the
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the scnder changes lhe informalion tom charmel is found idle. When an idle channel is foun( the station does not send irnoediately. It waits
its sender-dependent format into a c4mmon format. The pnscntation laya at the receiving for a period of time called the interframe spac€ oi IFS. Even though the channel may appear idle
machine changes the common format into its re{eiver-dependent format when it is sanse( a distant stalion may haye aksdy starlrd tansmitting. thc distant statioo,s signal
ii, Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to axwe privacy. has not yet reached this station. The IFS tim! allows the &ont of the transmitcd signal by the distant
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another fonn and station to rcach this station.If after the IFS tinre thc channel is still idle, the stalion can send, but it
sends the resulting message oul over the network. Decryption revers€s the original process to still oeeds to wait I time equal to th€ contention timc. The IFS variable can also be ued to prioritize
transform the message back to its original form. stations or frame types . For exanple, a station thrt is assigned a shorter IFS has a higher priority.
iii. Compressior: Data compression reduces the number of bits conained in $e information.
Data compression becomes particularly important in thc bammission of multimcdia such as
4. Attempt one of the followi x l0
rl
text, audio, and video.
= '10
I
Difforontlate botwesn ckcoit swltching and packot 3rrltchlng. (ch 4) Apply Manch6lsr and Differential Mancho3tor lino coding schom€s on the following bit
Solutiotr pattern:1001110111001 (Ch 4) I4l
Solutiotr
It consists of a set of switches connected by ln packet swilching, there is no resource In Manchester encoding, the duration ofthe bit is divided into two halves. The voltage remains at
physical links, in which each link is divided into allocaton for a packet. this means thal there
one level during the frst half and moves to the other level in the second half. The tmnsition at the
n channels. is no reserued bandwidth on the links, and
lhere is no scheduled processing time. middle ofthe bit provides synclronization.

ln circuit switching, the resources need to be Resources are allocaled on demand. The In Differential Manchester, there is ahryays a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values
reseNed during the setup phase; lhe allocation is done on a liEt come, lirstserved are determined at the begiming ofthe bit. Ifthe n€xt bit is 0, therc is a hansition; ifthe next bit is l,
resources remain dedicated for the sntire basis. there is none-
duration of data kansfer until lhe teardown ,l Bitsent
phase.

Swiiching is normally done at the physical Switchrng is nomally done at the network 0 0 0 0i
layer layer.

ln the traditional lelephone, network usss the Switching in the lntemet is done by using the Signal
circuit-switching approach. datagram approach to packel swildrng at the
netwo layer. Base line

3 c
Wrilo a noto on Interframs Spaco with diagram. (U 5) Time
Solutior interval
Mancheslor llne codlng
Collisions in wireless networks are avoided through the use of CSM.A/CA's three stralegies: the
interframe space, the conlention window, and acknowledgments.

)
 T.Y. P.lllComputer Networksl I E .2015Ocbber
T.Y. PJll Computer tttsork!.| r ! r 2015 October &
utSt
0 0 1l 0l 0l Eromple: Assume tbat stations land2 are sentling a 0 bit
and channel 4 is sending a I bil. Station
Signal 3 is silent. Thc datr at 0re senda sitc re ranslatedlo _l -1,0.
, and +1. Each station multiplies the
corrcsponding nunbo by its chip (ib mthogonal sequen
ce), which is unique for each station. The
Bass line result is a new sequence which is sent t
the ihannel.
The process can be berer understood using digitar signar revers
produced by each station and the
data rccovacd at the desthation.
I'ime | ! l"l
interval
Dltterentlal Manchester
ero
--!-rt-, -tr-,t
Tlmo
1EE
Explain Physlcal ring topotogy and Dual ring topology.
@1) 14)
ano
---r!-*h,.rrrl TIme
Solution

sirnr oo
In $e physical ring topolos/, when a station sends thc tokcn to its
secn by othcr stations; the suc*ssor is the next one
successor, the token cannot be
in line. This means ttraite token ooes not neeo
--r!-->lo o1
Tim€
to have the addrcss ofthe next succcssor. The probrem wfth
rhis toporogr'is tiroilron. ottrrc mre- ,n,
the mcdium between two adjactnt stations fails, the wtrole
systcm iails.ln; il ;;6;i;il; ---rS-*1*,r-,.,1 Tim6
whic.h operares in the revene direcrion compar.a *itt
tt. ,uin ,ing. rn,
3":::r,t-qyp-l Tq
sec.nd rng N lor emergencics only (such as a sparc tirc for a cu). If onc ofthe lin]$ in the mai; Dat 6lhe channot
rin;
fails. the systcm automatically combines the twi,ing, to fo-
u Lrporr.y ring Ater thc failed link TImo
rs resrored, t]le auttiary nng becomes idle again. Fm this
topologr to work,iach station needs to
|t3:. tg ryr,Ig ports and two receiver p6rts. The high*ieed?oten rininetu,orr<s
(Fiber Distribured Data Interface) and CDDI
catteO fOOt Digital signdcroated by four statio ns in CDMA
lCopper OiGUuia Oata irr#i*l
,r. u,i, ,op"f
"g,. Dah on thc channol
Time

O Satlon 2's codo

I+1-l +1 -11
T-l
L__r Il Time

4
Inner ploducl resull
Time
(a) Physlcal rlng (b) oualring
4lE lt
Explain audlo torm ofdala roprssenblion. Summlng tfio valuos
(ch 1) 12)
' Solutiou TIme

Audio refcrs to the rccording or broadcasting of sound or

music. Audio is by nature different
fiom tex! numbers, or images, It is continuow, not disqcte.
Even whcn we use a mioophone to -4 -4l4 ---' -t
oacoding of thtcomposits s ignalfor ono-)in CDMA -) 8it 0
change voice or music to an eloctri c signal, we create
a continuous signal.
4EI I Figure shows how station 3 can d€fid the dala s ent by station
2 by using the code for station 2
Writo a nots on signal l6vel ln CDIvlA. The total data on the channel an m iplied (inner product
(ch 6) operation) by the si gnal repres€nting
Solution t4I station 2 chip code to get a new si gnal.lhe station then integrates
and adds the area under the signd,
In CDMA, Ifa station needs t0 send a 0.bi! it encodes it as _l; to get the value 4, which is divid ed byland interpreted as bjt 0
if it needs to "-"- a I bit, it encodes
'- send
it as +1. When a sration is idle, it sends no signal, which
is intapreted;;t
 T,Y. P.lllComputer NetworksJ r E . iotio.tl", (tu
ut8t0i
April2016 I
B tl
What aro the propagation time and tIansmisslon tims for a 2,5 kbyle message if the Computer Networla - I
bandwidth of tho network is I Gbps? Assumo that ths dlstanco bstwesn the sondor and th6
receiver is 10,000 km and that light travsts at 2.4 x 10r m/s. (Ch 4) t4l
Solution 1. Attempt all of the tOllowing! x 10 = 't0l
Propagation time = Distance / Propagation speed
Propagation time = (1Q000 N I 000) / (2.4' 108) = 0.0417 s What are standards? What aro the types ot atandards? (ch u
Solutlon
Transmission time = Message size / Bandwidth
Transmission time = (2500 * 8) / I00 = 0.020 ms Standards prcvide guidelini:s to,manufacturers, vendors, govemment agencies, and otha service
B It ploviders to'ensure the kind of int8rconnectiyity necessary in today,s. marketplaqeand in
cablo. intemational-communications.
Stale colour cods schemo tor T568A twisted pair (Ch 3) 121

Solution Data communication standards fall into twb categories: de facto (meaning ,,by fact,, or ,,by
convention") and de jure (meaning ,;by law, or lby regulation,).
1 lwhite/Green
fl--Frerrl-l
3 lwhitdoranoe Llst any two similarities available in TCP/lp and OSI modol.
4 lBlue (ch 2)
5 i/vh dBtue Solution
-E-Franse---l i. Bodr models are based on concept of"stack oflndependent protocols',
7 luy'hite/Brown
8 lBrown ii. A.llthe layers tom bottom tillTransport Layer provides End to End Transport Service.

EI;I
Givo diagrammatic repregsntatlon of bus and mosh topology. (ch 1)
Solutioa
@
Bus Topology

I
ur$r0lt
I

Drop Drop Drop Drop

I line line lino line
Cable Cable
end end
Tap Tap Tap Tap

T,Yr PillegffpulrI tr*8Illll t , i8l0AFril mm $m

I

I
T.Y. PJllComputer Networks.l . 20'16 Aprll o
ltEl0i T.Y, PlllComputer Networks.l IE I a
2016 April
Mcsh lopology
Ire]
I
i
Apply bit stuffing on $o fottowing pattern: O 1001111111,101111110. Gh S)
Solution
1r

I= Bit stuffing is thc procax of adding one extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1 forow a 0 in the
it

r
data, so that the receiver does not mistake the paftem 0l I I I l0 for a flag.

r= I Vp: 0l00llllll ll0llllll0

0lo0lllltbll lolIIIl0i0
Wrlto ths synonym for CSMA/CD. (ch 6)
it

Solution

I I
r= Stat
The synonym for CSMA,/CD is
I

any two uses of

Solution
PPP.
Eliemel

ph S)

i. Defining the format ofthe ftame to be exchanged between devices.

ii. Defming.how two devices cao negotiate the establishm€nt of the link and the exchange
of
What is lhe uso of crossoyer cableg? (ch 3) data.
Solution
A crosover cable is-used to connect computhg devices together dircctty. It is most often used to
EN
Llst any two channolizalion protocol.
i

(ch 6) F
connect two devices of the same type: e.g. two crmputers (via network inierfacc Solution
conholler) or two
swiiches to each other- The two chamolization protocols re: FDMA, mMA

An analog.volcs-signal ls digitized by sampling it 6000 timss per second. Calculat€ 2, Attempt any two of the followi ng: [2x5={0t
tho bit
rat€ whera diglbl signal containg 256 lsvels. Gh 4)
Solutior Explain Microwavo transmission in brief. (ch s)
L=256 Solution

Sampling rate = 6000 per sec. Electsomagnetic waves having tequencies between I and 300 GHz are caried
microwaves.
No. ofbits= log2l = lo9256 =8 Microwaves are unidircctional. Wleo an antema tmnsmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly
focused rhis means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. ihe unidirectional
Bit rate =Sampling rate t No. ofbirs = 6000*8 =48,000 bps
fop.,uV h.as an..obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned ;ithout interfering with
another pair of alimed antennas.

The following desoibcs some chamcteristics of mifiowaye propagation:

Draw differential Manchoster oncoding for bit pattem:O1OllO00i.
(ch 4)
Solution i. Miaowave pmpagation is linc-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas
need to
Bit senl 0 1 0,1 1,0 0, 0,1 be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall. The
curvature of
the earth as well as otha blocking obstacles do not ;llow two short towas to communicate
by
Signal using microwaves. Repeaters aE often needed for long distance commuaication.

Base line ii. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This charactaistic can
be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildingsr

Time inlerval iii. Thb micowave band is relatively \ryide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider
sub-bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.

iv. Use ofcerlain portions ofrhe timd requires permission from aurhorilies.

t
 I
I

T.Y. P-lll Computer Notworks{ r [. r 2016April a T.Y. PlllComputer Netwo*s,l rE 2015 Aprll a
ur$0I I
0t8t0i t
3. Attempt a ny two ot the following: 12x5={01 i
A bit stream -'10011t01 is transmittod using ths standard CRC molhod. The gonoralor
pofynomlal is x3 + l. Show the actual bit st lng-transmiiteA. - S) Ea,
Gh ,tuplaln Puro ALOHA and stotbdALOHA wlth 6rampls. (ch 6)
Solutioo Solulioa
l00l1l0l
Bit suEam: Pure ALOHA
Generato: x3 - I The idea is tha each station sends a ftame whenever it has a tame to send. However, since thae
1001 is only one channel to share, therc is tbe possibility of collision betwecn fram$ tom different
Here the degee ofgenerator = 3. siations.
.. Data hit stsealn after appending 3 0's is: l0ol1101000
The pure AIOIIA protocol relies on achrowledgments from the reBiyer. When a station sends a
r0001I tame, it expects the receiver to sent an acknowledgment. lf tlre acknowledgment does not anive
1001 10011 101000 aftlr a timeout period the station assumes that the frame (or the acknowledgment) has been
1001 destroyed and resends the frame.
00001101 Slotted ALOHA
1001 In slotted ALOHA, the time is divided into slots and forces the station to send onlv at the
01000 beginnlng 6;1r. time slot. Because a station is allowed to send only at the beginnini of the
l00l synclronized time slot, if a station misses this moment, it must wait until the beginning ofthe next
000100 Remainder time slot' This mearu that the station which staied at the begiming of this slot has already Iinished
The bit string transmirted: 10011101100 sen(ing its tarne. Thae is still the possibility of collision if foo sdions ry to send at rhe Leginning
oftre same time slot. However, the vulnerable time is reduced to one-half of that ofpurc AIOHA.
Erplaln any fivo goals of compuler netnio*s. ph 0
Solutiou Difftrontiato bstwoen port address, logical addresgand physical addross. (ch 2)
i. Resource sharing is the main objective ofthe computer network. The goal is to provide all the Solution
program, date and hardware available to everyone on the netwoft without regard to the
The address of a node as An universal addressing in TIe objectjv€ of lr omet
physical location ofthe resource and the users. defined by its LAN or WAN. which each host can be communication is a procas8
ii. The second objective is to provide the high reliability. It is achieved by replicating tbe frles on identif ed uniquely, regardless communicating,rilh anothsr
hlo or more machines, so in case of unavailability (due to fail of hardware) the otlra copies of the undertying physical procesg.

cart be used.
network ln the TCP/IP. th6 label
assignod to a procoss is
iii. Computer organiation has helped organization in saving money. This is due to the fact thal callod a port addr6ss.
th€ small computer has much better price to the paformance ratio comparison than the large It is included in the frame It is includ€d in the datagram ll is included in the pack6t
used by lhe data link layer. used by n€lwork layer. used by lransport laysr.
computer like mainframe. Mainframe computer are approximately ten times faster than the
The size and formal of A logical address in lhe Port addr€ss in TCP/IP is 16
microcomputers, but they cost thousands times more. As a result of this imbalancq
these addresses vary lntem€t is cunently a 32-bil bils in length.
organization has prefened to install interconnected miffocomputer connectad to the dependjng on the network. address.
mainframe computer.
iv. Coftputer networks have provided means to increase system performance as the work load
increases (load balancing). In the days of maintame when $e systsm was full, it was to Expliin circuit swltching in deqit. ph 4)
replace with thc other large mainframe computer, usually at and expensiye rale not Solution
convenience for user. A circuit-switched network is madc of a set of swiiches connexted by physical links, in which
link is divided ioto n channels.
v. Computer networls help people who live or work apai to report togeh€r. So, when one us6r
each

prEpar€s som€ docurnentation, he can make the document online enabling olher to r€ad and i. Circuit swit hing takes place at the physical layer.
convey their opinions. Thus computer network is a powerful communication medium. ii. Bcforc darting communicetioq the stations must make a reservation for fte rBources to be
vi. Only authorized user can access resource in a computer network. Usen are authenticated by used during the communication" These re.sources, such as chamels
ftandwidth in FDM and
their user name and password. Hence it is not possible to access the dala without proper time slots in TDM), switch bufrers, switch Focessing time, and switch input/ouput ports,
account This increases security. must remain dedicated during the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase.
 T.Y. P.lll,Computor Networks,l I . 2016Aprll & o
0lltor T.Y. P.lll Cornpuier lletworfsl r I r'ZOronprt 8t0t
111. Data fansfened between the two stations are not packetized (physical laya tansfer of tlre
{ggl). The data arc a continuous flow sent by thq source station and rcceived by the What ars the advantag€ of poinl-to+oint network?
destination station, although there may be periods of silenct. (ch 1) 121
lV, Ihue is no addressing involved during data n-ansfer. The switches route the data based Solution
on their occupied band (IDM) or timc slor (mM).
The rtse of dedicated linls guar tees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
4. Attem any one of the followin [1 xl0=101
eliminating the traffic problems drat can occur when linls must be shared by multiple devices.
When evgry messaSe havels along a dedicated line; only the intended recipient sees it.
A i
Physical boundaries prevent othfi users tom gaining access to messages.
Wrlts a nolg on sorial transmiEglon. (ch 4) I5l Point-to-point links make fault i(krtification and fault isolation easy.
Solutiol
In serial bansmission one bit follows anotlrer, so we need only one communication channel rather P,B
than n to bansmit data bet'neen two communicating devices. The adyantage of serial over parallel 4.1il8
tansmission is that with only one communication channel, serial txansmisiion reduces the tost of What is transmi$ion impairment? Erplain the causes of transmission impairment.
transmission over parallel by roughly a factor ofn, (ch 4) tsl
Solution
since communication within devices is parailel, conversion dwices are rquircd at the intaface
between the sander and the line (parallel-to-seria) and between the line and tire receiver (serial-to- Signals travel tlmugh fansmission media, which arc not perfeat. The imperfection causes signal
parallel). impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of tlie medium is not the same as the signal
Serial transmission occun in one of tltee ways: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochionous. at the end of the medium. What is scst is not what is received. Tluee causes of impairment are
In asynchronous tansmission, we send I sArt bit (0) at the beginning and I or rnore stop bits (1s) attefluation, distortioq and noise.
anthe end ofeach byte. Thae may be a gap between each byte. i. Attenuation: At&nuation means I loss of energy. When a signal, iimple or composite, travels
In syichrorous transmission, we send bits one after anbther without staft or stop bits or gaps. lt
.
is the responsibility ofthe receiva to group the bits.
ttnough a medium, it loses some of its energr in ovacoming the resistance ofthe medium. To
compensate for this loss, amplifids are used to ampli! the signal.
In real-time audio and video, in which uncven delays benareen ftames are not acceptable, ii. D,stortion: Distortion means thal the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in
synchronors tansmission fails. For this type of apirlication, isochronous transmission guarantees
a composite signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own
that the data ardve at a fixed rate,
propagation speed through a nedium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final
,4 4r
What is Piggybacking? Exptain the advanrages of piggybacking. (Ch O)
destination. Diflerences in delay may create
same as the period duration.
a dillerence in phase ifthe delay is not exactly the

t3I
Solution iii. Noise: Several types of noise, sch as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse
In real life, data frames are normally flowing in both directions: tom node A to node B and fiom noise, may corupt the signal.
node B to node A. This means that the control information also needs to flow in borh directions. A
technique called piggrbacking is used to improve the effrcienry ofthe bidircctionar protocols.
when
a frame-is carrying data from A to B, it can also calry conhol information about anived (or lost)
4.EE
Explain Polling "Select' function (ch 5) t3l
frames_ from.B;dren a frame is canying data from Ii to A, it can also carry control
information Solution
about the arived (or lost) frames tom A.
Advantages Polling worla with topologies in viich one device is designated as a primary station and the
. In two way communication, Whenever a data frame is rdceived, the received waits and does other devices are secondary stations. All data exchanges must be made through the primary devica
not send the control fiame (acknowledgement) back to the sender immediatelv. The receiver eyen when the ultimate destination is a secondary device. The primary device controls the link; the
waits until its n€twork layer passes in the next data packet. The delayed acknowledgement is secondary devices follow its insfuctiom lt is up to the pdmary device to cietermine which device is
then attached to this outgoing.data liame. allowed to use the channel at a given time. The primary device, therefore, is always the initiator ofa
. Thuq this technique of temporarily delaying the acknowledgement so that it can be hooked session il the primary wants to send dib, it tells the secondary to get ready to receive; this is called
with next outgoing data frame, improves the erficiency and uies avairabre channer bandwidth select function.
in better way.

I
 T,Y. Pllc"r;;b, N"lr"*"1 .E. uff*
Primary
B

E E
EI
4
=
-
SEL

ACK

Select

Datd

ACK

E B Fii-l
Write any trvo difforsnces botwosn STP and UTP. (Ch 3) 12)
Solution

i. STP cables are shielded while UTP cables are unshielded.

ii, STP cables are more immune to irterfErence and noise than UTP cables.

iii. STP cables are better at maximizing bandwidth compared to UTP cables.

iv. STP cables cost more per meter compared to UTP cables.

v. STP cables are heavier per meter compared to UTP cables.

Q,
ur$10lt
 Computer Networks - I

1 all of the followl I'lxlO=1 oI

Explaln mosh topology. (ch 1)
Soludon
lo a mesh topology, every dwicc has a dedicated point-to-point litrk to wery other device.
The
lelm dedicatedmeans that thc link carries traffic only bitwcen tlc two deyices it coDtrects.
Ln a mesh topology, n(l -1) /2 duplex-mode lints are required.
1E
ivs r€sponslbllhlos ot iransport Layer. (ch 2)
, Soludo!
Thc transport layer is rcsponsiblc for process-to-process delivery of the cntire message.
,Ir;I
Llst typss of guld€d modla. (ch 3)
Soludor
Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cablg and fiberoptic cablc.

What tho term slgnal moans? Glve lts types. (ch 4)

SoluttoD
To be taosmitted, data must b€ traosformed to signals,
Typcs: Dgital, Analog

Draw NRZ.I blt pattern for 0101r 110. (ch 5)

SolufloD
0 1 0 1 1 111 !0

ENdlsadva nlagss of clrcult swltshlng.

Glv€ (ch 4)
--.'rton
I Circuit-switched networks are Dot ef6cieDt because resources arc allocated dudng
-a
the entire
duration of the connection. These resources are unavailabr€ to other connections.
rn terephone
network, people normally t€minate the communication when they have fDished
their conveNation.
. Howeyel in- complrtq networks, a computer cao b6 connected to another computer even if there
is no activity for a long time. In this casi, allowing resources to u" a"J""t.a
means that other
conneCtions are deprived.

T.Y. P.lttcomputor Notrrorrsn r! . 2016 October @ O"

 T.Y. P.llt compuJor Notworksi .E . octobor
o'
2016 utEt0t T,Y. P-lll Com.':tsr No*o*.., a E t 2016 October ul'l0I
E-ll A ESC ESC FLAG N.twork Thls topoloe' 'nay make tho net!4,ork pron€ Thlg topblogy'm8kes the netwo* l6ss prone to
Bytestuff the followlng data: B (ch 4)
Reliablllty
to iailur€ -scauge lt 6 link go€9 down, lt wlll lallurs bocsugg It a llnk go€s down, it wlll be
arfgct the next and the proc6edlng slatlons, byps8sed by lhe hub and the rest of th6 statlons
Solutlon
can
Data: A ESC ESC FLAG B Dynamlc Addlng and renEvlng statlong lrom tho rlng Addlng and romovlng stratlons from th6 ring is
Blto stuffmg: A ESC ESC ESC ESC ESC FLAG B T is easler.

Glve dlaadvanlag€s of Optlcal Flbres

Soludot!

i.
There are some disadvaltages in the use ofoptical fiber.
Ilstallation and mainteDance; Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new tecbnology. Its
itstallation and mairtenance require expertise that is trot yet available everywhere,
(ch 3)

Archltecture
i?f
i&& Hub

f
ii. UDidirectional light propagation: Propagation of light is unidircctional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibc$ are Deeded. Bur Star ring
no
iii. - Cost: The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided
media. If the demand for bandwidth is trot high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be EEI
- Explain Point to Point and Broadcast lnfrar€d
justified. Systom. (Ch 3)
SoludoD
InAared is a media transmission system that transmits dst& signals through light emitting iliodes
What is blt length? State formula to calculate bit length. (ch 4) (LEDS) o. lasers. htared is an electomagnetic ene(gy at a waysletgth which is longcr than that of
Soludon the red light. The information cannot be travelled through obstacles in an inftared syster! but can be
The bit length is the distance ore bit occupies on the taffmission medium. inhibited by light. i

Bit length = Propagatiol speed x Bit dwation. One type of infrarcd is the point to poitt systam i! which tansmission is possible between two

El_l
What is Baud Rate? (Ch 4)
poinls limited to a range and lirc of sight. The sigml Aequency to transmit in a poitrt to point system
is 100 GHz to 1,000 tenhertz (THz), and the speed ranges from 100 Kbps to 16 Mbps. When you
Solution change television chamels by inftared rcmote cotrtrol, you arc establishitg a point-to-point
comection between the remote cotrtrol and the television's contol system.
Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud mte is the number of signal elements per second.
Another method of trsnsmission of infrared includes the broadcast system - and, in this method,
In the analog hansmissiol of digital data, the baud mte is less than or equal to the bit mto.
a raflective malerial or a tansmission unit amplifies and rchansmits a data signal to sovera.l other
2. Attempt any two o, the foltowing: [2 x 5 = 'lol units. Tho Ilormal ftequency ofan infrared broadcast system is 100 GHz to 1,000 THz with a limited
E;t
Compare Star Bus and Star Ring topologies wlth parameter, (ch 1) 2E
ofl Mbps.
Solution Calculate ths maximum bit rate for a channol havlng bandwldth 3'100 Hz. lf: (ch 4)
i. S/N ratio 20 dB ll. S/N ratlo 10 dB
Physioal ln the bus ring topology, also called a ln a siar ring topology, the physical topology is a SolutioD
topology loken bus. lh6 slations are connected lo a star. There is a hub, howevor, that acts as the BandwidthB=3100Hz
single cabl€ called a bus. connector.
,. S/N ratio is 20 dB
Logical They, howover, make a
logical ring, The wkinq inside lhe hub makes the ring; tho sNR = 20 dB
topology because oach slation knows the address of slations are connect6d to lhis ring through tho
ils successor (and also prodocessor for two wire connections. sNR = l0 x logle (S,r|.|
loken management purposos). Whsn a 20 = 10 x logle (SN)
slalion has finish€d s€nding its data, it ... sat = 100
releases th€ token and inserts lhe address
Using Shannon's Theorem
of its successor in lhe token. Only lhe
station wilh lh€addross matching lhe C= B x loec (1 +S/tD
destination addross of the token gets lhe = 3100 x log2 (1 +100)= 20640 b/s
tokon to access tho shared media. C= 20.16 kb/s
 o" T.Y. Pitl Compuler Networks-l a I' . 2015 October u$et
T.Y. P-lll Computor Networks-l . 2016 October $llai
a
Ebl
ll S/N ratio is l0 dB Dlscuss RZ and NRZ mothod of Llno Codlng wlth proper formattor glven data: (ch 5)
sNR = l0 dB 10 t 10r00101
SoludoD
SNR = l0 x logle (S,4.I)
Signal Comments
l0 = 10 x logro (sN)
NRZ-L Non rBtum to zero levol. Thls is the standard positve logic slgnal format usod in digital clftrritg
.. sN =10 1 forces a hlgh lovel
Using Sharmon's Theorem 0 forcss a low lewl
C= Bxlo&(1 +SN) NRZ-r\4 Non rgtum to z€ro mark
1 forces a transltion
= 3100 x log, (l + l0) 0 does nothlng (keeps sondlng ths provlous level)
= 10'724bls
NRZ.S Non r€tum to zero space
I
C = 10.47 kb/s 1 does nothing (k6eps sending tho provious lev€l)
0 forces a hansition
3. Attempt any two o, ths foilowlngl [2x5='l0I
a RZ Retum lo z6ao
dlagram. I go6s hlgh for halfthe bit perlod and retums to low
Explaln OSI ref€rence modelwith the hslp otsultable (Ch 2)
0 slays low for tho 6ntir6 Porlod
SolutioD
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows 1 0 1
,t
0 1 0 0 1 0 1
commlmication betwgen all types of computei It
consists of seven separate but related
systems.
layers, each ofwhich defines a part ofthe process ofmoving information across a networlc
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical (layer l), data link (layer 2),
Riz L L L L L
network (layer 3), hansport (layer 4), session (layer 5), presentation (layer 6), and application
NRZ-L
(layer 7). Above figure shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B.
As the message travels from A to B, it rnay pass thjough many intermediate nodes. These
i ermediate nodes usually involve only the first thee layers ofthe OSI model. NRZ.M

NRS.S
Protocol data
Layer Funclion
unlt (POU)
High-levelAPls, including resource sharing, remote file
7 Applic€tion c
access.
lranslation of dal,a between a n6tworkjng se ice and an ln a slEtem data recalvod was 1011010. Using seven blt odd parity Hammlng Code deto]mine
6. Presenlation application; including charact€r encoding, dala correc{ codo. (Ch 5)
Data
compression and oncryptiorvdecryption. Soludolr
Host
Managing communlcation s6ssions. i.e. continuous Message: l0l l0l0
5. Session oxchange of information in tho form of multiple
back-andjorth lransmissions bslwean two nodes.
20 2t 22 2t
Pr P2 I P1 0 I I PsOl0
Reliabls transmission of data sogments between points on a
Sogment (TCP) Odd Darity bit
4. Taansport nslwork, including segrnontation, acknanvledgement and
/ Datagram (UDP)
multiplexing. PI ? 10100 I

3. Network
Slructuring and managing a multinode network, Pr ?t l r l0 I
including addressing, routing and traffic control. P4 ?01I I
Media
2. Data iink
Reliabls lransmission of data frames between two nodes Pr ?0r 0 0
layers connected by a physical layer. Hamming code using odd parity
1. Physical Brl
Transmission and reception ol raw bit streams over a l I I 101 100 r 0
physacalmedium.
 o, (h
T.Y. P.lll Computer Networks.t a E . 2016 Octobor utfl0t T.Y. P.tll comput r No*o*"u a I . 20'16 October ursr0I

4, Attempt any one of the foliowa (A or B)l fl x {0 = { 4 TTll

Whlch devlce operateg at Nstwork Layer and Transport Layer of OSI modsl? (Ch 2) tzl
Writ€ a short note on Piggybacklng. Gh S) l4l Solutlon
Solutiotr A gateway is normally a computer that operates in all five laye$ ofthe lntemet or sevefl layers of
In two-way communication, whetrever a data ftame is received, the receiver waib and does not OSI modcl including network 8nd transport layer.
send the conhol frame (acknowledgemant or ACK) back to the sender immediately. A gatewly is an intemetworking system capable of joinirg togethq two networks that use
The receiver waits until its netwotk layer passes in the next data packet. The delayed different base protocols. A network gateway can be implemented completely io softwarc, completely
acknowledgement is then attached to this outgoing data frame. in hardware, or as a combination of both. Depending on the t ?es ofprotocols they suppo.t, network
This technique of temporarily delaying the acknowledgement so that it can be hooked with next gateways can opemte at any level ofthe OSI model.
outgoing data frame is known as piggybacking. Because a network gateway, by definition, appears at th€ edge of a network, related capabilities
Piggybacking data is a bit different &om Sliding Window Protocol used in the OSI model. In the Iike firewalls tend to be integrated with it.
data frame itself, we incorporate one additional field for acknowledgment (called ACK). On home networks, a broadband router t)?ically serves as the network gateway although ordinary
I
Whenever party A waots to send data to pady B, it w.ill send the data along with this ACK field. computers can also be configured to perform equivalent functions.
Considerilg the sliding rrindow here of size 8 bits, if A has send frames up to 5 correctly (from B), A gateway takes an application message, reads it, and interprets it. This means that it can be used
and wants to serd &ames starting from frame 6, it will send ACK6 with the data. as a connecting device between two intemetworks that use different models. For example, a network
Three rules govem the piggybacking data transfer. designed to use the OSI model can be connected to another network using the IDtemet model. The
i. If station A wants to send both data and an acknowledgmen! it keeps both fields there. gateway connecting the two systems csn take a frame as it arrives from the first system, move it up
ii. lf
station A wants to sendjust the acknowledgment, then a separate ACK frame is sent. to the OSI application layer, and remove the message.

iii. If statiotr A wants tosend just the data, theD th€ last acknowledgment field is sent along with six
the data. Station B simply ignores this duplicate ACK frame upon receiving. 4E I a
LIst charactsrlstlcs of Line Coding. (ch 4) tzl
Advantages: Improves the efficiency, beder use ofavailable channel bandwidth. Solutlon
Disadvantages: The receiver can jam the service if it has nothing to send. This can be solved by Characteristics of Line Coding
enabling a counter (Reoeiver timeout) when a data frame is received. If the count ends aad there i's i. Signal Element & Data Element
no data frame to sen4 the receiver will send an ACK control frame. The sender also adds a counter ii. Bandwidth
(Emilter timeout), if the counter ends without receiving confimation, the sender assumes packet iii. BaselineWandering
ioss, and sends the frame again. iv. DC Components
4 v. Self-synchronization
Explain concept of ALoHA with its types. Gh 6) I4l vi. Built-in Error Detection
Solution vii. Immunity to Noise and Interference
ALOHA vllt Ity
ALOHA, the earliest random access method. There are potertial collisions in this arrangement. 4 t
Explain framo fo.mat of HDLC protocol with the help of suitable diagram (ch 5) l2l
The medium is shared between the stations. Whe[ a station serds data, another station may attempt
Solution
to do so at the same time. The data from the two stations collide and become garbled.
Pure ALOHA Us€r Fiag
Flag Conkol
informalion
PCS I ' Frame
The idea is that each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send. However, since there
is only one channel to share, there is the possibility of collision between frames from different
stations.
Flag Control FCS Flag S-trame
Slotted ALOHA
A statio[ may send soon after another station has started or soon before another station has
finished. ln slotted ALOHA we divide the time into slots of Time frames and force lhe station to
send only at the beginning ofthe time slot. Fag Managemenl FIag
Control FCS
inlormation
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T.Y. P-lll Computer N6tworks-t a t 2016 Octobor

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Flag field identifies both the beginnilg and thc end ofa fame and serves as a synchronization Computer Networks - I
pattem for the reaeiver.
!L Ad&ess field contains the address ofthe secondary statioo.
iii Conhol field is used for flow and error contol. I x 10 = I
iv Information field coniains the useds data ftom the network layer or management information.
,. A all of the followi
FCS field. The Prame Check Sequence fCS) is the HDLC eror detection field. (ch 1)
Define protocol with lts key elements
B ii
soludon
Wrlte a short note on token passlng. (ch 6) l4l For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A Protocol is a set ofrule,g that
govem data communications. A protocol defines what is communicate4 how it is communicated,
Soludon
ln the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organizld ill a logical ring.
and when it i8 cornmunicated.
ln other words, for each station, there is a predecessor ald a succcssor. Tlle predecessot is the The key elements of a protocol are syntax' semantics, and timing'
I
station which is logically b€forc the slation in the ring; the successor is the station which is after the
station in the ring. The curent station is the one that is accessing the channel now. Thc right to this (ch 1)
Deflns mesh topology'
access has be€n passed ftom the predecessor to the curent station. The right will be passed to the
Solution
successor wheq the curent station has no more data to send.
ha mesh topology, every d€vice has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device' The
In this method, a special packet called a token circulates through the ring. The possession of the
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
token gives the station the right to access the channel and send its data. When a station has some data
tn a mesh topology, n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links arc required'
to send, it waits until it receives the token from its predecessor. It then holds the loketr and sends its
data. When the station has no more data to send, it releases the token, passing it to the next logical
What is port address? (ch 2)
station in the ring. The statioo cannot send data until it receives the token again in the next round. ln
this process, when a station receiv€s the token and has no data to send, it just passes the data to the Solution
next station. A port number is a way to identify a specific process to which an lntemet or othel network
control Protocol and the
message is to be forwarded when it arrives at a server. For the Transmission
Token management is needed for this access method. Stations must be limited in the time they
User Datagram Protocol, a port number is a l6-bit integer that is put in the header apPerded to a
can have possession of the token. The token must be monitored to ensue it has not been lost or
destroyed. For example, ifa station that is holdirg the token fails, the token will disappear from the message uit.
network. Another function oftoken management is to assign priorities to the stations and to the tyf,es
List the applications of coaxial cable. (ch 3)
of data being transmitted. And finally, token management is needed to make low-priority stations
release lhe token to high priority srations. Solution
4E It Applications ofcoaxial cable are
D€flno the following Data Communicatlon Standa.ds: (Ch 1) IZI Analog telephone networks
a. De Faclo b. De Jure Cable TV networks
Solution Traditional ethemet LANS
a. De Facto: Standards that have not been approved by an orgiurized body but have been adopted 1 e
as standards through widespread use are de facto staldards. De facto standards are often What is the purposs ot llnq testlng tool? (ch 4)
established originatly by manufactwers who seek to defitre the lirnctionality of a new product
Solutlon
or technology.
Line tester is a tool which is used to identify or test the phase or positiv€ wie/conductor
b. De Jure: Those standards that have been legislated by an oflicially recognized body are de
jure standards. (ch 4)
Which devices operate at physical layer?
Solution

o. The devices that operate at physical layer are: repeater, bridges, gateway

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T.Y. P-lll computer Netwo*si .E . 2017 April UIEIOT
T.Y. P.lll computor

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Deflne Blt rate and Baud rale' (ch 4) Explain fi ber optic cable with their types and applications.
(ch 3)

Solution Soludon
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in I s, express€d in bits per second (bps). A fiber-optic cable is made ofglass or plastic ard tatrsmits signals itr the form ofliSht'
propagsting light along
The baud rate or signal ratc is the oumb€r ofsignal elemeots sent in ls. currenl technology suppois two modes (multimode and single modc) for
opti"a Miitimode can be impleme[ted in two forms: step-index or Sraded-index'
Which error detection method uses one's complement arlthmstic? (ch 5) "t "-"tt. in differcnt Patbs
In multimode , multiPle bcams flom a light source move through the core
to the
Solution In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant.from thc ceoler
Checksumo method us€s one's complement arithmetic. ;;.i li'ght moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the
"d;.'A
iri"ri"" of trc core"and the ctaadin!. At the intorface, there is an abrupt 6hange due to a lower
Deflne plggybacklng. (ch 5)
deNity; this alters the angle ofthe beam's motion
Soludoo the cable'
A multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion ofthe signal ttuough I
A technique called piggybacking is used to improve the elliciency ofthe bidilectional protocols. Density is highest at the center of
When a frame is carrying data fom A to B, it call also carry contrcl information about arrived (or
e graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with vaxying densities
the core and decr€ases gndually to its lowest at tho edge'
lost) frames from B; when a frame is carrying data &om B to A, it can also carry conhol information that limits beams to a
about the arrived (or lost) frames from A Single-Mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light
ETI
State three types of MAC protocols. (Ch 6)
small range ofangles,
Appllcstions
all close to the horizontal

bandwidth is cost-
Solution i. Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
The th.ree t)?es of MAC protocols are: effertive.
i. Random access ii. Controlled access iii. Channelization ii. Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiberand coaxial
cable Optical fiber
provides the coruection to the user
2. Attompt any two ot the tollowingr a2 x 5 = IOI orovides the backbone structure white coaxial cable
ifritit since the narrow bandwidth requirement at the
a ir..".t "
*st-effective conflguration
(ch user end does not.justify the use ofoptical fiber'
State the difference between LAN and WAN. 1)
l000Base-X also use
Solution iii. Local-area network such as l00Base-FX network (Fast Ethemet) and
LAN fiber-optic cable.
Stands for Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Local areas only (e.9., homes Large geographic areas (e.9., citles, sont on a llnk with
Calcu late the total delay for a frame of size 5 million bits which is
Covers states, 10
oflices, schools). nations). processing time of 1 ps The l€ngth ot the
Routers, eaqh havlng queuing time of 2 us and a
Definitaon LAN is a computer network WAN is a compuler network that cove6 a broad 5 Mbps
covering a small geographic area, area (e.9., any network whose communications links link is 2000 km and sp€ed of light is 2 x 1 iB m/s in the link, The link has bandwidth (ch 4)
like a home, ofUce, school, or cross metropolitan, rogional, or natlonal boundaries
qrouo of buildings. over a lonq distance). Solutlon
Speed Hiqh soeed (1000 mbps). Low speed (150 mbps) queuing time of 2 ps and a
Frame siz€ 5 million bits sent on a link with 10 routeB each having a
Data transter LANS hav6 a high data transfer WANS have a lowor data transfer rate comparod lo
rates rate. LANS. processing time of I Ps.
Example Ths network in an omce building The lnternel is a good €xamplo of a WAN The lensth ofthe link 2000 km.

Fault Tolorance
can b€ a LAN.
LANS tend to have fewea probloms WANS tend lo be less fault lolorant as lhey conslst
\
The speed of light inside 2 I 03 m/s. Bandwidth = 5 Mbps
associated with them, as there aae ot large number ot systems. Latency I r0.,"r,." + T-;;i"J-I;,.s + Tp,*","ing
smaller number of systems 10 deal Tp.p.s",ion = Distance/propagation speed
Data Experiences fewel data Expoi€nc€s more data transmisslon erors as 2x 106 -
Tlansmlsslon lransmission errors. compared lo LAN. =
ri-'ii8 = r0 ms
Eror
Ownership Typically owned, controlled, and WANS (like the lntemet) aro not o\^/ned by any one Td-!.i",ion = MessaSe size/Bandwidth
managed by a single porson or organization but rather €xist under collectiv€ or 5 x 106
organizalion. distributed ownership and management ovar long -5x106-''
distanc€s.
 T,Y, P-lll Computer Notworks-I a E t 20'17 Aprll o.
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T.Y. P-lll computer Notworlsl r ll r 2017 Aprll
Tr*i,. = 10x2ps=20ps
rcquies n comrnunication lines
T,*,;." = 10x 1ps= 10g.s But there is a signific ant disadvantage: cost Parallel transmission
twires in the exainple; just to transmit the data stream Beceuse this is expensive' parallel
Latency = TFoe.s"ri." + Tq6;. * Tq*6,j { Tn*63 taosmission is usually limited to short distances'
=10m8+ls+20$+l0ps I

= 1.01003 generator polynomlal g(x) = x'+ l-+ 1'

Generate the CRC code lor message 1001101010. Glve
s
(ch 5)
3. Attempt any two of the tollowlng! [2x5=101 Solutlotr
Eal Message: l00l101010
What are the responslbilities of sesslon and presentation layer? Gh 2) Ploynomial: =xa+x2+ 1
Solution
Specific responsibilities ofthe session layer include the following: Generator: l0l0l
a. Dialog control: The session layer allows two systerns to ontcr into a dialog. It allows the Message after 4 zero bits aPpended
communication between two processes to take place in either halfduplex (onJway at a time) 10011010100000
or full-duplex (hvo ways at a time) mod€.
10101 100',t1010
b synchronizatiox. The session layer arrows a prccess to add checlgoints, or synchronization 1o1o1J, ll
points, to a stream ofdata. o0110011
ooooJl
Specific responsibilities ofthe presentatlon layer include the following: i 1001 |

a. Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging 10101+
0 1000
infomation in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information musi bi 01 01
changed to bit steams before being transmittod. Because different computers use dilrerent 01101
encodirg systems, the presentation layer is responsible fo! interoperability between these 1n101
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from 01'1 100
its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at thc receiving 10101
0't001
machine changes the common format into its receiyer-dependent format. 1010
b. Encryptioh: To carD/ sensitive information, a
system must be able to ensue privacy.
00111
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and 11100
sends the resulting message out over the network. 10'1 01
c. Decry?tion rcverses the original process to traEform the message back to its original form. 010010
10101
d. compression.- Datra compression reduces the number ofbits contained i,, the information. Data 00111<-Remainder
compression becomes particularly important iIr the transmission of multimedia such as text.
audio, and video. 01 0 l 0 t
Tran3mlttod message: 1 00 1 1 1 1

4. Atte one of the lollowi (AorB I x 10 = 1

What is parallel transmlssion? Stato thetr advantages and dlsadvantages. Oh 4)
a
SoludoD
Binary data, consisting of ls and 0s, may be organized into goups of n bits each. Computers (ch 5)
What is framlng? ExPlain any two framing methods wlth examPle. 141
produce and consume data in goups ofbits much as we conceive ofand use spoken language in the Solution
form of words rather than letters. By gouping, we can send data n bits at or from other
a tim; instead;f l. This is FEmins in the data ti-ok layer separates a message from one source to a destination'
called parallel transmission. a destination address The destination
."*"g"li? a"tdnations. by aiding a sender address and
The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one: use n v/ires to send n bits "tf,"t
a.ir". the pack* is to go; the sender address helps the recipient acknowledge the
at one time. That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with "JOr*-r "f,-e
recetot. Althoush the whole message could be packed in one ftame, that
is not normally done. one
contol very rnefficient Whena
each clock tick from one device to another. ,.uro'n i, ihu, i frr.. auo be rery large. makjng flow and error
The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. A1l else being equal, parallel trammission can rn"trug" i. l-r"a in one very large frime, euen a single-bit error would require the retransmission
meisage is divided into smaller frames' a single-bit error affects only
ofn over serial hansmission.
increase the kansfer speed by a factor ofthe-whole message. When a
that small frame.
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Fixed-Size Framlng OSI model TcP/lP model
Frames can be of fixed or variable size. In fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the Applicalion
boundaries of the frames; the size itself can be used as a delimiter. An example of this type of
framing is the ATM wide-arca netwodq which uses frames offixed size called cells. Prgs6nialion Application
Variable-Size Framlng
In variable-size fiarning, we need a way to defiDe the end of the frame and the beginning of the
next. Historically, two approaches rrere used for this purpose: a charactq-orietrted approach and a
S6ssion Telnet FTP
@ DNS l\,1

TCP UDP
bit-oriented approach. Transport

4EE ARP IP
Explain FDMA in dotall. Gh 6) l4l
Soludon Data link ,
Daia link Token
lD frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into frequency Ethernet rin9 relay
ATI\4

bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its data. In other words, each band is reserved for a Physical Physical
specific station, and it belongs to the station all the time. physical, data link, network, transport, and
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers
Each station also uses a bandpass filter to conline the tmnsmitter frequencies. To prevent station
interferences, the allocated bands are separated from one another by small guard bands. -"
applicatiotr.
network iDterfaces' internetworking' aod transport
FDMA specifies a predetermined frequency band for the entire period of commwrication. This
i*ii"iio, toy", orovides Physical standards,
firnctions.
means that strcam data (a continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be used (TCP)'
N the thtree protocols: Transmission .Conhol Protocol
tldrtspolt loyer, 'lCPltP defines
with FDMA. bontrol Tt*smitsion Protocol (SCTP) At the network
u..i'o*o"r'protocol IUDP;. and Stream
protocol (lp); there arc also some
FDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in the data link layer. The data link layer in each
station tells its physical layer to make a bandpass signal from the data passed to it. The sigml must
;il,.fffiil ;r;",;c-J i"r,*li uv rcim
in
the tnternetworkins
this"layer'
or-he, proto"ols thut srppon data movement
be created in the allocated band. There is no physical multiplexer at the physical layer. The signals
Physical qnd Data Link LaYers
created at each station are automatically bandpass-filtered. They are mixed when they are sent to the any specific protocol' It suppons all
At the physical and data link laye6, TCP'{P does not define
common channel.
protocols A network in a TCPnP intemetwork can be a local-area
the standard aod Eopnetary
network or a wide-area network.
4 t
Network LaYer
Using diagram, write the protocol stack of TCP/lP model. (ch 2) I2l acculatgly, the intemetwolk layer), TCP/P suppods
the
At the netwolk layer (or, more
Solution
Intemetworking Prctocol. lP, in hrm, uses four supporting
Layer Protocols prctocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP'
Application SI!,4TP, FTP, HTTP,ONS, SNMP. TELNET OK
Transporl TCP,UDP,SCTP,RTP B (ch 6)
what are Random access m ethods? ExPlain any one mechanism
141
IP, ICMP,IGI\4P,RARP.ARP
Solutlon
to. another station and none is
Data Link In random access or contention methods, no station is supedor
Protocols defined by lhe underlying nelworks (host-to-nelwork) not pemit, station to send At
tn" ol over aoother. No station permits, or does
Physical 'i;;;;";;;,il'0,u,
^".i-"J "ont procedure defined^bv
-another
the protocol to make a
;f ir.i au" to send uses a
(idle or busv)'
;;;;;; ;;;4"; not to send. This decision depends on the state of the.medium
". station can transmit when ii
In other words. each desires on the condition that it follows the
pr"a.fin"a pto""Or.", includiflg the testing ofthe state ofthe medium
Method: Slotted ALOHA
and force the station to send only
tn slotted ALOHA, we divide the time into slots of Time frames
of the
,li. U"gii"frg time slot. Because a station is allowed to send only at the beginning
"t "iG
 T.Y, P.lll Computer N6tworks.l a E . 2017 Aqtll

syDchronized timc 8lo! ifa station misscs this momctrt, it must n'ait until thc begiDnins of the
tr€xt
time slot. This means ti\at the station which started at rhc begin,ing of this slot has aheady finisbed
send at thc
sending its framc. of coursc, therc is still the possibility of collisioo if two statioN try to
beginning ofthc samc timc slot. However, the vulne,lablc time is now rcduced'
.E I
Wrllo notes on: t41
a. PPP Ph 5)
b. Thormaland lnduced nolso (Ch 3)
SoludoD
a. PPP
Ir computq networkiog, Polnt-tG.Polnt Protocol (PPP) is a data linkprotocol used to establish
a direct corurcction betwei two nodes. It connects two routcm dirccuy udthout
any host or any olh€[
networling devicc in betwcen. It can FoYide conncctiotr autheDticatior, tansmissior ercryptiotr '-
and compressiol.
PPP is used ove! matry tnes of physical networks including serial cable, phone line, tsunk
linc, cellular telephone, spcciaiizcd radio-lbks, and fiber optic liDks such as.SONET PPP is also
,""i over lntcmct access cormcctions. Intemct scrvice providers (lSPs) have uscd PPP for
customer dial-up scccss to tha Intcmot, sitrcc lP packets caonot be hansmitted
over a modem line on
their own, y.,ithout somc data link Fotocol.
b. Thermd and lnduced nofue
Sovenl t)?es of noise, such as thEmsl noise, induced noisc, rosstallq and impulse noise, may
corrupt the signal, Thermal noise is the random motion of elecaons in a r irc which sreates an extra
sigaai not ori-ginally setrt by the tlansll)ittel. lnduced ooise comcs &orD sources such as motoB and
'Iicse devices- act as a sending antenna, and thc transmission medium acts as the
"p"pli*""r.
receiving antenna.
4E t
(ch 1) 121
Explaln slar topology wlth lhelr advantages.
Soludon
a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-lo'point link only to a central contoller'
ln
usually called t hub. The devices are not directly linkcd to ooe another'
Advantages
A star topology is less expensive lhan In a star, each device needs only one link
a mesh topoloSlr.
and one VO port to comect it to 8ny nunbqr ofothers.
This factor also makes it easy ro install artd reconfigurc. Far less cabling needs to be housed' and
additions, moves, 8nd delctions involve only one coorection: between that device and the hub
Robustress: Ifone link fails, only that link is a{Iected. AII other links remain active'

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