Week 4

Chapter 3
Evaluating Properties:
Ideal Gas Model
Generalized Compressibility Chart
►The p-v -T relation for 10 common gases is
shown in the generalized compressibility chart.

pv
Z
RT

3-2
 Generalized Compressibility Chart
► In this chart, the compressibility factor, Z, is plotted versus
the reduced pressure, pR, and reduced temperature, TR,
where
pv
Z pR = p/pc TR = T/Tc
RT
R is the universal gas constant
8.314 kJ/kmol∙K
R 1.986 Btu/lbmol∙oR
1545 ft∙lbf/lbmol∙oR

The symbols pc and Tc denote

the temperature and pressure
at the critical point for the
particular gas under
consideration. These values
are obtained from Tables A-1
and A-1E. 3-3
 Z – A Measure of the Deviation from
the Ideal-Gas Behavior
Compressibility factor, Z: The farther away Z is from
A factor that accounts for the unity, the more the gas
deviation of real gases from deviates from ideal-gas
ideal-gas behavior at a given behavior.
temperature and pressure. Gases behave as an ideal
gas at low densities (i.e., low
pressure, high temperature).

At very low pressures, all gases

The compressibility factor approach ideal-gas behavior
is unity for ideal gases. (regardless of their temperature).
 Generalized Compressibility Chart
►When p, pc, T, Tc, v , andR are used in consistent
units, Z, pR, and TR are numerical values without
units.
► Example: For air at 200 K, 132 bar, TR = 200 K/133 K = 1.5, pR =
132 bar/37.7 bar = 3.5 where Tc and pc for air are from Table A-1.
With these TR, pR values, the generalized compressibility chart
gives Z = 0.8.
► With v =V/n=V/(m/M)=Mv,
an alternative form of the
compressibility factor is
pv pv
Z= =
RT RT
Where the gas constant R is
R
R= M= molecular weight 3-5
M
 Generalized Compressibility Chart
• Better generalized compressibility charts are shown
in Charts A-1, A-2 and A-3 (includes averaged data
from 30 gases, instead on 10 gases used in Fig 3.12).
• If p and v or T and v are given we can still use the
chart: (1) perform iterations or (2) use the vR', the
pseudoreduced specific volume:
 Studying the Generalized
Compressibility Chart
► The solid lines labeled with TR values represent best fits to
experimental data. For the 10 different gases represented
there is little scatter in data about these lines.

► At the lowest reduced

temperature value
shown, TR = 1.0, the
compressibility factor
varies between 0.2
and 1.0. Less
variation is observed
as TR takes higher
values.
 Studying the Generalized
Compressibility Chart
For each specified value of TR, the compressibility factor
approaches a value of 1.0 as pR approaches zero.
 Studying the Generalized
Compressibility Chart
►Low values of pR, where Z ≈ 1, do not necessarily
correspond to a range of low absolute pressures.
►For instance, if pR = 0.05, then p = 0.05pc. With pc
values from Table A-1
Water vapor pc = 220.9 bar → p = 11 bar
Ammonia pc = 112.8 bar → p = 5.6 bar
Carbon dioxide pc = 73.9 bar → p = 3.7 bar
Air pc = 37.7 bar → p = 1.9 bar
►These pressure values range from 1.9 to 11 bar,
which in engineering practice are not normally
considered as low pressures.
 Equations of State
Several equations have been proposed to represent
the P-v-T behavior of substances accurately over a
larger region with no limitations. They are called
equations of state
Van der Waals Equation of State

This model includes two effects not considered in the ideal-

gas model: the intermolecular attraction forces and the
volume occupied by the molecules themselves. The accuracy
of the van der Waals equation of state is often inadequate.
 Equations of State / Examples
Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State
It is known to be
reasonably accurate
for densities up to
about 0.8cr.
Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State

For densities up to about 2.5 cr.

Virial Equation of State

The coefficients a(T), b(T), c(T), etc, are functions of

temperature alone and are called virial coefficients.
 Ideal Gas Equation of State
►To recap, the generalized
compressibility chart shows
that at states where the
pressure p is small relative
to the critical pressure pc
(where pR is small), the
compressibility factor Z
is approximately 1.
►At such states, it can be assumed with reasonable
accuracy that Z = 1. Then
pv = RT (Eq. 3a)
Named the Ideal Gas Equation of State
3-12
 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model
►Three alternative forms of Eq. 3a can be
derived as follows:
►With v = V/m, Eq. 3a gives
pV = mRT (Eq. 3b)

►With v = v/M and R = R/M, Eq. 3a gives

pv  R T (Eq. 3c)

►Finally, with v = V/N, Eq. 3c gives

pV = NRT (Eq. 3d)
M= molecular weight (molar mass)
N= mole number; N = m/M 3-13
 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model
►Investigation of gas behavior at states where
Eqs. 3a-3d are applicable indicates that the
specific internal energy depends primarily on
temperature. Accordingly, at such states, it can
be assumed with reasonable accuracy that it
depends on temperature alone:
u = u(T) (Eq. 3e)
►With Eqs. 3a and 3e, the specific enthalpy also
depends on temperature alone at such states:
h = u + pv = u(T) + RT (Eq. 3f)
Collecting results, a gas modeled as an ideal gas
adheres to Eqs. 3.3a-3.3d and Eqs. 3e and 3f. 3-14
 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model
►While the ideal gas model does not provide an
acceptable approximation generally (u and h varies
with two parameters not just T), in the limiting case
considered in the discussion of the compressibility
chart, it is justified for use, and indeed commonly
applied in engineering thermodynamics at such
states.
►Appropriateness of the ideal gas model can be
checked (to determine how close we are to Z=1) by
locating states under consideration on one of the
generalized compressibility charts provided by
appendix figures Figs. A-1 through A-3 (or using data
from the tables).
3-15
 Internal Energy of Ideal Gases
►Ideal Gas – from the microscopic point of view:
intermolecular attraction forces and the volume
occupied by the molecules themselves is negligible
►For a gas obeying the ideal gas model, specific
internal energy depends only on temperature.
Hence, the specific heat cv, is also a function of
temperature alone. That is,
du
c v (T )  (ideal gas)
dT
►On integration,
T2


u T2   u T1   c v (T ) dT (ideal gas)
T1
3-16
 Enthalpy of Ideal Gases
►Similarly, for a gas obeying the ideal gas model,
specific enthalpy depends only on temperature.
Hence, the specific heat cp, is also a function of
temperature alone. That is,

dh
c p (T )  (ideal gas)
dT
►On integration,


T2

hT2   hT1   c p (T ) dT (ideal gas)

T1

3-17
 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

 Specific heat ratio 

cp of an ideal gas can be
determined from a knowledge of cv and R
The specific ratio, k, varies
with temperature, but this
variation is very mild.
For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is
essentially constant at 1.667.
Many diatomic gases, including
air, have a specific heat ratio of
about 1.4 at room temperature.
 Internal Energy and Enthalpy of
Ideal Gases
►In applications where the specific heats are modeled as
constant,
u(T2) – u(T1) = cv[T2 – T1]
h(T2) – h(T1) = cp[T2 – T1]

►cp and cv are mean values. Arithmetic averages could be

used { c=[c(T2)-c(T1)]/2 } or use values of cp and cv (Table
A-20) at the average temperature (T2 –T1)/2
►For several common gases, evaluation of changes in
specific internal energy and enthalpy is facilitated by use
of the ideal gas tables: Tables A-22 and A-23.
►Table A-22 applies to air modeled as an ideal gas.

3-19
 Example: Enthalpy of Ideal Gases
► Example: Using Table A-22, determine the change in specific
enthalpy, in kJ/kg, for a process of air from an initial state where
T1 = 300 K, p1 = 1 bar to a final state where T2 = 1500 K, p2 = 10 bar.
► Solution: h1 = 300.19 kJ/kg;
h2 – h1 = 1335.78 kJ/kg
h2 = 1635.97 kJ/kg
Over such a wide temperature interval (1200K), use
of h2 – h1 = cp[T2 – T1] , might not be appropriate:
h2 – h1 = 1.121· 1200 = 1345.2 kJ/kg
with cp (at 900K) = 1.121 kJ/Kg·K)  from table A-20
Ideal Gas Properties of Air TABLE A-22
T(K), h and u(kJ/kg), so (kJ/kg∙K)
when s = 0 when s = 0
T h u so pr vr T h u so pr vr
250 250.05 178.28 1.51917 0.7329 979. 1400 1515.42 1113.52 3.36200 450.5 8.919
260 260.09 185.45 1.55848 0.8405 887.8 1420 1539.44 1131.77 3.37901 478.0 8.526
270 270.11 192.60 1.59634 0.9590 808.0 1440 1563.51 1150.13 3.39586 506.9 8.153
280 280.13 199.75 1.63279 1.0889 738.0 1460 1587.63 1168.49 3.41247 537.1 7.801
285 285.14 203.33 1.65055 1.1584 706.1 1480 1611.79 1186.95 3.42892 568.8 7.468
290 290.16 206.91 1.66802 1.2311 676.1 1500 1635.97 1205.41 3.44516 601.9 7.152
295 295.17 210.49 1.68515 1.3068 647.9 1520 1660.23 1223.87 3.46120 636.5 6.854
300 300.19 214.07 1.70203 1.3860 621.2 1540 1684.51 1242.43 3.47712 672.8 6.569
305 305.22 217.67 1.71865 1.4686 596.0 1560 1708.82 1260.99 3.49276 710.5 6.301
310 310.24 221.25 1.73498 1.5546 572.3 1580 1733.17 1279.65 3.50829 750.0 6.046
 Property Data Use in the
Closed System Energy Balance
Example: A closed, rigid tank consists of 1 kg of air
at 300 K. The air is heated until its temperature
becomes 1500 K. Neglecting changes in kinetic
energy and potential energy and modeling air as an
ideal gas, determine the heat transfer, in kJ, during
the process of the air.
p2
T
2● p1
T2 = 1500 K
State 1 State 2
1 kg of air
T1 = 300 K T2 = 1500 K T1 = 300 K ●
1

Q v

3-21
 Property Data Use in the
Closed System Energy Balance
Solution: An energy balance for the closed system is
0 0 0
KE + PE +U = Q – W
where the kinetic and potential energy changes are neglected
and W = 0 because there is no work mode.
Thus Q = m(u2 – u1) Substituting values for specific
internal energy from Table A-22
TABLE A-22 Q = (1 kg)(1205.41 – 214.07) kJ/kg = 991.34 kJ
Ideal Gas Properties of Air
T(K), h and u(kJ/kg), so (kJ/kg∙K)
when s = 0 when s = 0
T h u so pr vr T h u so pr vr
250 250.05 178.28 1.51917 0.7329 979. 1400 1515.42 1113.52 3.36200 450.5 8.919
260 260.09 185.45 1.55848 0.8405 887.8 1420 1539.44 1131.77 3.37901 478.0 8.526
270 270.11 192.60 1.59634 0.9590 808.0 1440 1563.51 1150.13 3.39586 506.9 8.153
280 280.13 199.75 1.63279 1.0889 738.0 1460 1587.63 1168.49 3.41247 537.1 7.801
285 285.14 203.33 1.65055 1.1584 706.1 1480 1611.79 1186.95 3.42892 568.8 7.468
290 290.16 206.91 1.66802 1.2311 676.1 1500 1635.97 1205.41 3.44516 601.9 7.152
295 295.17 210.49 1.68515 1.3068 647.9 1520 1660.23 1223.87 3.46120 636.5 6.854
300 300.19 214.07 1.70203 1.3860 621.2 1540 1684.51 1242.43 3.47712 672.8 6.569
305 305.22 217.67 1.71865 1.4686 596.0 1560 1708.82 1260.99 3.49276 710.5 6.301
310 310.24 221.25 1.73498 1.5546 572.3 1580 1733.17 1279.65 3.50829 750.0 6.046
 Recap: 3 ways to calculate u &h
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the relatively easy and is the
most accurate way when tables are
readily available (Table A-22, A-23).
2. By using the cv or cp functions (*)
(constants a, b, g, d, e listed in Table A-
21, as a function of temperature) and
performing the integrations. This is very
inconvenient for hand calculations but *
quite desirable for computerized
calculations. The results obtained are
very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats (Table
A-20). This is very simple and certainly
very convenient when property tables
are not available. The results obtained *
are reasonably accurate if the
temperature interval is not very large.
3-23
 Polytropic Process
►A polytropic process is a quasi-equilibrium
process (approximates change as a series of
equilibrium processes) described by
pV n = constant
►The exponent, n, may take on any value from
–∞ to +∞ depending on the particular process.
►For any gas (or liquid), when n = 0, the process is a
constant-pressure (isobaric) process.
►For any gas (or liquid), when n = ±∞, the process is a
constant-volume (isometric or isochoric) process.
►For a gas modeled as an ideal gas, when n = 1, the
process is a constant-temperature (isothermal) process.
►For n = k we have an adiabatic process (no heat
transfer) 3-24
 Polytropic Process Relations
Any Gas
►Work is force (p·A) acting through a distance:

►Work done by piston-cylinder system as the

piston is displaced a distance dx is
►dV = A dx 


►For a polytropic process, p·Vn = constant :

3-25
 Polytropic Process Relations
Any Gas
►For n=1, p·V=constant

►For n≠1, (Eq. 3.55)

Since constant = p2V2n = p1V1n

(Eq. 3.54)
 Polytropic Process Relations
Ideal Gas
►Ideal Gas Equation of State pV = mRT
►For a polytropic process 
 
(Eq. 3.53) (Eq. 3.55)
►For n≠1 and p1·V1=mRT1 & p2·V2=mRT2, & Eq. 3.54:

(Eq. 3.57)

►For n=1 (constant =p·V=mRT) and Eq. 3.55

(Eq. 3.58)
3-27
 Problem
Assignment

3-28