| ehees 1 m # Index Examples # Exercise 9 llustrative ubgroups | Element Exercise wwernresss 24 ustrative Exercise Choice essen 63. camples phism \ Ideals Ideals CHAPTER | Lagrange’s Theorem and its Consequences 1.1: Introduction We know that not every subset of a group is a subgroup. But, if a subset H of finite group G is a subgroup, we like to know whether there is some relation between orders of H and G. In this unit, we prove that the order of a subgroup of a given finite group divides the order of the group. This is called Lagrange's Theorem, which is named after the Italian born mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange. It turns out that Lagrange did not actually prove the theorem that is named after him. The theorem was actually proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. This theorem plays a key role in the study of finite groups. 1.2 : Lagrange’s Theorem Theorem 1: If His a subgroup of a finite group G then o(H) divides o(G). Proof ; Let G be a finite group of order n. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. (i) Suppose H is an improper subgroup of a group G. If H= {e}, then o(H) = 1 and 1 | n. IfH=G then o(H) =n and n|n. wer if H is an improper subgroup of a group G then o(H) divides (ii) Suppose H is a proper subgroup of G . Let o(H) = m. wa Since G is finite there are finitely many distinct right cosets of H Let Ha, > Hay» Hy, +++. Hg, be all the right cosets of H in G, = Shivaji Uni. B.Sc. Il (Sem IV) Math. Paper Vill... 1Definition : Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G The number of distinct right (left) cosets of H in G is called the index of the subgroup H relative to G, and is denoted by ig (H) of [G: HI] Thus 4(H) ee ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES Example 1 : Let < Z, + > be the group of integers. Let _H= (3n/m€Z} bea subgroup of Z. Find index of H relative to Z. Solution : Since the binary composition is addition, so the right coset ‘of H containing mis given by H+m, Taking m= 0 we see that H = (..,~ 9,6, —3, 0,3, 6, 9, ..-} is itself one of its right cosets. To find another right coset, we select an element of Z not in H, say 1, |, and find right coset containing it, H+1={..,-8,-5,-2, 1,4, 7, 10, ....} To find another right coset, we select an element of Z not in H, say 2, and find right coset containing it, H+2=(..,-7,- 4,-1.2, 5,8, 12, ..). Again 3€Z and H+ 3 = {....~ 6,- 3, 0,3, 6,9, 12,....}. We observe that H +3 = H. Also we observe that 3€H. Again $€Z and H*4= (45 -5,- 2,1, 4,7, 10, 13, wade We observe that H+4=H+1. Also we observe that 4€H. Similarly we can write the right coset H + 5 which coincides with H+ 2, H + 6 coincides with H +3 =H, H+ (- 1) coincides with H + 2, H+(-2) coincides with H + 1 and so on. Thus we get only three distinet tight cosets i¢., H, H + 1, H+ 2 of H relative to Z and thus has index 3,£ BSc Past Semesier # MATHEMATICS 5. xample (0 iste adtive group ofntegers and thei Paeetene of G obtained on multiplying the elements of G by 5 , then find j inde oi Corollary 3 : in Z. a" =e, where e is t Solution : Since G = HUG NUCH 2UCH+3)U (H+ 4 proots Let G The index of H in G is 5. Suppose (Cy 1.4: Consequences of Lagrange’s Theorem By corollary 2 ~~ Now let us prove some consequences of Lagrange’s theorem, => mln Corollary | ; The index of any subgroup of a finite BTOUP is a divise, > =a of the order of the group. = Gs Proof: Let G is a finite group of order n. Definition : E Let H be a subgroup of G of order m. For any integy Then by La es oe as the num The number of distinct right (left) cosets of H in G is Reverie: ct. ee xa) e@=2,4 eee cen) At | as a ig(H).0(F). o(n)=n 3. If m, m are (mn) = 4 Definition ; 7 ‘ae (@ b)=1. Definition : | modulo n if n | (a- It is denoted t Theorem 2 ; 5> 0 then there ¢ where 0 < r 1, 6 (n) is defined as the number of positive integers less than n and relatively prime tom, Remarks : 1. 6(6) = 2, (10) = 4 ete, 2. Hf Py, Py, + Py are distinct prime factors of m (>1), then al ay ) $ (mn) = (m) 6 (n), (m, n> 1) Definition : Two integers a and b are said to be relatively prime if ged. (a, 6) =I. Definition : Let a, bEZ and nEN. a is said to be congruent to b “modulo n ifm | (a ~ B). It is denoted by a = 6 (mod n). Theorem 2 : (Division Algorithm) (Statement only) : If a, b€Z and +> O then there exists unique integers g and r such that a = bq oh, where 0 < r ofG) (e) ofa) | o(G) (d) none of these