Truck Specification for Best

Operational Efficiency
Guide
Disclaimer: While the Department for Transport (DfT) has made every effort to ensure
the information in this document is accurate, DfT does not guarantee the accuracy,
completeness or usefulness of that information; and it cannot accept liability for any
loss or damages of any kind resulting from reliance on the information or guidance this
document contains..

2
Foreword
Freight Best Practice is funded by the Department for Transport and
managed by Faber Maunsell Ltd to promote operational efficiency within
freight operations in England.

Freight Best Practice offers FREE essential information for the freight
industry, covering topics such as saving fuel, developing skills, equipment
and systems, operational efficiency and performance management.

All FREE materials are available to download from

www.businesslink.gov.uk/freightbestpractice or can be ordered
through the Hotline on 0300 123 1250. The aim of this guide is to:

rovide a step-by-step guide to help you assess your vehicle needs

P
accurately

Identify the main body and trailer options

Identify the main truck component options

Help you make the right choices for your business

It also includes a checklist of questions you need to ask yourself at each

stage of the process.

“This is an excellent and very detailed guide and should prove a useful
aide-mémoire for anyone buying trucks. It should prove particularly
valuable in the all-important discussions with truck dealers and as a way
of informing people who may have less frequent involvement in the
process.”

Robin Dickeson, Manager, Commercial Vehicle Affairs, The Society of

Motor Manufacturers and Traders Limited

3
Contents
Foreword 3

Introduction 6
The Importance of Good Vehicle Specification 6
Who Should Use this Guide? 6
How this Guide Will Help? 6
How this Guide is Organised 7

Identify Freight Movement Requirements 8

Identify Business Criteria 9
Identify Freight Movement Options 9
Compare and Evaluate Options 9
Operator Licensing 10

Types of Trucks Available 11

Identify Basic Truck Types 11
Identify Main Benefits and Features of Truck Types 12
Identify Body and Trailer Types 13

Ensuring the Truck is Fit for Purpose 17

Categorise Type of Delivery to be Undertaken 17
Tailor Vehicle Specification to Match Delivery Type 18
Evaluate Impact of Other Factors on Your Specification 18

Detailed Specification: Core Components 21

Chassis 21
Suspension 23
Axles 24
Tyres and Wheels 25
Engine 28
Transmission 29
Fuel Tank 30
Cab 31
Body and Trailer 32

4
Detailed Specification: Additional Features 35
Aerodynamics 35
Active Safety Systems 37
Ancillary Equipment 37
Fuel 39

Maximising Efficiency 41
Monitoring Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) 41
Monitoring Load Capacity 41

Appendix 1 - Typical Whole Life Costs for Standard

Commercial Vehicles 42
Appendix 2 - Exhaust Emission Limits Specified by
European Legislation 43

Appendix 3 - Maximum Vehicle Weights – Standard

Terminology 44

Appendix 4 - Legal Constraints and Requirements 45

5
Introduction
The Importance of Good Vehicle Specification
The capital cost of a vehicle may account for less than 50% of its whole-life cost when fuel, maintenance
and other operating expenses are taken into account. Fuel can represent up to 30% of your operational
costs. Clearly this is a significant amount and any reduction in fuel costs or improvements in operational
efficiency can improve the ‘bottom line’ of your business.

Spending time in developing an accurate and appropriate vehicle specification will help you do this.
Ensuring vehicles are closely matched to the tasks they are expected to perform will improve both fuel
and overall operational efficiency. This can lead to cost savings, increased profitability and reduced
environmental impact.

On the other hand, inaccurate and inappropriate vehicle specification can result in purchasing a vehicle
that is unsuitable for the task it will be required to carry out. Although such vehicles may be slightly
cheaper in terms of initial investment, it may become significantly more expensive to operate when fuel
consumption and maintenance costs are taken into account in the long term. Poor vehicle specification,
in some cases, may even lead to breaches of the law and possible legal action.

Who Should Use this Guide?

Everyone who is responsible for acquiring goods vehicles weighing over 3.5 tonnes gross vehicle weight
(GVW). This could be fleet managers, owner drivers and operational managers. It will equip you with the
information you need to ensure the most beneficial long term outcome when acquiring commercial
vehicles.

How this Guide Will Help?

This publication provides independent and authoritative guidance on vehicle specification. It will show
you just how easy it is to produce a fit-for-purpose specification and will take you through the key stages
of vehicle specification. Sections 2–4 cover the basics of vehicle specification, while Sections 6–7 contain
more detailed information.

6
How this Guide is
Organised
This guide provides a step-by-step review of
the key stages involved in the decision making
process in specifying a vehicle. Each section
includes a checklist of questions.

Section 2 helps you assess your freight

movement requirements and options

S ection 3 provides an overview of the

different types of truck available and their
basic suitability for particular tasks

S ection 4 focuses more closely on the need

to ensure that the truck you acquire is
suitable for the specific environments it will
operate in

S ection 5 looks at the main components

of a truck, such as chassis, suspension and
axles, and describes the different options
and their uses

S ection 6 looks at additional features, such

as aerodynamic design, safety systems and
choice of fuel, and discusses the options
available

S ection 7 highlights the importance of

monitoring a truck’s performance after it
has entered service to ensure that efficiency
gains are maximised

The guide also contains four appendices:

ppendix 1 contains a table of typical

A
whole life costs for standard commercial
vehicles

ppendix 2 summarises European

A
legislation on vehicle exhaust emission
limits

ppendix 3 explains standard terminology

A
relating to maximum vehicle weights

ppendix 4 summarises current existing

A
regulations on truck weights and
dimensions, and their impact on vehicle
specification

7
Identify Freight Movement
Requirements
Vehicle specification is about selecting the right equipment to undertake the work, efficiently
and safely.

Purchasing a new vehicle represents a significant financial commitment in terms of both capital and
operating costs. The following is a set of basic questions which can help you understand your freight
movement requirement:

What are the characteristics of the load in terms of weight and volume?

W
here does the load need to be delivered and how far away is the destination?

How frequently are the deliveries required?

Are there delivery or demand fluctuations?

ow is the product packaged and how easy is it to handle e.g. is additional equipment required for
H
loading and unloading?

oes the product have any special transport needs e.g. does it need to be temperature controlled,
D
does it consist of hazardous goods, is animal transportation involved?

W
hat are the driver and crew needs?

Does anything else have to be carried e.g. tools, special equipment?

Is there any need for ancillary machinery e.g. blower, pump?

re there any other operating constraints e.g. environmental commitments to your Operator’s
A
Licence, or customer or consignee requirements for example, low noise, small vehicle?

The answers to these questions will help you understand your business and transport needs better and
will help you specify the vehicle appropriate to your needs.

8
Identify Business Criteria Cost-competitiveness

It is important to understand the criteria your In most cases, cost will be an important, if not the
choice of freight option must meet. Although overriding, factor that influences your decision. It
they will be specific to individual cases, such is therefore essential to take the whole-life costs
criteria could include: of a purchased vehicle into account. Whole-life
costs are a combination of:
Cost-competitiveness
The initial cost of buying the vehicle
onsistency with key performance targets
C
e.g. next-day delivery anywhere in the UK ll predicted operating costs, both running
A
and standing costs
bility to ensure installation or assembly
A
of products at the destination: in some T he projected return on disposal
instances, this will require specialist skills
Note: The initial cost minus the projected
Reduced environmental impact return on disposal is frequently referred to as
depreciation.
This list is not exhaustive and you should spend
some time identifying the criteria that are An estimate of whole-life costs can be made
important to your business. using headline costs and published costs
from manufacturers, trade journals and trade
associations. These can then be combined with
Identify Freight Movement operational costs for your organisation. When
replacing an existing vehicle, it is wise to look
Options at the current costs involved in servicing the
demand. Appendix 1 provides details of typical
You also need to identify the full range of options whole life costs for standard commercial vehicles.
available for moving your freight. These will
include: With second-hand or previously used vehicles,
the purchase price may be appealing but
rocuring a dedicated vehicle, either new,
P the operating costs may be less attractive. In
second-hand or leased whole-life terms a used vehicle may be more
expensive and less reliable than a new one. The
Use of a contract haulier pace of technological improvement in the truck
market has resulted in modern vehicles that
Use of network services for pallets
offer greater economy, increased power, lower
Parcel post fuel consumption, fewer harmful emissions
and extended service periods that cut vehicle
You should cost all the freight movement options downtime. If you opt for a second-hand vehicle
against a standard unit e.g. per pallet. Depending rather than a new one, it is important to select a
on the product, this could be single product or vehicle that meets your business needs as exactly
per specified product mix. as possible and has sufficient economic life left to
fulfil the operational demands that will be placed
on it.
Compare and Evaluate
Rather than allocate a considerable amount of
Options resources to purchasing a vehicle many operators
opt for leasing or contract hire. These options can
Next you need to identify the option best suited allow for a vehicle to be on dedicated
to undertaking your transport task. This will long-term hire to the user. The advantages are
involve evaluating the options identified in that the vehicle can be regularly updated when
Section 2.1 and 2.2. replacement is due with no additional cost to
the user.

9
From a financial perspective it reduces the risks,
as the item is not shown on the balance sheet.
This is particularly important to sectors where
demand fluctuates.

The major disadvantage of hiring a vehicle,

particularly for third party operators, is that it
cannot be sold for cash if necessary.

Once your evaluation of each option is complete,

you will be in a position to make a well informed
decision regarding the right solution to your
needs.

Checklist:
Have you:

Assessed the relevant freight movement

requirement?

Identified all the criteria that your freight

movement option must satisfy?

Identified the different freight movement

options that are available?

Compared options and decided which

one best suits your needs?

Operator Licensing
Users of most commercial goods vehicles
weighing over 3.5 tonnes must have a goods
vehicle operator’s licence. This applies even if you
use a hired vehicle or use the vehicle for one day
only. The licence authorises an operator to use
a maximum total number of motor vehicles and
trailers and a specific operating centre or centres
where the vehicles are kept when not in use.

For further information and advice contact VOSA

on 0300 123 9000 or visit the website at:
www.vosa.gov.uk.

10
Types of Trucks Available
If you have decided that buying a truck is the best option to meet your requirements, you will then need
to produce a detailed vehicle specification. This will ensure that the vehicle you buy closely matches the
tasks it will undertake.

The first step towards producing a specification is to develop a clear understanding of the types of vehicle
available and their main characteristics. This includes identifying the:

Basic truck types

Main benefits and features of truck types

Body and trailer types

Identify Basic Truck Types

There are three main categories of truck:

Rigid vehicles (Figure 1) comprise a continuous chassis and two or more axles, and include a motorised
element and a body.

Figure 1 Rigid Vehicle

Articulated vehicles (Figure 2) have two parts: a

motorised drawing unit known as a ‘tractor unit’
and a mounted trailer. The trailer is attached to
the drawing unit through a specialised coupling
usually known as a fifth wheel coupling.

Figure 2 Articulated Truck

Drawbar combinations consist of a rigid vehicle

coupled to a totally self-standing trailer via an
‘A-frame’ drawbar. There are two main types of
drawbar trailer: the traditional turntable trailer
(Figure 3) and the central-axle bogie trailer
(Figure 4). The trailer is towed directly by a
rigid vehicle.

Figure 3 Traditional Turntable Trailer

11
 F our-axle vehicles normally have two axles
at the rear and twin steer axles at the front

Articulated Vehicles
Articulated vehicles feature a chassis truck
known as a tractor unit, which can be
attached to a trailer through a specialised
coupling mechanism, called a fifth wheel.
This has a groove and lock and is bolted to
Figure 4 Central-axle Bogie Trailer the chassis. The trailer has a pin fitted near
to the front, known as a kingpin. The pin sits
in the fifth wheel lock to couple the trailer
Identify Main Benefits and can be released by use of a lever. Power
and Features of Truck and braking to the trailer are provided via
wire connections known as ‘suzies’. The
Types tractor unit can have a number of axles
depending on the load weight
These three categories of vehicle have different
The trailers used in articulated vehicles have
characteristics and are suited to different types
their axles towards the rear and rely on the
of operations. The regulations that apply to
tractor unit to support the front through
them generally differ in terms of type of driving
the fifth wheel. ‘Landing legs’ are fitted to
licence required and the maximum weight they
the trailers to support the front when not
can legally operate. Appendix 4 has details about
attached to the tractor unit. These are not
legal constraints and requirements.
always designed to be load bearing

Rigid Vehicles Drawbar Combinations

These are the most common type of
truck. Of the 426,000 vehicles above
3.5 tonnes in 2003, 309,000 were rigids,
(source Department for Transport,
Transport Statistics 2003). They are best
suited to urban operations where size and
manoeuvrability are critical

igid vehicles vary from two axles to four.

R
This depends on the load to be carried and
the environment in which operations occur.
Lighter loads, such as consumer goods,
tend to be carried on two-axle vehicles.
Heavier loads, such as aggregates, tend to
The traditional turntable drawbar trailer
be carried on four-axle vehicles in order to
has an axle near each end of the trailer. The
distribute the load more evenly over the
front axle is mounted on a sub-frame that
road
steers through a turntable from the
A three-axle rigid usually has one axle at A-frame drawbar
the front and two at the rear. Some vehicles,
In a centre-axle trailer, which frequently
particularly those operated by breweries,
has two axles coupled closely, the axle is
have two axles at the front and one at the
situated in the central area of the trailer
rear, these are generally referred to as a
and is a non-steer axle. The A-frame pulls
‘Chinese Six.’ The two front axles will be twin
the trailer in the correct direction. This is
steer i.e. when the vehicle turns both axles
often close-coupled with very limited space
move to improve manoeuvrability
between the rigid vehicle and the trailer
and reduce tyre wear

12
 L ike articulated vehicles, drawbar Low Loaders
combinations are best suited to
long-distance driving on major trunk
routes, rather than urban centres

rawbar combinations are currently

D
increasing in popularity due to the
flexibility of being able to change trailers
and detach if access is an issue. The largest
weight combinations are sometimes known
as roadtrains.

Identify Body and Trailer

Types Low loaders are usually built on a semi-trailer
designed to carry earth moving equipment and
Trucks are usually sub-categorised by body or machinery. They are constructed so that the
trailer type. The following are the most common: major part of the load platform does not extend
over, or between, the wheels and the upper
surface is below the top of the tyres. The most
Flat Beds
common type is the swan-neck trailer. The shape
of the swan-neck facilitates the coupling
between the tractor and the low bed of the trailer
via a right angle joint, as seen from the side of the
trailer. The swan-neck is detachable and so allows
plant access onto the trailer from the front. Rear
access is restricted by the wheel arches.

Curtainsiders

A flat bed truck or trailer consists of a chassis

fitted with a platform body. Goods are carried
on the deck and secured by roping and sheeting
which can be inappropriate for certain cargoes
i.e. fragile items or goods which contaminate
easily. Twist locks can be fitted to each corner of
the flat bed to allow the carriage of containers. A
special design allows the trailer to be extended
in the middle section to allow the carriage of
abnormally long loads. These extensions are These consist of a roofed frame with a flexible
known as ‘trombones’. curtain fitted to the sides of the body, and can
include a choice of rear section, either barn door
or a fixed wall. Curtainsiders are ideal for
palletised loads that require protection from the
weather. While permitting efficient loading and
unloading, as well as nearside and offside access,
they provide less load security than rigid-sided
vehicles.

13
Tilts separate engine or by the vehicle’s main engine
and generally include electric standby facilities.
These are trailers where a metal frame is fitted
to a flat bed with a canvas cover known as a ‘tilt’. Step-frame Trailers
They allow for cargo to be transported covered
but with good access for loading and unloading.
They are most common on international work.

Box Vehicles and Trailers

Built on a box trailer, this design optimises the

load space area by lowering the rear chassis with
a swan-neck or with small rear axles, thus
increasing the volume of the trailer. The upper
surface of the major part of the load platform is
Box vehicles comprise a rigid box body, usually less than 1m above the ground. They are either
with solid sides and solid rear-opening doors. used for low weight goods, such as packaging
Their size and manoeuvrability make them ideal and hanging garments or in the removal sector
for urban multi-drop deliveries (see Section 4). A to carry bulky furniture.
rigid box can also be fitted to trailers as part of an
articulated vehicle. Numerous box body design Luton
options are available, including solid rear doors,
side doors or sliding sidewalls for ease of These are basically box vans with an additional
side access. section constructed over the cab used for
ancillary equipment and valuables. They are
Temperature-controlled Bodies designed for large volume low weight goods
and are mainly used for furniture transport
and removals.

Double-deck trailers

These consist of a rigid box made of insulated

material and designed to carry
temperature-sensitive (chilled or frozen)
products. The bodies can be fitted to rigid
vehicles or trailers. Most temperature-controlled Double-deck trailers provide two-tier stacking
vehicles operate a freezer or chiller driven by a of uniform pallets on a single trailer by means

14
of a second deck. The second deck can be fixed These consist of a chassis trailer without a
or moving to give greater flexibility for loading purpose-built body. They are designed to carry
and unloading. This kind of trailer may provide shipping containers that are usually secured to
a cost-effective solution for high-volume, the chassis via twist locks set at each lower
low-weight loads. It is important to consider corner of the container.
the effect that this type of vehicle will have on
infrastructure, for example, their extra height Tippers
may make them unsuitable where the routes
include low bridges, and they may also require
specialised loading and unloading equipment.
See Appendix 4 on legal constraints on the
maximum height of vehicles.

Road Tankers

Tippers comprise of an open-top body that can,

via a hydraulic ram, tip rearwards to unload
when the tailgate is released. Typical loads
include earth and stone. As these can be heavy
loads, multi axle vehicles are frequently used.
Articulated tippers can be used to improve
flexibility and have a higher overall weight. See
These vehicles have a permanent tank fitted to a Appendix 4 for legal constraints.
chassis for the transportation of liquids, gases or
powders. Road tanker loading/unloading Demountable ‘Swap Body’ Systems
methods include gravity feeds, blowers and
vacuuming. Tank bodies are frequently fitted to With this system, the chassis is designed to
trailers and rigid vehicles, often multi-axle to carry multiple containers. Goods can be loaded
maximise weight distribution. Some tank independently of the truck at the central
operations include an internal liner to enable the warehouse, enabling driver time to be fully
transportation of mixed loads without the need utilised driving the vehicle. Often included in
to flush out the tank. drawbar combinations, demountable containers
can be arranged in any configuration within
Skeletal Trailers legal limits. Managed effectively, significant
operational efficiencies can be achieved. For
example, a number of fully laden containers can
be dropped overnight at a sub-depot by a single
vehicle for next day delivery by small urban
vehicles. Absence of intermediate goods
handling saves time and labour, reduces risk of
damage and reduces the need for warehousing
at satellite depots. Landing legs are fitted to swap
bodies which allow the host vehicle to be driven
under the body to couple it to the chassis.

15
Checklist:
Have you:

Identified the basic types of truck

available?

Identified the main benefits and features

of each type?

Developed an understanding of body

and trailer types and their uses?

16
Ensuring the Truck is Fit for Purpose
The next step is to build up a more detailed picture of what your vehicle will be used for and to identify
which of the vehicle body and trailer designs described in Section 3 provide the best match. This will
require a thorough knowledge of the goods to be transported and a clear understanding of delivery
destinations, in terms of geographical location and the delivery infrastructure they are equipped with,
for example, types of materials handling equipment (MHE) and docking heights, etc.

For example, if the goods to be moved weigh eight tonnes, fit on 14 pallets and require a daily journey
of around 300 miles, a vehicle designed for urban high street multi-drop delivery (see 4.2 below) or an
articulated vehicle operating at 44 tonnes will not generally be the most appropriate or cost-efficient
option. A rigid vehicle between 15 and 17 tonnes GVW, on the other hand, is likely to be the best
solution. Remember, a contract haulier consolidating your load with others may be cheaper.

To ensure the vehicle is suitable you will need to:

Categorise the type of delivery to be undertaken

T ailor vehicle specification to match delivery type

Evaluate the impact of other factors on your specification

Categorise Type of Delivery to be Undertaken

Deliveries performed by commercial vehicles can be divided into a number of categories.

The main ones are:

Urban Delivery
Includes destinations in cities, towns and also villages. This is the most common type of delivery, where
locations can be characterised by high volumes of traffic, limited parking and the need to unload the
vehicle at the kerbside, which can be dangerous to both driver and pedestrians. If your customers are
small retailers, most of them will be in this kind of location, for example, on high streets or in
shopping precincts.

17
Urban Multi-drop Delivery behind it for unloading. If the vehicle has side
access, this will probably need to be on both
This is where a vehicle carries out more than one sides as unloading directly onto the street can
delivery in an urban location. They are affected be very dangerous and unloading onto the
by the same pressures as urban delivery, but to a pavement can be hazardous to pedestrians,
greater extent due to more activity. especially if the vehicle door opens outwards
rather than sliding laterally.
Retail Park Delivery
Retail Park Delivery
Some of your customers may be located in
retail parks outside town centres. These sites are An articulated vehicle or drawbar combination
normally purpose built and generally include will be suited to this kind of delivery. In retail
better access and facilities (e.g. loading bays) parks, most of your customers will have
than urban deliveries. dedicated loading and unloading bays and
there will be few size restrictions.
Wholesale or Manufacturing
Delivery Wholesale or Manufacture Delivery
Articulated vehicles would be better suited to
Wholesalers’ or manufacturers’ premises may be
bulk loads such as deliveries to wholesalers or
located in cities, towns and out-of-town business
manufacturers. These locations normally include
parks, which creates the needs for a flexible
good access to both pick-up and delivery points.
vehicle in order to service all three types of site.
If the deliveries are to purpose-built locations,
They tend to be big deliveries by the very nature
the delivery area will usually be equipped with
that wholesalers and manufacturers tend to
good facilities e.g. loading bays designed with
buy in bulk. Facilities can vary from a purpose
rear access to loads in mind. Where delivery
built 24-hour distribution centre equipped
points have mixed facilities, a combination of rear
with adjustable height loading bays to a small
and side access is recommended. If the products
industrial unit in a city centre location which
being delivered are suitable, curtainsiders
only unloads by hand.
can provide good flexibility. However, where
products require temperature controls, rear
access may be the only practical choice.
Tailor Vehicle Specification
Rural or Off-road Delivery
to Match Delivery Type
These may be locations which are fairly isolated
Once you have identified the type of delivery with poor access. It may mean a vehicle will have
your vehicle will carry out, you should frame your to cope with rugged conditions and at the same
vehicle specification to take this into account. time be small enough to handle country lanes.
Multiple-drive axles should be considered if
Urban Delivery and Urban available.
Multi-drop Delivery
Evaluate Impact of
Rigid vehicles with good manoeuvrability would
be suitable for this kind of delivery. They can cope Other Factors on Your
better with the traffic and restrictions on parking
for unloading deliveries on the high street. When
Specification
parking, vehicle length will also be a major issue.
A range of additional factors could have an
Moreover, if the vehicle is too big, it may not be
important bearing on the overall design of the
able to access locations down narrow streets or
vehicle you purchase.
where weight restrictions apply.
If the vehicle has rear access only, there may
be occasions where there is not enough space Changes in Product or Packaging

18
The potential for changes to the product or its load i.e. pence per mile per tonne of payload
product packaging during the vehicle’s life moved, providing it is full. However, lower
should be taken into account at the specification kerbside weight (i.e. the weight of the vehicle in
stage and may influence the choice of vehicle. It road-going condition, inclusive of water, fuel, oil,
is difficult to predict this, however, close contact spare wheel, spares and tools, without the load)
with your market and customer may help you will also generally mean improved fuel economy,
do this. resulting in lower payload costs.

Driver Vision However, as Sections 3 and 4 have shown, a

wide range of factors will affect the design and
Most commercial vehicles have blind spots ultimately the overall operational efficiency of
and pedestrians do not always act as expected. the vehicle you purchase. It is therefore necessary
Drivers need to be fully aware of what is to base your vehicle specification on a balanced
happening around them at all times. Extra mirrors judgement that takes all relevant factors into
and rear viewing cameras may be essential, in account.
addition to reversing bleepers, for areas of high
risk to pedestrians.
Checklist:
Security
Have you:
Vehicle security is a particular issue when the
Categorised the type of delivery that
driver is delivering unloaded goods and the
the vehicle will undertake?
vehicle is out of the driver’s sight for a period of
time. The value of the load will be a key factor. Shaped your vehicle specification to
Precious metals will normally only be moved in match the type of delivery?
specially designed security vehicles, whereas
scrap metal is frequently transported in open-top Evaluated how other factors will affect
vehicles as potential theft is less of an issue. your vehicle specification?

Special Travelling Requirements

Table 1 over leaf provides a very simple overview
For some products, temperature sensitivity may of the suitability of some truck types for
mean the load space needs to be particular applications.
temperature-controlled. Half-carcasses being
delivered to butchers will normally travel on
hanging rails in the vehicle body, dictating rear
access only. Chicken, by contrast, is normally
boxed so either rear or side access is suitable.
Note: the greater the number of access points,
the greater the likelihood of temperature gain.
A larger refrigeration unit may be needed
to compensate.

Tail Lifts
If the destination has no loading bay, it may
be important for your vehicle to be equipped
with a tail lift to help loading and unloading of
palletised goods, for instance. Manual handling
equipment or a forklift truck may also need to
be carried with the vehicle. The need for a tail lift
could mean that a vehicle has to have rear access.
As a general principle, the larger a truck in terms
of GVW, the lower the unit cost of transporting

19
Table 1 Overview of Truck Suitability for Particular Applications

7.5ft Multi Artic &

7.5ft flat 7.5ft box Artic Drawbar Demountable
curtain axle rigid double
bed truck vehicle vehicle combination system
sider vehicle deck trailer

Urban
√
(General haulage)

Urban Multi-drop
√
(Pannelised load)

Urban
√
(security need)

Urban
√
(high-density load)

Long-distance
√
trunking

Long-distance
trunking √
(low density cargo)
Long-distance
trunking √
(high density cargo)

Inter-city √

√ = Suitable Vehicle

20
Detailed Specification:
Core Components
If you have followed the steps outlined in the previous chapters, you should now have developed a good
idea of the type of truck that will meet your specific requirements.

Unlike cars and vans, which are usually sold as complete packages, commercial vehicles tend to be
customised. Two vehicles may have a similar chassis, but their overall design and load capacity may be
completely different, with one designed for long-distance motorway work and the other for low-mileage,
off-road duties.

Manufacturers’ franchise dealers are equipped with software packages to help their customers produce
detailed vehicle specifications. Nevertheless, you will need to make sure the sales person understands
your precise requirements, for the range of vehicle components. This means you must have developed a
clear idea of the components you need.

The evaluation of your requirements should cover nine key areas:

Chassis

Suspension

Axles

Tyres/wheels

Engine

Transmission

Fuel tank

Cab

Body and trailer

Chassis
Key Points:
How many axles will the vehicle need? What ancillary equipment will your
truck require?
How long will the body of the vehicle
need to be? Will the chassis provide sufficient
torsional stiffness?

21
Background additional torsional stiffness i.e. strength to stop
the chassis bending under duress or load beyond
The purpose of the chassis is to locate the axles, that provided by the chassis. This can be achieved
power unit, running gear and cab to form the by adding further beams to the existing chassis
structural skeleton for the engine drive train, either longitudinally or laterally. To minimise
fuel tanks and batteries. The chassis is the the weight of reinforcement, choosing a chassis
fundamental platform on which the vehicle is with a relatively high torsional stiffness may be
designed and essentially has two longitudinal advantageous.
steel channels with a series of cross-members.
Body mountings: Chassis body mountings are
important details. Body mountings manage the
differential movement between the body, which
is generally rigid and the chassis, which flexes
with road movement to avoid structural damage
to both elements.

If the chassis is unlikely to suffer major flexing

i.e. it is to operate only on good road surfaces,
a rigid mounting bracket (see Figure 5) may be
sufficient. Where the vehicle is to operate in
conditions more likely to cause chassis flexing
(e.g. off-road) a flexible body mounting (see
Figure 6) is recommended. It is important to
check that flexible mountings are not over-
Options
tightened during maintenance, as this will
reduce their flexibility.
The major factors that need considering are:
Figure 5 Rigid Body Mounting Bracket
Number of axles: The number of axles will
determine the overall carrying capacity of the
vehicle. Generally the heavier the load, the more
axles are needed. For a more detailed explanation
of the axle considerations see Section 5.3 Axles.

The body: The body length will have an effect on

the length of chassis specified. It is important to
ensure the body sits on the chassis both in terms
of length and fittings. For example, overhang
is restricted to 60% of the wheelbase for rigid
vehicles. For a more detailed explanation of body Figure 6 Flexible Front Body Mounting
considerations see Section 5.9 Body and Trailer.

Ancillary equipment: Certain additional

equipment may be required for a vehicle, for
example, grabs, cranes, lifting gear or tail lifts.
The chassis must be able to accommodate
these in terms of space and weight. For a more
detailed explanation of this see Section 6.3
Ancillary Equipment.

Specific Issues
Torsional stiffness: Certain equipment (grabs and
lorry loaders cranes) or a requirement to operate
the vehicle under severe conditions may require

22
Suspension Figure 8 Multi-leaf Spring

Key Points:
Is smoothness of ride a priority?

How important are vehicle noise and

weight?

Do you need access to higher authorised

maximum weights?
The parabolic or taper leaf spring with dampers
Is the vehicle going to operate in poor and anti-roll bar is the most common form of
conditions? suspension for trucks. The modern taper leaf
spring (Figure 7) normally consists of a single
or minimal number of leaf springs. These are
replacing the multi-leaf springs (Figure 8) which
Background were prone to friction and damage.

A vehicle’s suspension system absorbs the Figure 9 Air Suspension

impacts caused by travelling over an irregular
surface. The choice of suspension system is
generally determined by the nature of the
vehicle’s operation.

Options
There are three main types of suspension:

Parabolic or taper leaf springs

Air suspension

Rubber suspension

Figure 7 Parabolic or Taper Leaf Springs

Air suspension (Figure 9) is a common alternative

to the taper leaf springs. Frequently referred
to as road friendly suspension (RFS), it has
two major benefits: access to the increased
maximum authorised weights (see Appendix 4);
and smoother ride – characteristics essential for
protecting fragile goods e.g. sensitive electrical
products. However, air suspension is more costly
than taper leaf springs and is slightly heavier,
thereby reducing the vehicle’s overall payload.

23
Figure 10 Rubber Suspension allows the fifth wheel to slide easily to lock onto
the kingpin, without having to increase the
height of the trailer using landing legs.

Axles
Key Points:
What are your vehicle’s load capacity
and power requirements?

Is your truck likely to run empty or light?

Do you need to maximise

manoeuvrability?

Rubber suspension (Figure 10), like air

Background
suspension, provides improved ride
characteristics over the taper leaf spring
Axles distribute the weight from the truck and
suspension, but it does not have the ability to
its payload onto the road surface. Due to the
adjust the ride height like air suspension.
complex legislation on permitted axle weights,
Rubber suspension is also heavier than taper
they play a key role in determining the gross
leaf spring suspension, again reducing vehicle
weight of the vehicle. Axle weight is defined as
payload.
the total weight transmitted to the road by all
the wheels on one axle.
Specific Issues
Vehicles will frequently be referred to as a 6 x
Sensitivity and toughness: Suspension needs 4 or a 6 x 2, for example. This is a simple way
to combine sensitivity with toughness. Where of identifying the number of visible (i.e. outer)
potential damage to goods is an issue, for wheels and the number of driven wheels on the
example a load of computers or fresh fruit, most vehicle. In the example of a 6 x 4 the vehicle will
operators will specify air suspension in order have three visible wheels on each side, making
to protect the cargo. Rubber suspension is a total of six visible wheels running from three
better suited to muckaway (earthmoving/waste axles; if two wheels on either side are on powered
disposal) operations where the protection of the axles, this will make a total of four driven wheels.
product is less important. Rubber suspension is
less likely to be damaged by the terrain, whereas
Options
an air suspension can burst if it is punctured. The
disadvantage is that more of the force of the load
Four types of axle are found on commercial
is transferred from the vehicle to the road, hence
vehicles:
it is less environmentally friendly.
Dead axle
Ride height: Air suspension provides flexibility
with respect to road travel heights. The facility Drive axle
to alter travel heights can avoid grounding the
trailer when travelling over rough terrain or when Lift axle
travelling onto a ferry. It also enables the truck
body to be raised or lowered for loading and Steer axle
unloading, e.g. when docking at warehouses
to ensure a flat surface between the bed of the Dead axles do not have power or steering
trailer and the dock. capabilities and are used on non-powered trailers
Furthermore, air suspension can lower an and on trucks where there is a need to increase
articulated unit when hitching up a trailer. This carrying capacity.

24
Drive axles are powered axles incorporating the vehicles have load latitude, it is essential to
final drive, or differential unit, that provides the maintain proper weight distribution to avoid axle
facility for the driveline to turn through a right overloads. If in doubt, check load configurations
angle and power the wheels. The drive axle at a public weighbridge or consider investing
also incorporates the constant gear reduction in axle-weighing equipment. The latter is often
mechanism for the transmission system. It is built into the chassis of the vehicle and should
important to have the correct specification to therefore be specified at the time of buying the
achieve the right power to weight ratio and fuel vehicle. If the vehicle is to be used off-road it is
economy. If you have a choice of drive ratios for important to ensure that the equipment installed
the drive axle, you should research the options is robust enough to withstand the extra wear
to ensure the correct match. Where ultra-low and tear.
gear ratios are required, this is normally achieved
by specifying a low final drive ratio. However,
to achieve optimum fuel efficiency, engine Tyres and Wheels
performance must be matched to the operation
(see Section 5.5 on driveline specification for
further information). Key Points:

Lift axles are used during periods of empty, or Is cost an overriding issue?
light, running. Ideally, trucks should run fully
loaded all the time but, in reality, a certain How important is length of tyre life?
amount of empty running is inevitable. For a
Is weight-saving a key consideration?
multi-axle vehicle, the facility to lift and retain
a non-driven axle clear of the ground when What load-carrying ability do you need?
partially loaded can be economic in terms of
both tyre life and fuel use. Lift axles can also Are you aiming to maximise fuel
transfer weight temporarily to the drive axle for efficiency?
increased traction.
Is the vehicle likely to operate under
To increase carrying capacity, powered axles are adverse conditions?
added to multi-axle vehicles. These can either be
added in front of (pusher) or behind (tags) the
drive axle. Background
Steer axles are traditionally front axles, both Very few operators specify tyre preference when
primary and secondary, which are steerable ordering a new vehicle. However, correct tyre
and occasionally driven. Increasingly, rear trailer selection is of paramount importance to safety
axles are being given a steer function to improve and to operating costs. Tyre selection also affect
manoeuvrability. the tachograph and speed limiter calibration.

Specific Issues A tyre performs a number of functions:

Avoiding axle and gross overloads: A crucial It supports the vehicle’s weight and
factor affecting the choice of axles is the payload distributes it over the road surface
and the weight transferred through the axles.
If the total axle capacity equals the GVW, the It contributes to the overall ability of the
vehicle does not have any load latitude or spare suspension to absorb impacts
capacity. This means that, when the vehicle is at
its maximum weight with a load, the load must It provides the required level of adhesion
be evenly distributed over the axles. between the road and wheel for traction,
braking and steering in wet and dry
conditions
Having a total axle capacity which exceeds the
GVW will provide load latitude and help avoid
axle overloads (see Appendix 4). Even where

25
 It helps provide required performance Re-moulded or re-treaded tyres: Re-moulds
safely up to the vehicle’s top design speed are made from used tyre casings which have hot
vulcanised rubber added to form a new
It helps the vehicle to run true and provide tyre tread. Re-treads are strips of tyre tread,
good straight-line directional stability which are glued or bonded to the used tyre. The
bonded treatment is usually a better and more
It should offer the minimum rolling reliable process. The life expectancy of these tyres
resistance to the vehicle’s motion and is around 20% less than new radial tyres.
minimise the fuel required to drive
the vehicle Although re-moulded or re-treaded tyres can be
fitted to any axle, operators often fit them to rear
It should be recyclable and relatively easy
non-steer axles only. For safety reasons, many
to dispose of
will not fit re-grooved, re-treaded or re-moulded
tyres to steer axles, although the law does not
It should perform quietly
prohibit this. It is also good practice only to fit
It should achieve reasonable economic life, tyres with the same characteristics to a
while minimising whole-life costs. single axle.

Tyre selection will represent a compromise Super-singles or ‘wide tyres’: These are defined
between these sometimes conflicting needs. as having an area of contact with the road at least
300mm in width. They are now commonplace
on steer and trailer axles and are gradually being
Options
used on drive axles. Super-singles have a number
of advantages: less weight than twin tyres – the
There are two main types of tyres – radial and,
super-single generally also has lower unsprung
the largely historic, cross-ply.
weight and generally provides for a smoother
ride than twin tyres; lower rolling resistance,
Radial tyres: These are the main type of tyre in
leading to better fuel consumption; and a bigger
use. They have a flexible side wall which permits
contact area, giving better grip and traction.
better road contact and lower rolling resistance
However, they may not always provide load
leading to better fuel consumption and better
carrying comparable to twin tyres and a single
cornering and grip, particularly in wet conditions,
puncture may mean the truck cannot reach a
through reduced side deflection that keeps more
safety area.
of the tread on the road. Today’s truck market is
dominated by radial tyres, which have around
Lower rolling resistance tyres: A tyre’s rolling
80% longer life than cross-ply tyres.
resistance decreases as its tread depth reduces.
Manufacturers have been striving to produce
Cross-ply tyres: These are sometimes referred
lower rolling resistance tyres because of the fuel-
to as ‘diagonal-ply’ and feature a hard sidewall,
saving benefits. Initial trials have shown some
which has less road contact than a radial tyre.
positive results, with fuel consumption reduced
by around 7-8%. Reductions are most likely to be
Other types of tyre include:
apparent if the vehicle has multiple axles, if it is
engaged in long-distance trunking and if all axles
Re-grooved tyres: Modern radial tyres are
are fitted with these tyres. Some in-use trials have
designed to be re-grooved which essentially
shown tread wear rates inferior to standard tyres,
extends their life and improves road traction.
so any potential savings should take into account
However, for safety reasons, many operators use
tyre replacement costs. For more information,
re-grooved tyres only on rear non-steer axles.
see the Freight Best Practice case study ‘Save Fuel
The rolling resistance of re-grooved tyres is the
with Lower Rolling Resistance Tyres’.
same as new radial tyres. Re-grooving radial tyres
is recommended by most tyre manufacturers,
Ultra-wide low-profile tyres: Tyres known as
firstly to re-establish the correct groove width of
495/45R22.5 are claimed to offer a 17% reduction
the tyre as it wears and so give good traction, and
in rolling resistance, compared to twin tyres on a
secondly to extend tyre life. In some cases, the
drive axle. However, service depots may not be
tyre may be re-grooved more than once, but in all
able to support vehicles using these tyres.
cases must still comply with legal requirements.

26
Alloy wheels: Alloy wheels can be purchased as tyres are available with special rubbing bands on
original equipment costing around £250 each both sidewalls. When the wear indicator on the
more than a standard steel wheel but typically outside band is exposed the tyre can be rotated
have a weight saving of 41%-52% compared with so that the inner wall becomes the outside face
the steel equivalent, depending on wheel size. of the tyre.
Apart from cosmetic reasons, fitting alloy wheels
is recommended only if payload is a critical issue. Spare wheel policy: These days, spare wheels
Alloy wheels are more prone to damage than are rarely fitted as they represent an extra cost
the harder steel wheels and are not ideal for use and dead weight and are vulnerable to theft.
on construction sites or off-road activity, where Moreover, the safety concerns involved in a driver
damage can easily occur. changing a wheel by the roadside mean it is safer
and more efficient to arrange for a tyre company
Specific Issues to deal with punctures and tyre problems.

Tyre maintenance: Modern truck tyres are

designed to withstand arduous operating
conditions, from stop-start town deliveries to
high-speed trunking on motorways and across
international road networks. They will also
perform efficiently and give economic life over a
wide range of terrains and in a variety of weather
conditions. To achieve this, it is essential that
tyres are carefully inspected and maintained
regularly. One of the most common tyre defects
is under-inflation. This causes additional fuel use
and premature tyre wear, and can jeopardise
safety.

Adverse conditions: There are certain

substances and situations that can considerably
shorten the lives of tyres made from natural
or synthetic rubbers. The main substances
are mineral oils and greases, brake fluid,
concentrated nitric and sulphuric acid and some
organic salts. Tyres can also be damaged by
roadside kerbs. It is advisable to equip vehicles
that regularly visit petrochemical sites with tyres
resistant to the type of products found there. For
vehicles constantly scuffing kerbs e.g. dustcarts

27
Engine Here, computers control the injection process
i.e. electronic engine management, and deliver
the fuel under high pressure to individually
electronically controlled injection valves. This has
Key Points
resulted in significantly higher-output engines
with improved fuel efficiency.
What weight will the engine need to pull?
Specific Issues
Will your vehicle be used for long
distance or local work? Power output and torque - clarification of
terminology: When specifying an engine,
What road speeds will the truck travel at? misunderstandings between the terms ‘power
output’ and ‘torque’ are common.
Will you run ancillary equipment from
the main engine?
ower output is measured as the rate of
P
undertaking work. The common power

measurement for commercial vehicles
Background is horsepower. This is based on a horse’s
ability to move 33,000 pounds 1 foot
When selecting the engine, your aim should in 1 minute! The metric equivalent to 1
be to choose one which matches your overall horsepower is 746 watts.
operational power requirements as this will
ensure optimum fuel economy. Torque is the force put out by the engine
at the end of the crankshaft used to drive
Important factors to consider when specifying the vehicle. The torque produced by an
an engine for a particular vehicle are: engine will vary at different engine speeds.
Torque is therefore important to achieving
The power to weight ratio should permit optimum engine efficiency. If optimum
the vehicle to operate at maximum torque torque can be achieved at low engine
output for most of its driving pattern (for speed, overall fuel efficiencies will improve
more information see ‘Specific Issues’ later considerably compared to an engine
in this section) running at maximum revolutions

Higher power output does not necessarily Driveline specification: The driveline is the
mean lower fuel consumption transfer of power from the engine through the
gearbox and drive shaft to the drive axle. The
Fuel consumption benefits should be higher gear ratios are used for top speed, but at
assessed in whole-life cost terms the cost of power or performance. Matching the
engine output in terms of both power output
Options and torque to the gearbox ratios and the drive
axle ratio is absolutely essential for optimising
Diesel engine: This is the most common type fuel consumption.
used in commercial vehicles. Unlike the petrol
engine, which is a spark compression engine, the Studying engine performance curves that show
diesel engine is essentially a compression ignition power output, torque and brake-specific fuel
engine. The naturally aspirated engine draws air consumption plotted against engine speed will
into the cylinder during the induction stroke at tell you much about the suitability of a particular
ambient temperature and pressurised to a ratio specification for your own operation. In general
of 14:1 or more. To achieve increased engine terms, you should choose higher-power engines
power, the pressure is increased through turbo and higher final drive ratios for long-distance
charging and the use of inter-coolers. work. Vehicles that spend most of their time on
Because of the technically advanced nature local work will generally be more economical
of modern trucks, engine options exist. The if they have less power, fewer gear ratios and a
most recent innovation in diesel engines is lower final drive ratio.
the introduction of common rail fuel systems.

28
To help operators with their choices on drivelines, implications for vehicle emissions. Operators
gearbox ratios, etc. most manufacturers have need to develop an understanding of these
computer programs that can compare various issues now and consider how the introduction of
engine, gearbox and final drive ratio options. exclusion zones will affect the choice of engine
These will forecast the vehicle’s theoretical specification.
performance, including fuel consumption. You
can help ensure that the program arrives at the Some vehicles fitted with equipment, usually
right answer by supplying as much accurate on the exhaust system, that reduces particulate
information as possible about your operation. levels can obtain a Reduced Pollution Certificate
You can also try to obtain a demonstrator vehicle (RPC) if the vehicle meets certain compliance
as close as possible to your specification. limits. RPCs, which permit the certified vehicle
a lower rate of Vehicle Excise Duty, must be
Matching engine power and torque to renewed on a yearly basis following an emissions
ancillary equipment’s operational needs: test. It is important to check the engine
When specifying ancillary equipment to be specification as to whether it qualifies.
driven from a gearbox-mounted power
take-off (PTO), it is important to consider the gear Contract hire and operating leases: When
ratio to be used. Modern engines have efficient acquiring a vehicle through contract hire or
power and torque curves starting at around an operating lease, you may find that the best
1,000rpm. This provides an ideal position to set vehicle for your operation is, for instance, a
the PTO gearing for optimum fuel economy. low-power tractor unit with a day cab but that
Lower gearing may produce additional power to the monthly lease payment is lower for a more
drive the ancillary equipment, but at higher fuel powerful unit with a sleeper cab. This is mainly
consumption. a reflection of the desirability of the vehicle in
the used market at the end of the lease term. It is
Second-hand vehicles: A particular point to note important to consider the difference in fuel costs
is that a used vehicle’s exact power rating or final between the two specifications – saving £20 a
drive ratio may not be obvious. The vehicle could, month on the lease rate may cost £40 a month in
for example, have a long-distance specification, fuel costs.
making it relatively uneconomical for local work.
Note: if the vendor cannot produce evidence
of the exact specification, it is worth quoting Transmission
the chassis number to a franchised dealer. This
should give access to the manufacturer’s original
build specification. Key Points

Reducing emissions: This is a topic of particular Will your vehicle be used for non
relevance to buyers of second-hand vehicles. motorway driving?
The introduction of European exhaust emission
standards, known as Euro 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, has How important is reduced driver fatigue
had a considerable impact on the maximum and improved driver concentration?
level of harmful pollutants produced from diesel
Do you need to minimise journey times
engines. European legislation aims to reduce
and maximise fuel efficiency?
significantly carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbon
(HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate
emissions from trucks. (See Appendix 2 for more Background
details, including the years of introduction of the
various standards.) The fact that these reductions A gearbox is needed to disengage the engine
are being achieved alongside improvements from the wheels and to match engine speed,
in power output and fuel consumption power and torque to a required task enabling the
demonstrates the major advances being made in vehicle to pull away or allowing it to accelerate,
diesel engine technology. climb gradients or reverse. In effect, the gearbox
acts like a lever. The lower the gear, the greater
Local air quality and Low Emission Zones the leverage and the higher the tractive effort,
(LEZs) are moving up the agenda and also have subject to engine characteristics.

29
Options Fuel Tank
Manual gearboxes: This type of gearbox is
common for long distance work where gear Key Points
changes are infrequent. This is a proven form of
technology and is the most popular type in use Will your vehicle be used for long
today, although automated shifts are becoming distance work?
more popular.
Is vehicle weight a key issue?
Automatic gearboxes and semi-automatic
gearboxes: Automatic gearboxes were Will your truck be fitted with ancillary
developed to reduce the need for constant gear equipment?
changes. This is done completely through a full
automatic or partly through a semi-automatic
gearbox. The choice depends upon the extent of Background
gear changes.
The size of the fuel tank can be an important
They tend to be used in vehicles on frequent decision when specifying a truck. If the vehicle
stop/start operations, for example, airport is designed for long-distance work, the standard
vehicles and refuse trucks. This reduces the fuel tank may not be able to carry enough fuel to
wear and tear on the driveline and driver complete the journey. If fuel is bunkered on site,
fatigue. Automatic boxes help improve driver this will often cost less than the retail price on
concentration for emergency service vehicles forecourts and may be an incentive to fit
and provide a smoother engine operation which larger tanks.
can improve fuel economy. They are increasingly
specified for longer distance work, as the
Options
technical developments now offer most drivers
improved fuel consumption.
Size of tank: The size of the fuel tank required
depends upon the type of operation and the
Specific Issues amount of fuel required. A long distance vehicle
will generally have a larger tank than an urban
Cruise control: This is becoming a popular distribution vehicle, as the range is higher.
option for commercial vehicles, particularly for
motorway/long-distance operations. Cruise Extra capacity: The fitting of an additional
control can result in less engine and driveline tank to a vehicle is popular for international
wear and reduced driver fatigue. It will also help operations as the frequency of fuelling facilities
optimise the electronic control system’s ability in certain regions is limited. This can either be an
to deliver the appropriate amount of fuel for extra tank next to the existing one or a tank fitted
any given situation, improving fuel efficiency. horizontally on the chassis, known as a belly tank.
By setting the cruise control to correspond to
the best specific fuel consumption speed of the
Specific Issues
engine, average fuel consumption can be cut.
Implications for payloads: Increasing tank
holding capacities will reduce a vehicle’s overall
For free copies, contact the Freight Best payload capabilities. This may be critical in terms
Practice Hotline on 0300 123 1250 or of the final size and specification of the vehicle. A
visit the website at gallon of diesel weighs 3.86kg, so 100 gallons will
www.businesslink.gov.uk/ add 386kg to the vehicle’s kerbside weight.
freightbestpractice.
Ancillary equipment: If the vehicle is fitted with
ancillary equipment, such as a freezer/chillier unit
that is not driven directly from the engine, this
equipment may need a separate fuel tank.

30
Cab
Key Points
How many people will the cab need to
carry?

Will long driving hours be the norm?

High roof cab: The cab can be extended
Are overnight stops likely? upwards to increase space available. This
is common where two bunks are required.
Do you need to maximise your truck’s However, it is gaining in popularity with single
residual or re-sale value? bunk vehicles as it enhances the rest and storage
facilities. As with sleeper cabs they can either be
factory specified, or built by coachworks.
Background
When specifying a truck, the choice of cab may
seem fairly straightforward. However, poor
choice can reduce the vehicle’s re-sale value and
can also affect safety and comfort, particularly
in view of the range of accessories available in
modern cabs.

Options
Day cab: These are used mainly on distribution
rigids and tractor units, which do not travel very
far from their operating base and need only
provide the driver with a workstation to drive the Crew cab: Crew cabs are used where the activity
vehicle and comply with breaks. demands crew or passenger accommodation, for
example, refuse collection lorries and breakdown
recovery vehicles.

Sleeper cab: Where a driver is on long distance

or overnight work the operator has a legal
requirement to provide the driver with sleeping
facilities. If these are a sleeper cab it must have a Specific Issues
full length bunk.
Driver comfort and safety: Manufacturers
undertake considerable research into designing
cabs to provide a comfortable and safe
environment. This is important, particularly if
the type of operation involves high mileage and
long hours in the cab. In these circumstances,

31
considerations should include the type of In the case of high-volume, low-weight loads,
seating, lumbar supports etc. As an incentive double-deck trailers provide extra load space
to the driver, today’s cab specifications usually on a single trailer by means of a second deck.
include a full range of audio equipment – again The second deck can be fixed or moving to give
this may be a consideration if the drivers are greater flexibility for loading/unloading.
spending most of their time in the cab.

Body and Trailer

Key Points
Is vehicle cost or vehicle weight your
greater concern?

Are your loads high-volume, low weight?

What loading and unloading operations

are anticipated?

Do you envisage any changes to vehicle

operations?

Is load security a key issue?

Background
The body forms a critical element in the overall
Options
design specification, ensuring the vehicle is fit
Materials: Materials for a body are frequently
for purpose and performs tasks cost-effectively.
dictated by load characteristics i.e. weight and
Limited vehicle types are now offered with
volume and price. Aluminium, for example,
standard vehicle manufacturers’ pre-built bodies.
is light, easy to repair but expensive. Glass-
These bodies reflect operators’ general demand
reinforced plastic (GRP) is less expensive and
requirements, usually represent good value, and
less prone to damage, but is much heavier than
the period between order and delivery is usually
aluminium. Curtainsiders are usually heavier
relatively short. However, the majority of vehicle
than aluminium and lighter than GRP, but overall
types are not offered with pre-built bodies. The
are less secure and more prone to damage. New
buyer therefore needs to specify the body and
materials such as high-strength steels, plastics
its detailed design. Body manufacturers will help
and laminates or composites offer a broader
with the design and specification of the body
choice allowing bodies to be tailored to an
and body materials.
operator’s exact requirements, taking durability,
weight, flexibility, hygiene etc. into account.
A vehicle with a smaller body is lighter, stronger
and less liable to be damaged than a larger one.
Access: Another key factor when designing a
It creates less aerodynamic drag and therefore
body is the ease of loading and unloading the
fuel consumption will be better. The best body
vehicle. If loading and unloading accounts for
size will normally be the smallest one necessary
20% of the working day and this can be reduced
to do the job, allowing for any possible changes,
to 10%, considerable whole-life cost savings can
not the largest one that can be bought for
be achieved through increased vehicle utilisation.
the money.
The need for access to tail lifts, lorry-mounted
cranes and other ancillary equipment will also
have design implications.

32
Frequency of loading and unloading: If a provide less load security than rigid-sided
vehicle is operating in an urban multi-drop vehicles
environment, access to the load will be more
frequent than with a vehicle undertaking Specific Issues
long-haul bulk-drop operation.
Safety of loads on vehicles: The Code of Practice
Consideration should therefore be given to ‘Safety of Loads on Vehicles’
the following access options, for manual or (ISBN 0-11-550666-7), issued by the Department
mechanical loading and unloading: for Transport, is a good source of information.
The law is very specific about the safety of loads
A drop-down tailgate on an open truck transported by vehicles and it is essential that the
body mounted on a hinge bracket can body design is suitable for the type of load
provide rear access. Drop-down side panels being carried.
or boards can also be fitted to an open
truck body mounted on a hinge bracket Consulting body builders: The body plays a
crucial role in determining a vehicle’s fitness for
Barn doors, usually two rear-opening doors purpose. It is recommended that body builders
giving access to the full width of the body. be consulted so that their expertise can assist
Normally, when open, the doors secure to identification of correct materials and provide an
the side of the body. In congested areas understanding of weight implications before final
with pedestrians, this may cause a body selection is made.
potential hazard
Type approval: This is a Government approval
Roller shutter doors, which like barn doors, system to ensure that a vehicle conforms to
provide access to nearly all of the body set standards, covering a variety of issues
width when open. Although this kind of including safety, noise, pollution, etc. Currently,
door sometimes causes limited height type approval does not apply to commercial
access, there is no potential danger to vehicle bodies, which are restricted by weight
pedestrians in urban areas. However, they and dimension regulations (see Appendix 4).
are not as secure as barn doors However, when specifying a body, it is essential
that pre-build checks are undertaken to ensure
Side-loading doors, which are practical for
that the proposed design and fitting do not
loading and unloading in congested areas
invalidate any manufacturer’s warranties in
and avoid street unloading and
respect of vehicle chassis and drivelines or cause
other vehicles
the vehicle to fall foul of construction and use
Curtainsiders permit the most flexibility legislation.
for loading and unloading permitting both
nearside and offside access. However, they

33
 ‘Safety of Loads on Vehicles is available to
download from the DfT’s website at
www.dft.gov.uk

After completing steps 5.1 to 5.9, you will have

finished developing the main outline of your
truck specification.

As well as ensuring that the vehicle’s engineering

design meets your objectives, your specification
will also need to take into account a range of
mandatory legal requirements. These affect
key aspects such as vehicle/trailer dimensions
and maximum vehicle and axle weights, as
well as the type of driving licence required for
particular vehicle types. Full information on
driver licensing requirements can be found in the
DVLA information leaflet, ‘D100: What you Need
to Know about Driving Licences’, available to
download from the DVLA website at
www.dvla.gov.uk or by calling 0300 790 6801.
Appendix 4 provides an overview of the key
legal requirements and will allow you to review
your vehicle specification against the current
regulations.

Checklist
Have you completed a detailed specification
for the following core vehicle components:

Chassis?

Suspension?

Axles?

Tyres and wheels?

Engine?

Transmission?

Fuel tank?

Cab?

Body and trailer?

34
Detailed Specification:
Additional Features
As well as the core vehicle components summarised in Section 5, you will need to consider what extra
features your vehicle specification should cover. Although some features may be regarded as
additional to the basic vehicle, they can nevertheless make a significant contribution to fuel and
overall operational efficiency.

The evaluation of your precise component requirements should cover four key areas:

Aerodynamics

Active safety systems

Ancillary equipment

Fuel

Aerodynamics
Key Points
Will your vehicle be used mainly for If an existing vehicle, does it already have
higher-speed work? good aerodynamic design?

Will the truck have a large frontal area?

Background
The potential for fuel savings through improved aerodynamic body styling, sometimes referred to as
an ‘air deflector kit’, is greatest where operations are most affected by aerodynamic drag i.e. where the
vehicle regularly travels at higher speeds and has a large frontal area. In the case of existing vehicles with
poor aerodynamic design, there can be improvments to aerodynamic performance through retrofit.

35
Options Specific Issues
Where to fit: It is important to understand what Compatibility: Interaction with other pieces of
devices are available and where to fit them. A other equipment needs to be considered as, for
lot of high-quality independent information is example, the fitting of tractor side panels may
available on aerodynamic body styling for trucks. conflict with a fridge engine on a trailer. Potential
A summary of the aerodynamic features available savings: It is difficult to be specific about how
can be found in Freight Best Practice publication: much fuel can be saved by fitting these devices.
‘Streamlined guide to aerodynamic styling’. More A lot depends on the vehicle and its operation.
detailed technical information can be found in However, fitting suitable aerodynamic styling
Freight Best Practice publication: features to a vehicle used on long-distance routes
‘Truck Aerodynamic Styling’. can cut fuel consumption by 6-12%. Generally,
figures for fuel savings quoted by manufacturers
are based on estimates for vehicles run on
tracks or test routes, or on models tested in
For free copies, contact the Freight Best wind tunnels or other carefully controlled
Practice Hotline on 0300 123 1250 or environments. As a result, you are unlikely to
visit the website at realise the same level of savings on the road. It
www.businesslink.gov.uk/ is important to ensure that features are properly
freightbestpractice adjusted with the current task in mind and
that drivers are trained in the correct use and
adjustment of the kit.

Figure 11 Aerodynamic Body Styling Options

36
Active Safety Systems alarms is an additional cost. All vehicle operators
have a duty of care. In the event of an accident an
operator who has a proactive safety policy may
be looked upon more favourably than one who
Key Points only meets the minimum requirement.

How can you reduce accident injury

and damage levels? Ancillary Equipment
Will the vehicle need to do a lot of
reversing?
Key Points
Will the truck be used for urban
deliveries? Will additional equipment be needed for
loading and unloading?

Will the load need to be

Background temperature-controlled?

Active safety systems are designed to reduce the Is vehicle weight a key concern?
likelihood of road-related accidents. Usually, they
Is noise an issue?
harness technological innovations e.g. anti-lock
braking and traction control. Will the availability of rapid and reliable
management data improve operations?
Options
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an active safety
system designed to reduce the risk of a vehicle Background
crash. It works by maintaining grip between the
road and a vehicle’s tyres under heavy braking Broadly speaking, this covers a host of additional
conditions, particularly in the wet. Although equipment that can be fitted to the vehicle. Three
ABS is mandatory on all commercial vehicles of the main types are:
exceeding 3.5 tonnes registered since 1 April
2002, other active safety systems (see below) are Loading and unloading aids
not compulsory. Consideration should be given
to non-mandatory systems because they offer a Equipment to maintain the condition
safer environment for the driver and, importantly, of the cargo e.g. temperature
for other road users. control equipment

Management information devices e.g.

Systems to be considered include traction
transport telematics
control, reversing cameras, reversing sensors to
complement bleepers, larger rear-view mirrors
and nearside down-facing mirrors to spot Options
pedestrians during urban deliveries. Benefits
such as reduced accident damage levels can Types of common ancillary equipment: There is a
make the introduction of safety systems like large number of standard and specialist devices,
these self-financing. which can be fitted.

For example Standard fitments:

Specific Issues
Tail lifts (column and tuck-away)
Economy v safety: Where there is a legal
requirement to fit safety devices the benefits Lorry-mounted cranes, including grabs
in terms of reduced risk are evident. However,
if the item is not mandatory it may seem that Multi-lifts (skip)
specifying certain systems such as reversing

37
 Hydraulic ramps and winches Transport telematics links modern information
technology with the latest developments
Lorry-mounted forklifts in telecommunications. Telematics enables
improvements in response times to customers
Specialist operations, including bulk, tankers or incidents, reductions in fuel consumption
or load control: through real-time route optimisation, vehicle
tracking, satellite navigation e.g. congestion
Blowers and vacuum pumps avoidance, and monitoring of driver
performance. These systems can be integrated
Double-deck column lifts
into a company’s communication network and
vehicle systems to provide accurate, up-to-date
It is important to consider the nature of the
fuel consumption figures and other management
operation to see whether any of these devices
information. For more details on telematics, see
are necessary and where this fits into the vehicle
Freight Best Practice publication: ‘Telematics’.
specification process.

Maintaining load condition: The most common Specific Issues

requirement is for temperature-controlled
transportation, usually for foodstuffs but also for Powering ancillary equipment: As mentioned
some forms of gases and liquids. Temperature- in Section 5.5, when specifying engine-driven
control equipment includes coolers, fridges, gas ancillary equipment, it is important to specify
and compression chambers. power take-off (PTO) ratio. This should be
matched to the engine in order to provide the
Management information: Technology has required power at the most fuel-efficient
made it possible to gather almost any type of engine speed.
information on a truck’s operations. This can
include how often the rear doors are opened Noise: Noise from ancillary equipment can
to route taken, fuel consumption through to have a significant impact on the environment.
how many gear changes were made during a It comes from two sources: driveby noise due
period of driving. The devices that record this to the metallic parts of the equipment striking
type of information are known as black boxes or each other as the truck is driven; and operational
Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) and store data noise due to the equipment’s use. In urban
for downloading onto a computer for analysis. environments, noise from ancillary equipment
Black boxes can also automatically download can cause nuisance, and the majority of
data via GSM or GPRS communications. If manufacturers offer sound reduction kits. Most
required, this information can be provided in ancillary equipment can therefore be silenced.
real-time. If used correctly, this information can Further information on reducing body noise is
significantly improve a vehicle’s overall efficiency available on the DFT website at www.dft.gov.uk.
e.g. through telematics and real-time route
planning. Loss of payload: Ancillary equipment adds
to a vehicle’s kerbside weight. However, for
Essentially, good route planning should achieve some types of equipment, a little planning can
the maximum deliveries in the minimum distance minimise its effects. For example, by specifying
travelled. This is frequently measured as item a rear frame lift, which combines the tail lift with
delivered per kilometre. Although obvious, the rear frame of the body, it is possible to save
operators often ignore the fact that the less a quarter of a tonne, improve the aerodynamic
distance a vehicle travels, the less fuel it uses and shape of the vehicle’s rear and increase the
the less wear and tear it will incur. Minimising the payload capacity. It is therefore important to
distance travelled through careful route planning, discuss operating requirements and the potential
therefore, will reduce fuel consumption, vehicle design with a reputable body builder who
environmental impact and operating costs. will be able to advise on weight-saving features.
For more information, see Freight Best Practice
publication: ‘Computerised routing and
scheduling for efficient logistics’.

38
Fuel requires major investment in compression
equipment to turn the gas into a liquid
before filling the vehicle
Key Points Petrol is not commonly used for vehicles
over 3.5 tonnes because it is expensive, has
Are you aiming to minimise emissions
lower fuel economy and does not provide
from the vehicle?
the torque range that the diesel engine
equivalent provides
How important are fuel cost and
vehicle performance?
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) is an alternative
fuel for petrol engines that is cheaper
How important are vehicle range and
and produces cleaner emissions, but
maximum size of payload?
LPG-fuelled engines are not ideally
suited to commercial vehicle operational
requirements due to the greater volume of
Background fuel required for the same energy output,
resulting in a loss in payload
For the efficient fleet operator, fuel represents
one of the biggest areas of potential cost There are currently around half a million gas-
savings. Freight Best Practice publication: ‘Fuel powered, i.e. CNG or LPG-powered, vehicles in
Management’, highlights how cost savings and Europe, mostly in Italy, Germany and France. By
environmental benefits can be achieved by contrast, the UK only has around 900. Compared
improving fuel efficiency. to a diesel engine that complies with Euro 3
i.e. where NOx emissions are cut by 80% – see
Options Appendix 2, particulate matter emissions from
engines fuelled with CNG or LPG are reduced by
Types of fuel: The choice of fuels for commercial about 95%. Engine noise is also cut by around
vehicles exceeding 3.5 tonnes is currently rather 5dB(A). In diesel terms, these fuels are already
restrictive. Most vehicles operate on diesel fuels. cleaner than the Euro 5 limits which come into
The constituents of diesel have significantly force in 2008. CO2 emissions from CNG and
changed over the last decade, as has the choice LPG are roughly the same as those from diesel.
of diesels available on the forecourt. A key However, the size and weight of CNG and LPG
drawback to using diesel is the emission of fuel tanks may limit a truck’s range and payload.
particulate matter harmful to the environment.
The use of ultra low sulphur diesel is proven to Currently, fuel choice is still a question of ‘horses
reduce particulate emissions and is therefore less for courses’. However, as local air quality and LEZ
environmentally harmful. issues grow in importance, alternatives to fossil
fuels will need to be given careful consideration.
The use of bio-diesel is still in its infancy but, in Further information can be found on the EST
time, this fuel may prove to be a real alternative website at www.est.org.uk.
to fossil diesel. It can be made from vegetable
oil, animal fat or both. Rapeseed oil is commonly Specific Issues
used. Currently, a number of UK forecourts offer
bio-diesel mixed at 95% fossil diesel and 5% Fuel saving devices: Fleet managers receive
bio-diesel. It is important to check whether your large amounts of sales literature for products
vehicle warranty is still valid if bio-diesel is used. offering remarkable fuel savings. These include
Current information on the status of biofuels aftermarket fuel additives, combustion improvers
can be found on the Department for Transport and lubricating oils and additives. However,
website at www.dft.gov.uk. investing in a product that does not work will be
a waste of money. Moreover, the product may
Alternatives include: even damage your vehicle or invalidate
your warranty.
Compressed natural gas (CNG), which
produces cleaner emissions but currently

39
If you are considering investing in a fuel saving
device, your evaluation should be a three-step
process.

First, consider whether this is likely to

be the most cost-effective way to save
fuel in your vehicles. Good operational
engineering together with vehicle and
driver management are likely to offer better
scope for economies

Then, if you decide a product is worth

investigating, establish how it is claiming to
work, whether there are any risks associated
with using it and how the product has been
tested

Finally, think about how you are going to

test the product on your vehicles

For further information, see Freight Best Practice

publication: ‘Fuel Saving Devices’.

Once you have carried out steps 6.1 to 6.4,

you will have completed your draft vehicle
specification.

Checklist
Have you decided how the following will
impact on your vehicle specification?

Aerodynamics

Active safety systems

Ancillary equipment

Fuel

For free copies, contact the Freight Best

Practice Hotline on 0300 123 1250 or
visit the website at
www.businesslink.gov.uk/
freightbestpractice.

40
Maximising Efficiency
This guide has helped you acquire a vehicle that is suitable for your business needs.

However, once you have specified and acquired the right vehicle, you need to ensure you maximise
its efficiency by continually monitoring its performance. This will help you to identify areas for
improvements and reduce costs for operating your vehicle.

Monitoring Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

KPIs provide a consistent basis for measuring transport efficiency such as vehicle fill, empty running,
time utilisation and deviations from schedule. The ‘Fleet Performance Management Tool’, which consists
of an Excelp spreadsheet and an accompanying manual, can help you monitor KPIs. This easy to use
spreadsheet and manual will help you measure average miles per gallon, maintenance costs for your
vehicles and average cost to deliver a load, to name but a few. By monitoring this information you can
understand your business costs and decide where to focus your efforts to maximise profitability.

Monitoring Load Capacity

You need to monitor the load-carrying capacity of your vehicle to ensure that the planned maximum
payload does not cause either gross weight or axle overloads. A public weighbridge or axle-weighing
equipment can be used for this purpose. Monitoring load capacity will help ensure that your vehicle is
operating legally. You also need to include ease of loading and unloading in your evaluation.

Checklist
Have you:

Planned how to monitor the performance of your vehicle?

41
Appendix 1 - Typical Whole Life Costs
for Standard Commercial Vehicles
Rigid % of Rigid % of Rigid % of Rigid % of Rigid % of Artic % of Artic % of Artic % of
total total total total total & total & total & total
cost cost cost cost cost semi cost semi cost semi cost
trailer trailer trailer

GVW tonne 7.5 12.0 18.0 26.0 32.0 33.0 38.0 44.0

Axle configuration 4x2 4x2 4x2 6x2 8x4 4x2 4x2 6x2

Kerb weight tonne 4.4 5.5 8.0 10.5 12.0 12.5 15.0 16.0

Payload tonne 3.1 6.5 10.0 15.5 20.0 25.5 29.0 28.0

Trailer axles 2..0 3.0 3.0

Annual mileage 40,000 40,000 45,000 50,000 40,000 60,000 70,000 70,000

Capital cost £34,498 £38.391 £50,190 £55,873 £72,964 £49,774 £55,337 £63,803

Trailer cost £18,328 £20,931 £20,931

Total cost £68,102 £76,268 £84,734

Life (years) 6 6 6 6 7 7 6 6

Depreciation £4,887 13.6% £5.799 14.8% £6,692 14.9% £7,450 14.0% £8,756 14.6% £7,855 13.0% £9,307 12.6% £10,464 13.4%

R&M £2,731 7.6% £3,154 8.1% £3,785 8.5% £4,542 8.5% £9,306 15.5% £6,215 10.3% £8,475 11.5% £9.783 12.5%

Fuel £7,570 21.1% £8,735 22.3% £9,827 21.9% £14,194 26.6% £14.194 23.7% £18,925 31.2% £25,476 34.5% £27,221 34.8%

Tyres cost £496 1.4% £576 1.5% £621 1.4% £1,472 2.8% £2,383 4.0% £2,286 3.8% £2,555 3.5% £2,971 3.8%

Insurance £1,187 3.3% £1,372 3.5% £1,750 3.9% £2,020 3.8% £2,213 3.7% £2,556 4.2% £3,233 4.4% £3,233 4.1%

Driver’s wages £18,781 52.4% £19,336 49.4% £21,445 47.9% £22,979 43.1% £21,879 36.5% £21,560 35.6% £23.575 31.9% £23,352 29.9%
Vehicle excise
£165 0.5% £200 0.5% £650 1.5% £650 1.2% £1,200 2.0% £1,200 2.0% £1,200 1.6% £1,200 1.5%
duty
Total annual cost £35,817 £39,172 £44,770 £53,307 £59,931 £60,597 £73,821 £78,224

Cost per mile £0.895 £0.979 £0.995 £1.066 £1.498 £1.010 £1.055 £1.117
Cost/mile/tonne
£0.289 £0.151 £0.099 £0.069 £0.075 £0.040 £0.036 £0.040
payload

(Source: FTA – The Manager’s Guide to Distribution Costs 2003)

42
Appendix 2 - Exhaust Emission Limits
Specified by European Legislation
For Diesels over 3.5 tonnes GVW

Vehicle registered
Regulation CO HC NOx Particulates
from

ECE Regulation 49 1982 14.00 3.50 18.00

88/77/EC ( Euro 1 ) 01/10/1990 11.20 2.40 14.00

91/542/EC ( Euro 2 ) 01/10/19934.50 4.50 1.10 8.00 0.36

99/542/EC ( Euro 3 ) 01/10/19962.10 4.00 1.10 7.00 0.15/0.25

99/96/EC ( Euro 4 ) 01/10/2001 2.10 0.66 5.00 0.10/0.13

99/96/EC ( Euro 5 ) Oct 2006 1.50 0.46 3.50 0.02

99/96/EC ( Euro 6 ) Oct 2009 1.50 0.46 2.00 0.02

Limits defined in grams per kWh

43
Appendix 3 - Maximum Vehicle
Weights – Standard Terminology
Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)
The maximum weight at which a vehicle is permitted to operate, as identified in the Department for
Transport Plating Certificate, for vehicles above 3.5 tonnes.

Gross Train Weight (GTW)

The maximum weight at which a vehicle combination is permitted to operate.

Kerbside Weight
The weight of the vehicle in road-going condition, inclusive of water, fuel, oil, spare wheel, spares and
tools, without the load and the driver weights.

Unladen Weight (ULW)

The weight of the vehicle inclusive of body and parts normally used in the vehicle operation, but
exclusive of the weight of water, fuel, loose tools, equipment and batteries, where these are used to
propel the vehicle. (Note: where more than one body is used, the heavier body is counted.)

44
Appendix 4 - Legal Constraints and
Requirements
As well as ensuring that the vehicle’s engineering design meets your objectives, your specification will
also need to take into account a range of mandatory legal requirements. These affect key aspects such as
vehicle/trailer dimensions and maximum vehicle and axle weights, as well as the type of driving licence
required for particular vehicle types.

The maximum permissible weights and dimensions of goods vehicles in the UK are set out in the Road
Vehicle Construction and Use Regulations 1986 (C&U). Since 1 January 1999, weight limits included in EU
Directive 96/53 have been adopted by the UK as part of the Road Vehicle (Authorised Weight) Regulations
1998 (AW). The new AW rules operate in parallel with the C&U regulations and operators may choose to
comply with one or other set of regulations. However, they must not combine elements of the two.

This Appendix provides an overview of the key legal requirements that will affect your vehicle
specification. It is closely based on the information given in the Freight Transport Association (FTA)
Yearbook 2004, which also provides a more detailed layman’s explanation of the rules and regulations
affecting the weights and dimensions of commercial vehicles.

(See Appendix 3 for standard terminology referring to vehicle weights).

Gross Vehicle Weight Limits

Vehicle type Number of axels Weight (kg) - C&U regulations Weight (kg) - AW regualtions

1. Rigid

- Where the distance between axles is at least 3m 2 17,000 18,000

- Otherwise 2 16,260 ~

3 25,000 (26,000 with RFS) 25,000 (26,000 with RFS)

4 30,000 (32,000 with RFS) 30,000 (32,000 with RFS)

2. Drawbar trailers

- Where the distance between axles is at least 3m 2 18,000 18,000

- Otherwise 2 16,260 ~

3 25,000 24,000

4 30,490 24,000

3. Articulated

3 25,000 (26,000 with RFS) 26,000

4 32,520 (35,000 with RFS) 36,000 (38,000)*

5 38,000 (44,000)** 40,000

6 44,000** 44,000***

4.Road-trains (large drawbar combination)

4 32,520 (35,000 with RFS) 36,000#

5 32,520 (38,000 with RFS) 40,000#

6 44,000** 44,000***#

45
Notes:
‘RFS’ means that road friendly suspension is fitted on the drive axle. As an alternative, each drive axle
weight may not exceed 9,500kg (but see ** and *** below). Twin tyres must also be fitted.

* 38,000kg is permitted where the combination consists of a two-axle tractor unit and a two-axle
semi-trailer, the weight of the tractor unit does not exceed 18,000kg, the weight of the semi-
trailer does not exceed 20,000kg, for which an axle spacing of at least 1.8m is required, and the
drive axle is fitted with twin tyres and RFS.

** Operation over 38,000kg is restricted to certain road-rail movements.

*** Operation over 40,000kg requires the axle weight of each drive axle not to exceed 10,500kg, the
drive axle(s) to have RFS OR the axle weight not to exceed 8,500kg, the trailer to have RFS and each part
of the vehicle combination to have three axles. (Operation over 41,000kg requires, in addition, the use of
an engine complying with the Euro 2 standard or better, or a gas engine.)

# The distance between the rear axle of the motor vehicle and the front axle of the trailer must not
be less than 3m.

Maximum Vehicle Length (C&U regulations) Maximum Vehicle Length

(C&U regulations)

Vehicle type Max. Permited length

Rigid 12m

Articualted 16.5m
Articualted with a low loader semi trailer manufactured on or after 1 April 1991 (excluding step-frame low
st
18m
loaders)
Car transporter semi-trailer

King-pin to rear 12.5m

King-pin to any point on the front 4.19m

Other semi-trailers

King-pin to rear 12m~

King-pin to any piont on the front 2.04m~

Composite trailer 14.04m~

Drawbar trailer (excluding length of drawbar) provided:
1) The trailer has four or more 12m*
2) The drawing vehicle has a maximum gross wieght over 3,500kg
Other drawbar trailers (excluding hte length of the drawbar) 7m

Road train - one trailer 18.75m**

Road train - two trailers 25.9m#

46
Notes:
# Vehicles drawing more than one trailer are limited to 9.2m in length.

~ The dimensions include the thickness of any front or rear wall. If there is more than one king-pin
position, the measurement is taken from the rearmost position on the semi-trailer, if manufactured before
1 January 1999, and from the foremost position, if manufactured on or after 1 January 1999.

* No set limit for vehicles designed to carry indivisible loads of exceptional length.

** The distance from the foremost part of the loading area behind the cab to the rear of the trailer
must not exceed 16.4m and this distance, less the distance between the vehicle and the trailer, must not
exceed 15.65m (this is the maximum length of the load-carrying space). The registration of new road-
trains with a load space length exceeding 15.65m was precluded under EU Directive 9/53 with effect
from 1 June 1998. The use of pre-1 June 1998 road-trains with a load space exceeding 15.65m will be
prohibited from 31 December 2006.

Maximum Vehicle Width (C&U regulations)

Vehicle type Max. Permited width

Motor vehicles

Locomotives 2.75m

Vehicle constructed to carry goods at reduced temperatures with body side-walls of at least 45mm thickness 2.6m

Any other vehicle 2.55m

Trailer Provided:

1) Every wheel has a pneumatic tyre 2.55m

2) The drawing vehicle has a maximum gross weight over 3,500kg
3) Every wheel of the towing vehicle has a pneumatic tyre (excluding a locomotive)

Trailers constructed to carry goods at reduced temperatures with body side-walls of at least 45mm thickness 2.6m

Other trailer 2.55m

Maximum Vehicle Height

The maximum height of a vehicle operating solely in the UK is unrestricted. However, guidelines
recommend that the vehicle does not exceed 4.2m in height in order to avoid problems with the major
road network, bridges and overhead power cables. Vehicles operating outside the UK but within the EU
are restricted to 4m in height.

To avoid grounding on railway level crossings, a minimum ground clearance of 160mm or 190mm is
required, depending on the axle spacing.

Where a vehicle or trailer has an overall travelling height of over 3m (including the height of the vehicle,
equipment and load measured from ground level), it is normally required to have a notice in the cab
which enables the driver to read easily the travelling height in feet/inches or in feet/inches and in metres
(but not in metres only). Where the vehicle is also fitted with high-level equipment (e.g. skip loaders or
lorry-mounted cranes), it must also, unless exempt, have a warning device fitted to alert the driver if
the equipment moves to a raised position whilst driving. For detailed information, contact your trade
association or call VOSA on 0300 123 9000.

47
Turning Circles

Generally, articulated vehicles with an overall length over 15.5m first used after 31 May 1998 and all
goods vehicles defined as heavy motor cars first used after 31 May 1998 must be able to turn within
concentric circles with radii of 12.5m and 5.3m respectively. A concession is allowed for car transporters
due to their overhang.

The following vehicles are exempt:

Any vehicle with an overall length not exceeding 15.5m and first used before the operative date i.e.
31 May 1998

An articulated vehicle, with a semi-trailer that was manufactured before 1 April 1990 (and which has
not been modified to increase its length since then)

A low loader (defined as a semi-trailer normally used to carry engineering equipment and
constructed so that the major part of the load platform does not extend over or between the
wheels and the upper surface is below the top of the tyres)

A vehicle constructed and normally used for exceptionally long indivisible loads

A step-frame low loader (defined as a semi-trailer – not a low loader – constructed and normally
used for engineering equipment and constructed so that the upper surface of the major part of the
load platform is less than 1m above the ground)

A vehicle having four or more axles where the distance between the foremost and rearmost axles
exceeds 6.4m

Are there Delivery or Demand Fluctuations?

Vehicles first used from 1 June 1998, which are fitted with a lift axle, must now meet the turning circle
requirements both with and without all the wheels in contact with the ground.

An articulated vehicle is deemed to meet the turning circle requirement if the distance from the king-pin
(or front king-pin) to the centre line of the non-steering bogie does not exceed 8.135m for a
2.55m-wide vehicle.

Overhang
The rear overhang of a truck i.e. the extension of the body behind the rear axle(s), is governed by the
following ratios as shown in Figure 12:

Rigid trucks: the overhang must not exceed 60% of the wheelbase

Multi-axle rigid trucks: the wheelbase is defined as 110mm behind the centre line of the two
rear axles

48
Figure 12 Definition of Wheelbase and Overhang for Multi-axle Rigid Trucks

y x

Two-axled vehicles: overhang ‘x’ must not exceed 60 per cent length ‘y’

y x
110mm behind centre line
of two axles

Lifting Equipment
Lifting equipment is covered by legislation, both in terms of regular inspections of the equipment (LOLER
– Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations) and user training (PUWER – Provision and Use
of Work Equipment Regulations). For further information on these regulations, call the Health and Safety
Executive (HSE) Helpline on 0845 3450055.

49
Maximum Permitted Axle Weights (C&U and AW regulations)
Maximum C&U permitted Maximum Permitted wieght
Axel Type
Wieght (kg) (kg)

Single axle
Fitted with a wide tyre width of not less than 300mm or
5,090
fitted with twin tyres at least 300mm apart
Otherwise 4,600

Twin axle

Single-tyred wheels 9,200 10,000

Twin-tyred or wide-tyred wheels 10,170* 10,000

As above, where the axle is the sole driving axle of a motor vehicle 10,500* 11,500

Tri-axle
Axle with more than two wheels in line transversely: Vehicle manufactured
before 10,170
1 May 1983 – 1 of 2 closely spaced axles or any 1 of 3 adjacent axles
Otherwise 11,180

Vehicle manufactured on or after 1 May 1983 10,170 10,000

Notes:
* Twin tyres must have the centres of their area of contact with the road at least 300mm apart.
Wide tyres must be at least 300mm wide.

Maximum Axle and Bogie Weights

In law, axle overloads are treated with the same severity as gross weight overloads. If the vehicle is
partially loaded, with the bulk of the load just behind the cab, it is likely that the front axle will be
overloaded. It is important, even when partially loaded, for the goods to be evenly distributed over the
bed of the vehicle. If in doubt, check load configurations at a public weighbridge or consider investing in
axle-weighing equipment.

Where a number of axles are closely spaced on a vehicle, this collection

A1 (motor vehicles) of axles is referred to as a bogie.

Bogie axle maximum weights are complex and relate to the spacing of a number of close axles, to give a
maximum weight over the spread of the close axles, rather than a calculation axle by axle (Figure 13). The
regulations apply to vehicles as well as trailers.

Figure 13 Axle Spacing at least 1.3m

A1 (motor vehicles) A2 (trailers)

at least 1.3m at least 1.8m

A2 (trailers)

at least 1.8m

50
Maximum Permitted Bogie Weights

Maximum Permitted wieght

Axel Type Maximum C&U permitted Wieght (kg)
(kg)

Driving tandem axle

Less than 1m 11,500

Greater than or equal to 1m but less than 1.3m 16,000

Greater than or equal to 1.3m 18,000

Greater than or equal to 1.3m* 19,000

Non-driving tandem axle

Less than 1m 11,000

Greater than or equal to 1m but less than 1.3m 16,000

Greater than or equal to 1.3m but less than 1.8m 18,000

Greater than or equal to 1.8m 20,000

Tri-axle

Less than or equal to 1m 21,000

Greater than 1.3m 24,000

* The driving axle must be fitted with twin tyres and road friendly suspension, or each driving axle fitted
with twin tyres and no axle with an axle weight exceeding 9,500kg.

For free copies, contact the Freight Best Practice Hotline on 0300 123 1250 or visit the website at
www.businesslink.gov.uk/freightbestpractice.

51
Freight Best Practice publications, including those listed below, can be obtained
FREE of charge by calling the Hotline on 0300 123 1250 or by downloading
them from the website www.businesslink.gov.uk/freightbestpractice

Saving FUEL Performance MANAGEMENT

Fuel Saving Tips Fleet Performance Management Tool
This handy pocket book is ideal for drivers and This PC-based spreadsheet tool has been designed
managers looking for simple ways to reduce fuel to help fleet operators improve their operational
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Developing- SKILLS Transport Operators Pack - TOP

SAFED for HGVs: A Guide to Safe and TOP provides practical ‘every day’ support material
to help operators implement best practice in
Fuel Efficient Driving for HGVs
the workplace and acts in direct support of tasks
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This guide outlines the elements of the Safe and Fuel
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Efficient Driving (SAFED) scheme and explains the
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Equipment & SYSTEMS Case STUDIES

Testing Time for Trucks There are over 25 case studies showing how
companies have implemented best practice and the
This report briefly describes four trials that test the savings achieved. Check out the following selection
effects of differing variables on fuel consumption. of case studies:
• Tesco Sets the Pace on Low Carbon and
Efficiency
• Engine Idling – Costs You Money and Gets
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• Power to Your People - Motivation Breeds
Success

February 2010.
Printed in the UK on paper containing 100% recycled fibre.
FBP1005© Queens Printer and Controller of HMSO 2010.