Master Course

Advanced Computer Networks

Lecture 6 (Part -2)

Multicasting and Multicast
Routing Protocols
Dr. Mahmoud Shuker Mahmoud
Chapter
Outline

6.4 Multicast Routing

6.5 Routing Protocols

6.6 MBONE
6-4 MULTICAST ROUTING

Now we show how information collected by IGMP is

disseminated to other routers using multicast routing
protocols. However, we first discuss the idea of
optimal routing, common in all multicast protocols.
We then give an overview of multicast routing
protocols.
Optimal Routing: Shortest Path Trees

The process of optimal interdomain routing

eventually results in the finding of the shortest path
tree.

The root of the tree is the source and the leaves are
the potential destinations. The path from the root to
each destination is the shortest path.
Shortest Path in Unicast Routing

In unicast routing, when a router receives a packet to

forward, it needs to find the shortest path to the
destination of the packet.

The next-hop entry in the routing table corresponding

to the destination is the start of the shortest path.

Each line of the routing table is a shortest path; the

whole routing table is a shortest path tree.

In unicast routing, each router in the domain has a

table that defines a shortest path tree to possible
destinations.
Figure 6.13 Shortest path tree in unicast routing
Shortest Path in Multicast Routing

Forwarding of a single packet to members of a group

requires a shortest path tree. If we have n groups, we
may need n shortest path trees.

In multicast routing, each involved router needs to

construct a shortest path tree for each group.

Two approaches have been used to solve the problem:

➢ Source-based trees
➢ Group-shared trees.
Source-Based Tree Multicast Shortest Path

In this approach, if the number of groups is m, each

router needs to have m shortest path trees, one for
each group. We can imagine the complexity of the
routing table if we have hundreds or thousands of
groups. However, we will show how different
protocols manage to alleviate the situation.

In the source-based tree approach, each router

needs to have one shortest path tree for each group
and source.
Figure 6.14 Source-based tree approach
Group-Shared Tree Multicast Shortest Path

In the group-shared tree approach, instead of each

router having m shortest path trees, only one
designated router, called the center core, or
rendezvous router, takes the responsibility of
distributing multicast traffic. The core has m shortest
path trees in its routing table. The rest of the routers
in the domain have none.

If a router receives a multicast packet, it encapsulates

the packet in a unicast packet and sends it to the core
router, the core router removes the multicast packet
from its capsule, and consults its routing table to route
the packet
Figure 6.15 Group-shared tree approach
6-5 ROUTING PROTOCOLS

During the last few decades, several multicast routing

protocols have emerged. Some of these protocols are
extensions of unicast routing protocols; some are totally
new. Below the taxonomy of these protocols.
Multicast Link State Routing: MOSPF

Multicast link state routing is a direct extension of unicast

routing and uses a source-based tree approach. Although
unicast routing is quite involved, the extension to multicast
routing is very simple and straightforward

In unicast routing, each node needs to advertise the state of

its links. For multicast routing, a node advertises every group
that has any loyal member on the link.
In Multicast, the meaning of state is “what groups are active
on this link.” The information about the group comes from
IGMP

Multicast link state routing uses the source-based tree

approach.
Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF)

• MOSPF protocol is an extension of the OSPF protocol that

uses multicast link state routing to create source-based trees.
• The protocol requires a new link state update packet to
associate the unicast address of a host with the group address
or addresses the host is sponsoring. This packet is called the
group membership LSA.
• MOSPF include in the tree only the hosts (using their unicast
addresses) that belong to a particular group.
• For efficiency, the router calculates the shortest path trees on
demand (when it receives the first multicast packet). In
addition, the tree can be saved in cache memory for future use
by the same source/group pair.
• MOSPF is a data-driven protocol; the first time an MOSPF
router sees a datagram with a given source and group address,
the router constructs the Dijkstra shortest path tree.
Multicast Distance Vector Routing
• Unicast distance vector routing is very simple; extending it to
support multicast routing is complicated. Multicast routing
does not allow a router to send its routing table to its neighbors.
The idea is to create a table from scratch using the information
from the unicast distance vector tables.
• Multicast distance vector routing uses source-based trees, but
the router never actually makes a routing table. When a router
receives a multicast packet, it forwards the packet as though it
is consulting a routing table. We can say that the shortest path
tree is evanescent. After its use (after a packet is forwarded) the
table is destroyed.
• To accomplish this, the multicast distance vector algorithm
uses a process based on four decision-making strategies.
Each strategy is built on its predecessor.
Multicast Distance Vector Routing (DVMRP)

4 decision-making strategies
1. Flooding
2. Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF)
3. Reverse Path Broadcasting (RPB)
4. Reverse Path Multicasting (RPM)

The Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) is an

implementation of multicast distance vector routing. It is a source-based
routing protocol, based on RIP.
Flooding

• A router receives a packet and sends it out from every interface

except the one from which it was received.
• This is a broadcast, not a multicast.
• It creates loops n the network.
Reverse path forwarding (RPF)
• Reverse path forwarding (RPF) is a modified flooding strategy. To
prevent loops, only one copy is forwarded; the other copies are dropped.
• In RPF, a router forwards only the copy that has traveled the shortest path
from the source to the router.
• RPF prevents loops because there is always one shortest path from the
source to the router.
Problem with RPF

• RPF guarantees that each network receives a copy of the multicast packet
without formation of loops.
• RPF does not guarantee that each network receives only one copy; a
network may receive two or more copies. The reason is that RPF is not
based on the destination address (a group address); forwarding is based on
the source address.
Reverse Path Broadcasting (RPB)

• To eliminate duplication, we must define only one parent router for each
network. A network can receive a multicast packet from a particular source
only through a designated parent router.
• For each source, the router sends the packet only out of those interfaces for
which it is the designated parent.
• RPB guarantees that the packet reaches every network and that every
network receives only one copy.
• The designated parent router can be the router with the shortest path to the
source, and If more than one router qualifies, the router with the smallest IP
address is selected
Reverse Path Multicasting (RPM)

• Reverse path multicasting (RPM) increase efficiency because it is a

multicast not a broadcast. The multicast packet must reach only
those networks that have active members for that particular group.
• To convert broadcasting to multicasting, the protocol uses two
procedures, pruning and grafting.
• Pruning: The process starts when a router connected to a network
finds that there is no interest in a multicast packet. The router sends
a prune message to the upstream router so that it can prune the
corresponding interface. That is, the upstream router can stop
sending multicast messages for this group through that interface.
• Grafting: if a leaf router (a router at the bottom of the tree) has sent
a prune message but suddenly realizes (through IGMP) that one of
its networks is again interested in receiving the multicast packet, It
can send a graft message. The graft message forces the upstream
router to resume sending the multicast messages.
 Figure 6.21 RPF, RPB, and RPM

(Src, Group ID)

RPM adds pruning and grafting to RPB to create a multicast shortest

path tree that supports dynamic membership changes.
Core-Based Tree (CBT) Protocol

CBT protocol is a group-shared protocol that uses a core as the

root of the tree. The autonomous system is divided into regions,
and a core (center router or rendezvous router) is chosen for each
region.
Formation of CBT Tree
• After the rendezvous point is selected, every router is informed
of the unicast address of the selected router.
• Each router sends a unicast join message to show that it wants to
join the group This message passes through all routers that are
located between the sender and the rendezvous router.
• Each intermediate router extracts the necessary information
from the message
◦ Unicast address of the sender
◦ Interface through which the packet has arrived
• When the rendezvous router has received all join messages from
every member of the group, the tree is formed.
• Every router knows its upstream router and the downstream
router.
• If a router wants to leave the group, it sends a leave message to
its upstream router.
Figure 6.23 Sending a multicast packet to the rendezvous router
Comparisons between DVMRP, MOSPF and CBT

❖ The tree for DVMRP and MOSPF is made from the

root up, While the tree for CBT is formed from the
leaves down.

❖ In DVMRP, the tree is first made (broadcasting) and

then pruned, while in CBT, the joining gradually
makes the tree, and the source in CBT may or may
not be part of the tree
Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)

• PIM have two independent multicast routing protocols: Protocol Independent

Multicast, Dense Mode (PIM-DM) and Protocol Independent Multicast,
Sparse Mode (PIM-SM).
• PIM-DM is used when there is a possibility that each router is involved in
multicasting (dense mode). A protocol that broadcasts the packet is more
appropriate in this mode.
• PIM-DM is a source-based tree routing protocol that uses RPF and
pruning/grafting strategies for multicasting. Its operation is like DVMRP;
however, unlike DVMRP, it does not depend on a specific unicasting
protocol.
• PIM-SM is used when there is a slight possibility that each router is
involved in multicasting (sparse mode). A protocol such as CBT that uses a
group-shared tree is more appropriate in this mode.
• PIM-SM is a group-shared tree routing protocol that has a rendezvous point
(RP) as the source of the tree. Its operation is like CBT; however, it is
simpler because it does not require acknowledgment from a join message. In
addition, it creates a backup set of RPs for each region to cover RP failures.
 6-6 MBONE
Multimedia and real-time communication have
increased the need for multicasting in the Internet.
However, only a small fraction of Internet routers are
multicast routers. Although this problem may be solved
in the next few years by adding more and more
multicast routers, there is another solution for this
problem. The solution is tunneling. The multicast
routers are seen as a group of routers on top of unicast
routers. The multicast routers may not be connected
directly, but they are connected logically.
Figure 6.24 Logical tunneling

only the routers enclosed in the shaded circles are capable of

multicasting. Without tunneling, these routers are isolated
islands. To enable multicasting, we make a multicast
backbone (MBONE) out of these isolated routers using the
concept of tunneling.
 Figure 6.25 MBONE

A logical tunnel is established by encapsulating the multicast

packet inside a unicast packet. The multicast packet becomes
the payload (data) of the unicast packet.