Q3: B) How does IPv6 perform fragmentation? Please explain in short.

Fragmentation process occurs when a large packet is received .Its not possible to handle large sized
Packets so fragmentation is the solution. In this process, Large packets of data are divided into smaller
chunks of data before transmitting it. Fragment reassemble process is done on receiving end after
successfully receiving the Whole packet of data which are transmitted in the form of chunks.

In IPv6,header length is 40 bytes. IPv6 has many extension headers, including IPv6 header, Hop-
by-hop Options header, Destination option header, Routing header, Fragment header,
Authentication header, ESP header, Destination Option header and finally Upper-layer header
IPv6 is divided into two parts i.e Fragmentable and non fragmentable part . Because unfragmentable has
to go through different nodes at every router while fragmentable part is divided into Fragments like
Fragment1,fragment2 and so on. After small fragments , particular fragment(fragment1) is connected to
unfragmentable part and is sent towards destination. Payload length may change after fragmentation

A: Assume that as a project manager and the networking engineer, I assigned you a task to deliver data
through the digital modulation process. Additionally, under the condition, I allotted less carrier
frequency than a baseband signal that needed to be sent. Now under these situations, how would you
deliver the data? Please write with the reasoning in short.
 A baseband signal or lowpass signal is a signal that can include frequencies that are very
near zero. It can be transmitted over pair of cables like coaxle,optical fiber etc.
So we need another frequency signal which is carrier frequency to send data over long
distances as it includes frequencies that have higher range than frequency present in baseband
signals
In case , we have to deliver data we don’t have enough carrier frequency to transmit that
particular data,our data will not delivered and will be lost because we don’t have enough carrier
frequency. It is less than the baseband signal which we need to send that data

Q4

A) What would be reasonable requirements for the computer that you would use in this situation in
terms of hardware components. What type of software would be needed?

 router consists of the following major components:

1. CPU
2. ROM
3. RAM
4. NVRAM
5. Flash Memory
6. RXBOOT  Image
7. Interfaces
8. Buses
9. Power Supply
10. Configuration Register
 B) The next step would be to decide on what type of routing you would perform. You can assume that
you will create your own AS for the three networks. What routing protocols would your router have to
implement? Motivate your choices!

Static Routing Protocols

Static routing protocols are used when an administrator manually assigns the path
from source to the destination network. It offers more security to the network.

Advantages
 No overhead on router CPU.
 No unused bandwidth between links.
 Only the administrator is able to add routes
Disadvantages
 The administrator must know how each router is connected.
 Not an ideal option for large networks as it is time intensive.
 Whenever link fails all the network goes down which is not feasible in small
networks.

Dynamic Routing Protocols

Dynamic routing protocols are another important type of routing protocol. It helps
routers to add information to their routing tables from connected routers
automatically. These types of protocols also send out topology updates whenever the
network changes' topological structure.

Advantage:
 Easier to configure even on larger networks.
 It will be dynamically able to choose a different route in case if a link goes
down.
 It helps you to do load balancing between multiple links.

Disadvantage:
 Updates are shared between routers, so it consumes bandwidth.
 Routing protocols put an additional load on router CPU or RAM.

Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DVR)

Distance Vector Protocols advertise their routing table to every directly connected
neighbor at specific time intervals using lots of bandwidths and slow converge.

In the Distance Vector routing protocol, when a route becomes unavailable, all routing
tables need to be updated with new information.

Advantages:
 Updates of the network are exchanged periodically, and it is always broadcast.
 This protocol always trusts route on routing information received from
neighbor routers.
Disadvantages:
 As the routing information are exchanged periodically, unnecessary traffic is
generated, which consumes available bandwidth.

Internet Routing Protocols:

The following are types of protocols which help data packets find their way across the
Internet:

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

RIP is used in both LAN and WAN Networks. It also runs on the Application layer of
the OSI model. The full form of RIP is the Routing Information Protocol. Two
versions of RIP are

1. RIPv1
2. RIPv2

The original version or RIPv1 helps you determine network paths based on the IP
destination and the hop count journey. RIPv1 also interacts with the network by
broadcasting its IP table to all routers connected with the network.

RIPv2 is a little more sophisticated as it sends its routing table on to a multicast

address.

Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP)

IGRP is a subtype of the distance-vector interior gateway protocol developed by
CISCO. It is introduced to overcome RIP limitations. The metrics used are load,
bandwidth, delay, MTU, and reliability. It is widely used by routers to exchange
routing data within an autonomous system.

This type of routing protocol is the best for larger network size as it broadcasts after
every 90 seconds, and it has a maximum hop count of 255. It helps you to sustain
larger networks compared to RIP. IGRP is also widely used as it is resistant to routing
loop because it updates itself automatically when route changes occur within the
specific network. It is also given an option to load balance traffic across equal or
unequal metric cost paths.
Link State Routing Protocol
Link State Protocols take a unique approach to search the best routing path. In this
protocol, the route is calculated based on the speed of the path to the destination and
the cost of resources.

Routing protocol tables:

Link state routing protocol maintains below given three tables:

 Neighbor table: This table contains information about the neighbors of the

router only. For example, adjacency has been formed.
 Topology table: This table stores information about the whole topology. For
example, it contains both the best and backup routes to a particular advertised
network.
 Routing table: This type of table contains all the best routes to the advertised
network.

Advantages:
 This protocol maintains separate tables for both the best route and the backup
routes, so it has more knowledge of the inter-network than any other distance
vector routing protocol.
 Concept of triggered updates are used, so it does not consume any unnecessary
bandwidth.
 Partial updates will be triggered when there is a topology change, so it does not
need to update where the whole routing table is exchanged.

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

EGP is a protocol used to exchange data between gateway hosts that are neighbors
with each other within autonomous systems. This routing protocol offers a forum for
routers to share information across different domains. The full form for EGP is the
Exterior Gateway Protocol. EGP protocol includes known routers, network addresses,
route costs, or neighboring devices.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

EIGRP is a hybrid routing protocol that provides routing protocols, distance vector,
and link-state routing protocols. The full form routing protocol EIGRP is Enhanced
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol. It will route the same protocols that IGRP routes
using the same composite metrics as IGRP, which helps the network select the best
path destination.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is a link-state IGP tailor-made for IP
networks using the Shortest Path First (SPF) method.

OSPF routing allows you to maintain databases detailing information about the
surrounding topology of the network. It also uses the Dijkstra algorithm (Shortest path
algorithm) to recalculate network paths when its topology changes. This protocol is
also very secure, as it can authenticate protocol changes to keep data secure

C: There is now a demand from the organisation to start supporting IoT devices using Zigbee
communication. What is needed from you as a network administrator to make this possible?

Zigbee is a wireless technology developed as an open global standard to address the

unique needs of low-cost, low-power wireless IoT networks. ... The protocol allows devices
to communicate in a variety of network topologies and can have battery life lasting several
years.

ZigBee protocol features include:

 Support for multiple network topologies such as point-to-point,

point-to-multipoint and mesh networks

 Low duty cycle – provides long battery life

 Low latency

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

 Up to 65,000 nodes per network

 128-bit AES encryption for secure data connections

 Collision avoidance, retries and acknowledgements

Setup steps zigbee by:

 Join the Zigbee Alliance
Learn the Basics of Zigbee
Select a Zigbee Compliant Platform
Consider an IoT Enablement Vendor
Plan for the Long Term
Complete the Development
Certify the Finished Product_
Launch and Iterate

D) What can you do to support QoS inside your network and for traffic going in or out from your AS?

Quality of Service (QoS) is a feature of routers and switches which prioritizes traffic so that

more important traffic can pass first. The result is a performance improvement for critical
network traffic. QoS equipment is useful with VoIP phones or in LANs with high volumes of local
traffic.

Qos Configuration

Implement QoS

Physical Network Separation

 A popular way to ensure network quality is to physically separate voice and data
networks. This method involves using a dedicated WAN connection for voice only, and using
separate WAN connections for data traffic.

Balancing or Policy-Based Routing

 Another method for achieving QoS on a LAN is logical network separation. Networks can
be separated into logical divisions or Virtual Area Networks (VLANs) to separate voice from
 lower priority traffic. This traffic balancing, or policy-based routing, can allocate bandwidth
dynamically based on volume, or statically by manual assignment.

 If you have multiple WAN connections you can configure your network to route your
voice VLAN out one WAN connection and all other VLANs over another. In this scenario,
saturation of the ‘data’ WAN connection is irrelevant, as all voice traffic is routed over its own
WAN connection.

Class of Service / DSCP

 Routers and gateways can be configured to honor Layer 3 DSCP values. Layer 2

802.1p/CoS values can also be used, though DSCP is preferred. As configured by
GoToConnect, VoIP devices set a DSCP value in the header of each packet they generate, as
shown in the following table:

Traffic Type Traffic Purpose DSCP Value 802.1p/CoS Value

SIP Call Control 26 5

RTP Call Media (the media conversation) 46* 5

 To enable QoS within a LAN and over a LAN-to-WAN hand-off, the network should be
configured to prioritize traffic carrying those tags over all other traffic.

 Implementing Downstream QoS (ingress) on your internet connection requires the

cooperation of your ISP, as there is very little that can be done on a LAN to prevent saturation of
the downstream link.