MODULE – 4 Database Management Systems

Database Concepts,
Web Designing

23

Notes DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS

In the previous lesson you have learnt that data processing concepts. Now you
know that computers are used to process data. You can feed data into the
computers and give the instructions (in the form of programs) to process the
data. Computers can process the data by following the specified instructions.
Computers are able to process data at extremely high speeds. There are lots
and lots of data which are processed by the computers. For easy and efficient
processing of data it is necessary that the data is stored in an organized way.
There are specialized software, called Database Management Systems, which
facilitate organized storage of data. In this lesson you will learn about Database
Management Systems.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
z define database;
z design simple databases;
z create databases and tables within them using MySQL;
z write and execute SQL commands to perform various database operations.

23.1 TERMINOLOGY
To understand the concepts of Database Management System, you must be
familiar with a few terms which are given below:
Database: A database is an organized collection of data. From daily life we
can take many examples of simple databases. A few are: An index of a book,

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telephone directory, classified ads in a newspaper etc. More complex examples Web Designing
may include registers containing data of students in a school, data of employees
in a big organization etc.
Need of computerized Database: Databases can be organized manually or
using computers. When the databases are organized manually, some problems
creep in frequently. These problems are:
z Redundancy: Having multiple copies of the same data. For example a Notes
student’s name is written in office records as well as in class teacher’s record.
Redundancy leads to inconsistency.
z Inconsistency: Having multiple mismatching copies of the same data. For
example if a student’s section changes from A to B, this change is recorded
in class teachers’ registers but not in office register.
z Loss of Integrity: Integrity means having consistent valid data all the time.
Data consistency is also a kind of data integrity. Data integrity also includes
having valid data only. For example if there are four sections (A, B, C, D)
of a class but a student’s section is recorded as something other than these,
then it is an example of loss of integrity.
z Data Insecurity: Manual databases can be secured physically but cannot
be secured against unauthentic data alterations.
Computerized databases provide centralized control of its operational data.
Thus, with the help of a computerized database:
1. Redundancy is controlled.
2. Inconsistence can be avoided.
3. Integrity of data is maintained.
4. Data can be shared.
5. Security restrictions can be applied.
Data Base Management System (DBMS): A DBMS is a software that allows
us to manage computerized databases.
Relational Database Management System (RDBMS): It is a DBMS based
on relational model introduced by E.F.Codd.
Relational Database: A relational database is a database in which data is
organized in two-dimensional tables (also called relations). A Table consists
of rows (also called tuples or records) and columns (also called attributes or
fields).

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The following table consists of three fields : Name, Telephone, Address; and
two rows.
Name Telephone Address

Abhishek 555227822, Prem Nagar.

Puneet 5438763 A-15, Mohan Nagar.

Notes
Schema – It refers to the organization of data or skeleton structure that
represents the logical flow of the entire database.

Entity: An entity is a person or object (physical or logical) for which we need

to store data in a database. In a school it can be a student, a teacher, a course
etc. In a library an entity can be a book, a member, a book supplier etc.

Relation: A relation (or a table) is a collection of data corresponding to the

same kinds of entities in a database. A relation may contain data of all the books
in a library, or data of all the items in a shop etc. A database contains one or
more than one relations.

Tuple/Row/Record: A tuple corresponds to a row of a relation. A tuple contains

data corresponding to an entity. The number of tuples in a relation is called the
cardinality of the relation.

Attribute: An attribute corresponds to a column in a relation. The number of

attributes (columns) in a relation is called its degree.

Domain: A domain (of a column) is a pool of values from which that column
draws its actual values. For example, domain of the column RollNumber may
be integers from 1 to 50.

Key: A column or a combination of columns which can be used to identify

a row (tuple) in a table is called its key. In general, any column or any
combination of columns in a table is a key.

Primary Key: The group of one or more columns used to uniquely identify
each row of a relation is called its Primary Key. For example, in a students table
AdmissionNumber can be the primary key. A table cannot have more than one
primary key.

Candidate Key: A field or combination of fields which can be used as a primary

key of a relation is called a candidate key because it is one of the candidates
available to be the primary key of the relation. A table may have multiple
candidate keys. For example, in a students table AdmisionNumber as well as
the combination Class+Section+RollNumber are the candidate keys.

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Alternate Key: A table may have multiple candidate keys. One of these keys Web Designing
become the primary key of the table. All the remaining candidate keys are called
alternate keys of the relation.

Foreign Key: A group of one or more columns in a table which is used to set
relationship of this table with some other table.

Cartesian Product (of two tables): It is a new table which contains the columns
of both the given tables. The rows of the new table are obtained by pairing each Notes
row of the first table with each row of the second table.

Normalization: Normalization is the process of analyzing the data to be

represented and breaking it down into separate tables in accordance with the
principles of relational structure.

Need for Normalization: Normalization is carried out for four reasons:

1. To structure the data
2. To permit the simple retrieval of data in response to queries or reports.
3. Simplify maintenance of data through update, delete and insert operations.
4. To reduce the need to restructure or reorganize the data when new
application requirement arises.

23.2 DATA MODELS

To computerize a database, first the database has to be designed. If database
is not designed properly then it definitely leads to failure of any software based
on it. Proper attention must be paid to study the database to be designed. The
developer should know and very well understand all the minute details of the
database then only he/she can develop a good and sustainable database. For this
purpose the developer has to design three models of the database – First the
Conceptual Data Model, then the Logical Data Model, and then the Physical
Data Model – in this sequence only.
To understand this concept of data models assume the simplified version of
School. This school offers various courses (vocational, academic, short term,
long term etc.) to its students. Due to increasing number of students and a large
number of courses, it is becoming difficult for the school to manage this database
(containing the data of students, courses, and results) manually. So, the school
decides to hire a software consultant, say Mr. SoftCon, to computerize this
database. To computerize the database Mr. SoftCon designs the conceptual data
model, logical data model and physical data model.

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 MODULE – 4 Database Management Systems
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Web Designing Conceptual Data Model: Conceptual Data Model can be thought of as a bird’s
eye-view of the database. It identifies various entities and the highest-level
relationship among them.
In our example of School, the entities are: Students, Courses, Marks, and
Results. Results are prepared by taking data of students, courses, and marks.
This can be displayed as follows:

Notes
Student Course

Result

Marks

Fig. 23.1: Conceptual data model

Conceptual data model has the following features:

z It includes important entities and relationships among them.

z No attribute is specified.

z No primary key is specified.

Logical data Model: Logical data model can be thought of as a closer view
of the database. In the conceptual model we look at the entities and their
relationships only. In logical data model we describe the attributes of these
entities in as much details as possible.
In our example of school, the entities are: Students, Courses, Marks, and
Results.

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In the logical data model we may consider their attributes as follows: Web Designing

Notes

Fig. 23.2: logical data model

Foreign Keys:
Table Foreign Key(s)
Course None
Student Course Code, Subject Codes
Marks Admission Number, Course Code, Subject Code

Result Admission Number, Course Code, Subject Code

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Web Designing Logical data model has the following features:
z It includes all entities and relationships among them.
z Normalization occurs at this level.
z All attributes for each entity are specified.
z The primary key for each entity is specified. In our example primary keys
have been highlighted.
Notes z Foreign keys (keys identifying the relationship between different entities) are
specified.

Physical data Model: Physical data model represents the actual implementation
of the Logical Data Model. A physical data model shows all the table structures
including column names, column data types, column constraints, primary key,
foreign key and relationship between tables.
In our example of School, the physical data model can be represented as follows:

Fig. 23.3 Physical data model

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.1

1. Fill in the blanks:
a. A ............................. is an organized collection of data.
b. Having multiple copies of the same data is called .............................
c. In a .............................database the data is organized in two- Notes
dimensional tables.
d. A ............................. key is a group of one or more columns in a table
which is used to set relationship of a table with some other table.
2. State whether the following statements are true or false:
a. A table can have more than one primary keys.
b. A relation can have more than one foreign keys.
c. By normalization we combine all the data into one big table.
d. Conceptual data model and logical data model are the same.
e. In the physical data model we specify the data types of the attributes.

23.3 MYSQL
Once we have designed the physical data model, it is time to actually create
the database in the computer and store data in it. To create the database we
have to have some RDBMS (Relational DataBase Management System)
software. There are many RDBMS software available like Oracle, MySQL, MS
SQL Server, PostgreSQL etc.
MySQL is an open source free software. It can be downloaded free of cost from
http://dev.mysql.com/downloads/mysql and requires no cost for its usage.
After downloading MySQL software, you can easily install it. After installing
MySQL you have to locate the file.

Most probably you will find this file in the folder (Assuming that MySQL is
installed in C:\ drive)
C:\Program Files\MySQL\MySQL Server 5.1\bin
If you do not find the file here then you can search for it. Once you find it,
you should create its shortcut on the desktop so that you can easily run it.

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 MODULE – 4 Database Management Systems
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Web Designing When you run this file, MySQL window will open with a prompt to provide
password:

Fig. 23.4: MySQL Window

Notes
Here you should enter the same password which you entered during installation.
If you enter the correct password, MySQL will welcome you with a MySQL
prompt ( ) in the window:

Fig. 23.5: MySQL command prompt

Now you can use MySQL to create and manage databases. To exit from MySQL
you have to give the command QUIT or EXIT at the MySQL prompt.

23.3.1 Structured Query Language:

After installing MySQL you are ready to use it. Now you can create a database
and tables within it. You can also enter data in the tables and manipulate this
data. But the question is: How do we do this? To do all this we have to use
a language called SQL (Structured Query Language).
SQL is a language specifically oriented around relational databases. It is a non-
procedural language and requires us to specify what is to be done as opposed
to how to do it. SQL offers us various commands using which you create and
manage relational databases. These commands are classified into following
classes depending on their purpose:
1. Data Definition Language (DDL): It consists of those commands that
create, modify, and remove objects (tables, indexes, views and so on) in the
database.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML): It consists of those commands
that are used to retrieve, manipulate and update the data present in tables.
3. Data Control Language (DCL): It consists of those commands that
determine whether a user is permitted to perform a particular action.

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Before we start learning SQL, let us note few points: Web Designing

z SQL is a non case-sensitive language. It means that commands can be

entered using uppercase letter, lowercase letters, or a combination of these
two. For SQL all these mean the same.
z Each command in SQL is terminated by a semi-colon(;).
z A statement may spread into multiple lines. It will be terminated only when
a semi-colon appears. Notes
First of all we have to create the database using the SQL command CREATE
DATABASE as follows:
We can create multiple databases
CREATE DATABASE in this way. To work on any
<DatabaseName>; database and to switch from one
database to another. We use the
Suppose you want to name the database command: USE DB_NAME; where
as OSResult, then the command will be DB_Name is the name of the
given as follows: database we want to use.
CREATE DATABSE OSResult;

If a given command is executed successfully then MySQL gives an OK message,

otherwise it gives an error message stating why the command failed.
First the database has to be made active using USE command.
mysql> use OSResult
After creating and using the database you have to create tables. A table is created
using the CREATE TABLE command as follows:
CREATE TABLE <TableName>
(<ColumnName1><Data Type1> NOT NULL,
<ColumnName2><Data Type2> default NULL,
.
.
<ColumnNameN><Data TypeN> default <some value>
);

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 MODULE – 4 Database Management Systems
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Web Designing A data type specifies what kind of values can be stored in a column. In MySQL
various data types available are:

Data Type Syntax Usage Example

Char CHAR(n) – where For a fixed length CHAR(5)

n is a natural number. column which can specifies that a
store a maximum of column can
255 character. store a string of
Notes upto 5 characters.

Varchar VARCHAR(n)–where For a variable length VARCHAR(5)

n is a natural number column which can specifies that a
store a maximum column can store
of 255 character. a string of upto
5 characters.

Integer INT or INTEGER For columns storing

integer values in the
range -2147483648
to 2147483647.

Decimal DECIMAL(m,d)– For columns storing DECIMAL (6,4)

where m and d are numerical values with specifies that a
natural numbers. fractional part also. column can store
values in the
range -99.9999
to 99.9999

Date DATE For columns storing For Date of

dates Birth, Date of
Joining etc.

NULL / NOT NULL is used to specify if we want to allow blank values in a

column or not. The keyword ‘default’ is used to add a default value for any
column. For e.g., default NULL or default TIMESTAMP. Let us create a table
that has some information about the items sold at a local shop. Let us call the
table as “ITEMS” table.
To create the ITEMS table, we will give the following command:
create table ITEMS (item_code char(5), item_desc varchar(20) NOT NULL;
CP decimal(6,2), SP decimal(6, 2));
Here item-code, item-desc, CP, SP are column names. Column SP will not allow
blank entries. You can view the structure of the table by using the command:

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DESCRIBE <TableName>;
Or
DESC <TableName>;
For example, the command
desc items;
will display the structure of ITEMS table as follows: Notes

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

item_code char(5) YES NULL

item_desc varchar(20) YES NULL

CP decimal(6,2) YES NULL

sp decimal(6,2) NO NULL

Similarly, you can use the command to create the BILLS table and then display
its structure.
After creating a table you have to enter data in the table. The process of
entering data in a table is also called populating the table. You enter data in
a table row-wise. To enter a row in a table you use the command INSERT INTO
as follows:
INSERT INTO <TableName>
VALUES (<Value1>,<Value2>,… ,<ValueN>);
For example, to enter a record (row) in the ITEMS table, you use the command:
insert into items values (“A001”, “Curd - 1Kg Pack”, 50,60);
Here you should notice that the character (CHAR and VARCHAR) values are
placed in double quotation marks. They can also be placed in single quotation
marks. Similarly date (DATE) values must also be placed within quotation
marks. Numeric values (INT and DECIMAL) must not be placed in quotation
marks.
Let us insert some more rows in the ITEMS table by the commands:
insert into items values (‘A002’, “Curd - 0.5Kg Pack”, 27,35);
insert into items values (‘B010’, “Wheat Flour”, 18,20);
insert into items values (‘B011’, “Basmati Rice”, 35,42);

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Web Designing Now if you want to check the data in the table you use the SELECT command.
The following command
select * from items;
will display the contents of the table as follows:
item_code item_desc cp sp

A001 Curd - 1Kg Pack 50.00 60.00

Notes
A002 Curd - 0.5Kg Pack 27.00 35.00
B010 Wheat Flour 18.00 20.00
B011 Basmati Rice 35.00 42.00

SELECT is the most widely used command in SQL and has many variations.
Now we will discuss this in detail.
SELECT
SELECT command is used to retrieve data from table(s). In its simplest form
SELECT command is used to retrieve complete data from a table as follows:
SELECT * FROM <TableName>;
For example, to view all the data from ITEMS table we use the command:
select * from items;
If you want to view only specific columns of a table, you can specify the column
names instead of asterisk (*) in the SELECT command as follows:
SELECT <ColumnName1>,<ColumnName2>. . <ColumnName n>
FROM <table name>;
For example, to view only the item description and selling price of items you
use the following command:
SELECT Item_Desc, sp FROM ITEMS;
It will display the following:

Item_Desc sp
Curd - 1Kg Pack 60.00
Curd - 0.5Kg Pack 35.00
Wheat Flour 20.00
Basmati Rice 42.00

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The column names can be specified in any order. For example, to view SP, Web Designing
followed by Item_Desc, followed by CP, we use the command:
SELECT SP, Item_Desc, cp FROM ITEMS;
SELECT command can also be used to display calculated fields. For example,
to view the profit on each item, we use the command:
Select item_desc, sp-cp from items;
This will display the following result: Notes

item_desc sp-cp
Curd - 1Kg Pack 10.00
Curd - 0.5Kg Pack 8.00
Wheat Flour 2.00
Basmati Rice 7.00

Data can be fetched from tables by using SELECT command. Conditioned data
can be fetched by using WHERE clause. For example, if we want to fetch all
the items that cost more than 30, we can use:-
Select * from items where CP > 30;
This will display the following result:
item_code item_dese CP SP
A001 curd 1Kg Pack 50.00 60.00

B011 Basmati Rice 35.00 42.00

We can specify more than one condition in where clause to get more specified
data. e.g., if we need to fetch the items whose CP is more than 30 but SP is
less than 50, we can use:-
Select * from item where CP > 30 and SP <50;
As shown, we have to use ‘and’ or ‘or’ a combination of both to get any type
of data that we want. Another example:-
Select * from item where (CP > 30 or SP > 30) and SP < 50;
It is important to use the braces for correct order of execution. It is interesting
to see that we can fetch data from more than one table simultaneously by using
these conditions in where clause and mentioning table names in from clause.
For example:-
Select field1, field2, ....., fieldN from table1, table2 where condition1 AND/OR
condition2 AND/OR condition....
Please notice, if the number of conditins are more then more time will be taken
by the query for processing and fetching the results.

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 MODULE – 4 Database Management Systems
Database Concepts,
Web Designing If we want to extract only unique values from any column we can use
DISTINCT.
For example,
Select DISTINCT (CP), SP from ITEMS;
To sort the output based on any column in ascending or descending order, use
ORDER BY
Notes
For example,
Select * from ITEMS ORDER BY SP DESC;
By default the order by will display the values in ascending order.

Modifying the structure of MySQL Tables

It is a command defined under Data definition language as it alters the structure
of an existing table. It has different variations according to the operation to be
performed. To add a new column to your existing table or remove a column
you use alter command.
To add new columns in a table you use alter command as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD (newcolumnname datatype (size),
newcolumnname datatype (size),...);
For example, to add ‘profit’ column in the ITEMS table you use the following
command:
ALTER TABLE ITEMS ADD (profit decimal (6, 2);
The above command will add new column ‘profit’ to the ‘ITEMS’ table.
To remove a column in a table you use alter command as follows:
ALTER TABLE ITEMS Drop profit;
The above command will drop a column ‘profit’, from the ITEMS table.
You can change the column definition by using alter command.
ALTER TABLE ITEMS MODIFY item_desc varchar(30);
This command will modify the existing structure of the table. In the above
command, the column size of the column item_desc of a table items have been
increased to 30 from 20.

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UPDATE Query Web Designing

You can update your data values of the table by using Update command as
follows:
UPDATE table_name SET field1=new-value1, field2=new-value2;
Or
UPDATE table_name SET field1=new-value1, field2=new-value2
Notes
[WHERE Clause];
Update command is use to update either all (without where clause) or selected
data values (By using the where clause) of the table. One can update one or
more fields of a same table under a single command by specifying the WHERE
clause. It is a data manipulation command.

For example, to update the SP of the item B010 i.e. wheat flour from 20 to
22, you use the update command as follows:

UPDATE ITEMS SET SP = 22

WHERE item_code = B010;

This query will update the record whose id is B010. Its SP will be set to new
value 22.

You can delete the data of a table by using Delete command as follows:

DELETE FROM tablename;

Or

DELETE FROM tablename WHERE search_condition;

Delete command is used to remove rows from the table. It can be used to delete
either all the rows from the table or selected set of rows from the tables using
where clause.

For example, to delete all the rows from the ITEMS table you can use the Delete
command as follows:

DELETE FROM ITEMS;

The above command will delete all the rows from the table ‘ITEMS’ table.

DELETE FROM ITEMS WHERE CP > 40;

The above command will delete the rows from the table ‘ITEMS’ that have CP
greater than 40.

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Web Designing Drop command is used to remove the structure of the table from the memory.
You can use drop command as follows:

Syntax:

DROP TABLE table_name;

For example, to drop the structure of ITEMS table, you can use the drop
command as follows:
Notes
DROP TABLE ITEMS;
The above command will drop the structure of ‘ITEMS’ table.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.2

1. Fill in the blanks:
a. Oracle, MySQL, and PostgreSQL are examples of .....................
software.
b. SQL is an abbreviation for .....................
c. ................. is a language specially oriented around ....................
databases.
d. .................... consists of the commands which are used to create,
modify, and remove objects in a database.
e. Each command in SQL is terminated by a .....................
2. State whether the following statements are true or false:
a. MySQL is an open source free software.
b. To run MySQL we can enter any password.
c. DDL, DML, and DCL are three different languages.
d. SQL is a case-sensitive language.
e. In SQL, a statement may spread into multiple lines.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

z Database is an organized collection of data.
z Database management system is a software that allows us to manage
computerized databases.

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z Relation is a collection of data corresponding to the same kinds of entities Web Designing
in a database.
z An attribute corresponds to a column in a relation.
z The group of one or more columns used to uniquely identify each row of
a relation is called primary key.
z A field or combination of fields which can be used as a primary key of relation
is called a candidate key.
Notes
z Normalization is the process of analyzing the data to be represented and
breaking it down into separate tables in accordance with the principles of
relational structure.
z Data Definition Language consists of those commands that create, modify
and remove objects in the database.
z Data Manipulation Language consists of those commands that are used to
retrieve, manipulate and update data present in tables.
z Data Control Language consists of those commands that determine whether
a user is permitted to perform a particular action.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Create a following table:
a) Supplier
Field Type Null Key

SNO varchar(4) No Primary

SName varchar(20) Yes

Status number(4) Yes

City varchar(20) Yes

b) Parts
Field Type Null Key

PNO varchar(4) No Primary

PName varchar(20) Yes

Color varchar(10) Yes

Weight number(4) Yes

City varchar(20) Yes

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Field Type Null Key

JNO varchar(4) No Primary

JName varchar(20) Yes

City varchar(20) Yes

Notes
d) SPJ
Field Type Null Key

SNO varchar(4) No Foreign

PNO varchar(4) No Primary Foreign

JNO varchar(4) No Foreign

QTY number(4) Yes

2. Insert the following data in the respective tables:

a) Supplier table
SNO SName Status City
S1 Smith 20 London
S2 Jones 10 Paris
S3 Blake 30 Paris
S4 Clark 20 London
S5 Adams 30 Athens

b) Parts table
PNO PName Color Weight City
P1 Nut Red 12 London
P2 Bolt Green 17 Paris
P3 Screw Blue 17 Rome
P4 Screw Red 14 London
P5 Cam Blue 12 Paris

P6 Cog Red 19 London

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c) Project table Web Designing

JNO JName City

J1 Sorter Paris
J2 Display Rome
J3 OCR Athens
J4 Console Athens
Notes
J5 RAID London
J6 Eds Oslo

J7 Tape London

d) SPJ table
SNO PNO PNO QTY

S1 P1 J1 200

S1 P1 J4 700

S2 P3 J1 400

S2 P3 J2 200

S2 P3 J6 400

S2 P3 J7 800

S3 P3 J1 200

S3 P4 J2 500

S4 P2 J2 200

S4 P6 J3 300

S4 P6 J7 300

S5 P1 J4 100

S5 P2 J4 100

S5 P3 J4 200

S5 P4 J4 800

3. Perform the following queries on the above data:

a) Find the supplier numbers of the supplies who supplies to project ‘J1’.
b) Find the supplier numbers of the supplies who supplies to project ‘J1’
with part ‘P1’.

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c) Retrieve the project name where supplier ‘S1’ is supplying the parts.
d) Retrieve the color values for the parts supplied by supplier ‘S1’.
e) Retrieve the part numbers supplied to any project in ‘London’.
f) Retrieve the supplier number who supplies to London or Paris with
Red color part.
g) Find the total quantity of part P1 supplied by supplier S1.
Notes
h) Find the total number of projects supplied by supplier ‘S3’.
i) Change the color of all Red parts to Orange.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

23.1
1. (a) Database
(b) Redundancy
(c) Relational
(d) Foreign
2 (a) False (b) True
(c) False (d) False
(e) True

23.2
1. (a) RDBMS
(b) Structured Query Language
(c) SQL, relational
(d) DDL (Data Definition Language)
(e) ; (or) semicolon
2. (a) True (b) False
(c) False (d) False
(e) True

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