Chapter 4.

Atomic structure
Thomson model of the atom

Geiger and Marsden’s experiment:

According to Thomson model, it was expected that the alpha

particle (helium atoms lost two e', leaving charge of +2e) would

go right through the foil with hardly any deflection. (Since the

electron charge inside an atom is uniformly spread out its

volume, only weak electric forces can exert on the alpha

particle)

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Although most of the alpha particles indeed were not deviated

by much, a few were scattered through very large angles. Some

were even scattered backwards.

Rutherford model

With an atom being largely empty space, it is easy to see why

most alpha particles go right through a thin foil. However, when

an alpha particle happens to come near a nucleus, the intense E

field scatters it through a large angle. The e' is do light that they

do not appreciable affect the alpha particles.

The deflection of an alpha particle depends on magnitude of the

nuclear charge.

All the atoms of any one element turned out to have the same

unique nuclear charge, and this charge increased regularly in the

periodic table.

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The nuclear charges turned out to be multiples of +e, the number

Z in the nuclei of an element is called atomic number of the

element.

In fact, the proton with charge +e provide the charge on a

nucleus, so the atomic number of an element is the same as the

number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms.

Rutherford scattering formula

N(θ) number of alpha particles per unit area that reach the screen

at a scattering angle ofθ

Ni=total number of alpha particles that reach the screen

n=number of atoms per unit volume on the foil

Z=atomic number of the foil atoms

R=distance of screen from the foil

KE=kinetic energy of the alpha particles

t=foil thickness

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Because N(θ) is inversely proportional to sin4(θ/2): only 0.14

percent of the incident alpha particles are scattered by more than

1o.

Nuclear Dimensions

Rutherford assumed that the size of a target nucleus is small

compared with the minimum distance R to witch incident alpha

particles approach the nucleus before being deflected away.

A way to find an upper limit to nuclear dimensions.

Smallest R=when alpha particles approach a nucleus head on,

which will be followed by a 180o scattering.

R = 2Ze /(4 π ε oKE)=3.8x10-16 Z(m)

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particle=7.7Mev)
-14 -4
For gold . Z=79 R(Au)=3x10 m (<<10 the radius of atom)

Electron orbits

e' cannot be stationary in this model, because there is nothing

that can keep them in place against the electric force pulling

them to the nucleus the e' needs to be in motion

Assume a circular electron orbit

Fc =mv2/r (centripetal force)

1 e2 e
Fc = Fe mv2/r = v=
4 o r 2 4 o mr

e2
Total energy E = KE + PE =(1/2)mv2+(- )
4 o r
e2 e2
= -
8 o r 4 o r
e2
Total energy of H atom E= - (negative energy e' is
8 o r

bound to nucleus)

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The failure of classical physics

According to EM theory, the accelerated electric charges radiate

energy in the form of em waves. An electron pursuing a curved

path is accelerated and therefore should continuously lose

energy, spiraling into the nucleus in a fraction of a second.

Classical physics fails to provide a meaningful analysis of

atomic structure because it approaches nature in terms of “pure”

particles and “ pure” waves.

The usefulness of classical physics decreases as the scale of the

phenomena under study decrease. We must use the

particle behavior of waves and the wave behavior of particles to

understand the atom. Bohr model

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Atomic spectra

Emission line spectra

Every element displays a unique line spectrum when a sample of

it in the vapor phase is excited. Spectroscopy is useful tool for

analyzing the composition of an unknown substance.

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Absorption line

When white light is passed through a gas, the gas is found to

absorb light of certain of the wavelength present in its emission

spectrum.

The number, strength, and wavelengths of the lines depend on

temperature, pressure, the presence of electric and magnetic

field, and the motion of the source.

Spectral series

Balmer series 1/λ=R(1/22 –1/n2) n=3,4,5……..

Rydberg constant R=1.097x107m-1=0.01097nm-1

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Lyman series 1/λ=R(1/12 –1/n2) n=2,3,4…….

Pachen series 1/λ=R(1/32 –1/n2) n=4,5,6……..

Brackett series 1/λ=R(1/42 –1/n2) n=5,6,7……..

Pfund series 1/λ=R(1/52 –1/n2) n=6,7,8………

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10
4.4 Bohr atom

de Broglie wavelength of e' λ=h/mv

e h 4 o r
v 
4 o rm e m

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let r =5.3x10-11m λ= 33x10 m

λis exactly the same as 2πr

*An electron can circle a nucleus only if its orbit contains an

integral number of de Broglie λ

nλ=2πrn n=1,2,3……..quantum number

h 4 o
n  2rn (see Fig 4.12,4.13,4.14)
e m

n 2 h 2 o
Orbital radii in Bohr atom r n= n=1,2,3…..
me2

When n=1 , the radius is called Bohr radius ao

ao =5.292x10-11m , rn= n2ao

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4.5 energy level and spectron

En=  me  1  E1
4
e2
∵ En= 2 2  2 
 2
8 o rn 8 o h  n  n

E1=-13.6ev(see fig 4.15)

These levels are all “-“, which signifies that the e' does not have

enough energy to escape from the nucleus.

E1 : ground state

E2,E3,E4……: excited state

 The work needed to remove an electron from an atom in its

ground state is called its ionization energy.The ionization

energy = - E1

When an electron in an excited state drops to a lower state, the

lost energy is emitted as a lingle of light.

Ei - Ef = hν
2 2 2 2
E1 (1/ni – 1/nf ) = -E1(1/nf -1/ni ) =hν
2 2
ν= -E1/h(1/nf -1/ni )
2 2
1/λ= (-E1/ch)(1/nf -1/ni ) (see fig 4.16)
4
the constant E1
= me3 3  1.097  107 m1 =Rydberg constant
ch 8 o ch

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4.6 Correspondence Principle

the greater the quantum number, the closer quantum

physics approaches classical physics.

According to EM theory, an e' moving in a circular orbit radiates

em waves whose ν are equal to its ν of revolution and to

harmonics(integral multiples) of that frequency.

e
Frequency of revolution f = v/2πr =
2 4 0 mr 3

n 2 h 2 o me4  2   E1  2 
∵ rn  f     
me2 8 0 h3  n3 
2
h  n3 

 From the Bohr theory

 E1  1 1 
 
h  n f 2 ni 2 

let ni = n , nf = n-P (P=1,2,3……)

 E1  1 1   E1  2np  p 2 
     
h  n  p 2 n 2  h  n 2 n  p 2 

when ni & nf are both very large n>>P

 E1  2 p 
  
h  n3  same as classical em theory

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4.7 Nuclear Motion

The nuclear mass effects theλof spectral lines.

Both nucleus & e' revolve around their common center of mass,

which is very close to the nucleus because nuclear mass is much

greater than that of the e' .

a single particle of mass m' revolves around the position of the

heavier particle.

Reduced Mass m'=mM/m+M

  me 1  m  E1 
4
En     
8 o h 2 n 2  m  n 2 
2

In H m'/m=0.99945

Increase of 0.055% (∵E is ”-“ )

Reduced mass deuterium

MD= 2MH (neutron + proton)

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∵ mass increases spectral lines of D shifted to shorter

wavelength.

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4.8 Atomic excitation

Two ways for an atom to be excited

(1) collision with another particle (KE is absorted)

excited atom ground state (10-8sec)

hν

(2)atoms absorbs a photon of light whose energy is just the right

amount to raise the atom high level

 collision

∵ energy transfer is a max when the colliding particles have

the same mass. e' is more effective than ions to provide

energy to atomic electrons.

Ex: Neon signs &mercury-vapor lamps.

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Photon absorption

Hn=1 absorption Hn=2 reradiation Hn=1

hν hν radiation

The resulting excited H atoms reradiate their excitation energy

almost at once, but these photons come off in random directions,

with only a few in the same direction as the original beam of

white light The dark line in an absorption spectrum are

never completely black.

V0: prevent e’ having energies less than a certain minimum from

contributing to current I

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Franck-Hertz experiment when V # of e’ I it is

not the case, at some specific V

 If KE is conserved when e’ collides with atoms in vapor,

the e’ merely bounces off in a new direction.(∵e’ is light

almost no KE loss)

 at a critical V I e’ colliding with one of atoms gives

up some or all of its KE to excite atom to higher energy level.

In elastic

 when V again I again( ∵ e’ now have enough

energy left to reach the plate after an inelastic collision)

 V another sharp drop

Excitation of the same energy level in other atoms by e’

* to check critical V is due to atomic energy level Check

emission spectra for Mercury vapor: 4.9eV was required to

excite 253.6nm spectra line.

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4.9 Laser: light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation

.coherent: in phase

.monochromatic: single λ

.very little diverge.

.intense

key for Laser: presence of meta stable states

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Three kinds of transition between two energy levels.

In induced emission, the radiation waves are exactly in phase

with the incident ones enhanced beam of coherent light.

* Pinduced emission=Pinduced absorption

 three-level laser

 We want more atoms in Metastable state than in group stat .

Shine hν more induced emission than induced absorption

amplification of light.

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 population inversion an assembly of atoms in which the

majority are in energy levels above ground state.

 optical pumping: external light photons raise ground-state

atoms to excited state metastable state

 if only two levels more photons upward transition

induced downward /transition half the

atoms are in each state

Rinduced emission=Rinduced absorption

No laser amplification

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∵ very few atoms in intermediate modest amount of

pumping is enough to populate the metastable state to greater

than intermediate state.

 Ruby laser: Al2O3, some of Al+3 are replaced by Cr+3 xenon

flash lamp excite Cr+3 to higher energy

Fall to metastable level by losing energy to other ions

Photons from spontaneous decay of some Cr+3 are reflected

back & forth between mirrored ends of ruby rod

Stimulating other excited Cr+3

* rod’s length=(λ/2)n standing wave.

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He-Ne laser: 10He/1Ne at low pressure.

.use electric discharge collisions with e’ from discharge

excite. He&Ne to metastable states

.Some of excited He transfer energy to ground state Ne in

collisions

*The purpose of He is to help achieve a population inversion in

Ne

Since the e’ impacts the excite He&Ne occur all the time

He-Ne laser operates continuously.

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