INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS &

PROBABILITY
CHAPTER-III
MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

1
Objectives:

After completing this unit you should be able to:

understand the role of descriptive statistics in
summarization, description and interpretation
of data.
 To get one single value that describes the
characteristics of the entire group.
 To facilitate comparison between different data sets.

2
3.1 Introduction

 When we want to make comparison between groups of

data it is good to have a single value that is considered
to be a good representative of each group. This single
value is called the average of the group.

 Averages are also called measures of central tendency.

 An average which is representative is called typical
average and an average which is not representative and
has only a theoretical value is called a descriptive
average.

3
A typical average should posses the
following properties:

based on all the observed values.

simple to understand and easy to interpret.
calculable by reasonable ease and rapidity.
easily manipulated algebraically.
little affected by fluctuations of sampling.
should not influenced by extreme values.
it should be defined rigidly which means that it
should have a definite value.

4
3.2 The summation notation

5
Example:

• Suppose the following were scores made on

the first homework assignment for five
students in the class: 5, 7, 7, 6, and 8. In this
example set of five numbers, where N=5, the
summation could be written:

6
Continued…
• The "i=1" in the bottom of the summation
notation tells where to begin the sequence of
summation. If the expression were written with
"i=3", the summation would start with the third
number in the set.
• For example:

7
Continued…
𝑛
• 𝑖<1 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝑦𝑛
𝑛
• 𝑖<1 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑥1 𝑓1 + 𝑥2 𝑓2 + 𝑥3 𝑓3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝑓𝑛

𝑛 2
• 𝑖<1 𝑖 𝑓𝑖
𝑥 = 𝑥12 𝑓1 + 𝑥22 𝑓2 + 𝑥32 𝑓3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛2 𝑓𝑛

• Rules of summation
𝒏 𝑛 𝑛
1. 𝒊<𝟏(𝒙𝒊 ± 𝒚𝒊 ) = 𝑖<1 𝑥𝑖 ± 𝑖<1 𝑦𝑖

8
Continued…
2. 𝑛𝑖<1 𝑘𝑥𝑖 = 𝑘 𝑛𝑖<1 𝑥𝑖 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
3. 𝑛𝑖<1 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑘 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Example: If
x1  2, x 2  3 , x3  4 and
y1  5 , y 2  2 , y 3  4. Then find
3
a)  (x
i 1
i  yi )
3
b) xi y i
i 2
3
c) xi2 y i
i 1 9
 3.3 Types of measures of central tendency

a) Arithmetic mean
 Arithmetic mean for raw data (ungrouped data)
Definition:
i) Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 be the values of the variable X.
The simple arithmetic mean denoted by 𝑥 is the sum of
these observations of X divided by the no values.
𝑛
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝑖<1 𝑥𝑖
𝑥= =
𝑛 𝑛

10
Continued…
ii) If the numbers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑘 occur with
frequencies𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 , … , 𝑓𝑘 , respectively. Then mean
can be defined in a more compact form as
𝑘
𝑥1 𝑓1 :𝑥2 𝑓2 :𝑥3 𝑓3 :⋯:𝑥𝑘 𝑓𝑘 𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥= = 𝑘
𝑓1 :𝑓2 :𝑓3 :⋯: 𝑓𝑘 𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖

Example : The following data is the weight (in Kg)

of eight youths: 32,37,41,39,36,43,48 and 36.
Calculate the arithmetic mean of their weight.
11
Example

The ages of a random sample of patients in a

given hospital in Ethiopia is given below:

12
 𝑘
𝑖<1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑥1 𝑓1 + 𝑥2 𝑓2 + 𝑥3 𝑓3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑘 𝑓𝑘
𝑥= 𝑘
=
𝑖<1 𝑓𝑖 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑘
10 × 3 + 12 × 6 + 14 × 10 + 16 × 14 + 18 × 11 + 20 × 5 + 22 × 4
=
3 + 6 + 10 + 14 + 11 + 5 + 4
30 + 72 + 140 + 224 + 198 + 100 + 88 852
= = = 16.075
53 53

Thus the mean age of these patients is 16.075.

13
Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data

If data are given in the shape of a continuous

frequency distribution, then the mean is obtained
as follows:

14
Example:
Calculate the mean for the following age
distribution.
Class frequency
6- 10 35
11- 15 23
16- 20 15
21- 25 12
26- 30 9
31- 35 6

15
Solution:
• First find the class marks
• Find the product of frequency and class marks
• Find mean using the formula.

Frequency Class 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊
Class
𝑓𝑖 Mark 𝒙𝒊
6- 10 35 8 280

11- 15 23 13 299

16- 20 15 18 270

21- 25 12 23 276

26- 30 9 28 252

31- 35 6 33 198

Total 100 1575

16
Continued…

Exercise:
Marks of 75 students are summarized in the
following frequency distribution:

17
 No. of
Marks
students
40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 f4
60-64 f5
65-69 6
70-74 3

20% of the students have marks between 55 and 59

i. Find the missing frequencies f4 and f5.
ii. Find the mean

18
Special properties of Arithmetic mean

1) The sum of the deviations of a set of items from their mean is always
zero .i.e
𝑛

𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 = 0
𝑖<1
Example: Verify the above properties using the following data 4,6,8,2,5.

𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 4:6:8:2:5
Solution: x = = =5
𝑛 5
Now find
5

𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 = 4 − 5 + 6 − 5 + 8 − 5 + 2 − 5 + 5 − 5
𝑖<1
= −1 + 1 + 3 − 30 = 0

19
Continued…
2) The sum of the squared deviations of a set
of items from their mean is the minimum. i.e.
For all 𝑨 ≠ 𝑿

20
Continued…
Example: Consider the data in the above
example 4,6,8,2,5.
𝑋 = 5, 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = 2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑖<1 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋 2 with
𝑛 2
𝑋
𝑖<1 𝑖 − 𝐴 .That is
𝑛 2 2 2
𝑋
𝑖<1 𝑖 − 𝑋 = 4 − 5 + 6 − 5 +
8−5 2+ 2−5 2+ 5−5 2

= 1 + 1 + 9 + 9 + 0 = 20

21
Continued…
And
𝑛
𝑖<1 𝑋𝑖 − 𝐴 2 = 4 − 2 2 + 6 − 2 2 +
8−2 2+ 2−2 2+ 5−2 2

= 4 + 16 + 36 + 0 + 9 = 65

Thus for all A,

22
Continued…

23
Example:

24
Continued…
4. If a wrong figure has been used when calculating the mean the
correct mean can be obtained with out repeating the whole
process using:

Where n is total number of observations.

Example: An average weight of 10 students was calculated to be

65.Latter it was discovered that one weight was misread as 52
K.g instead of 25 k.g. Calculate the correct average weight.

25
Solution
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏
= 𝑾𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝑾𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
+
𝒏
𝟐𝟓;𝟓𝟐
= 𝟔𝟓 + =𝟔𝟓 + −𝟐. 𝟕 =62.3
𝟏𝟎

26
5. The effect of transforming original series on
the mean.
a) If a constant k is added/subtracted to/from
every observation then the new mean will be the
old mean± k respectively.
b) If every observations are multiplied by a
constant k then the new mean will be k*old
mean .

27
Example:

28
Solution:
a) New Mean = Old Mean+10=500+10=510
b) New Mean =Old Mean*-5=500*-5=-2500

Weighted Mean
When a proper importance is desired to be given
to different data a weighted mean is appropriate.
Weights are assigned to each item in proportion to
its relative importance.

29
Example : The GPA or CGPA of a student is a good
example of a weighted arithmetic mean. Suppose that
Solomon obtained the following grades in the first semester
of the freshman program at Jima University in 2000.

30
Continued…
Course Credit hour (wi) Grade (𝒙𝒊 )
Math101 4 A=4
Bio101 3 C=2
Chem101 3 B=3
Phys101 4 B=3
Flen101 3 C=2

Find the GPA of Solomon.

5
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Solution: GPA=𝑥𝑤 = 5
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖
4 4 :3 2 :3 3 :4 3 :3(2) 49
= = = 2.88
4:3:3:4:3 17
31
Example :
In a vacancy for a position of botanist in an organization, the
criteria of selection were work experience, entrance exam, and,
interview result. The relative importance of these criteria was
regarded to be different. The weights of these criteria and the
scores obtained by 3 candidates (out of 100 in each criterion) are
given in the following table. In addition, the selection of a
candidate is based on average result on these criteria.
Criterion Weight Candidates
Tesfaye Gutema Kedir
Work experience 4 70 89 85
Entrance exam 3 78 83 89
Interview result 2 90 92 90
32
Continued…
Who is the appropriate candidate for the position based on the criteria?
Solution: We use the weighted mean since the relative importance of these
criteria are different.

Criterion Weight Candidates

(𝒘𝒊 ) Tesfaye Gutema Kedir
xi x iw i xi x iw i xi x iw i
Work 4 70 280 89 356 85 340
experience
Entrance 3 78 234 83 249 89 267
exam
Interview 2 90 180 92 184 90 180
result
Total 9 238 694 264 789 264 787
33
The weighted mean and the simple arithmetic mean for
the applicants are as follows:
Applicant Tesfaye Gutema Kedir
Weighted mean 694/9=77.11 789/9=87.67 787/9=87.44
Simple arithmetic mean 238/3=79.33 264/3=88 264/3=88

If we use the simple arithmetic mean of the scores, both Gutema

and Kedir have got equal chances to be selected. However, the
relative importance of the criteria is different. So we have to use
the weighted mean for discriminating among the candidates. The
weighted mean of the scores obtained by Gutema is larger than
the others. So Gutema should be selected for the job. 34
Merits and Demerits of Arithmetic
Mean
• Merits
It is rigidly defined which means that it should
have a definite value. .
 It is based on all observation.
It is suitable for further mathematical treatment.
 It is stable average, i.e. it is not affected by
fluctuations of sampling to some extent.
It is easy to calculate and simple to understand.

35
Demerits

It is affected by extreme observations.

It can not be used in the case of open end classes
It can not be determined by the method of
inspection.
 It can not be used when dealing with qualitative
characteristics, such as intelligence, honesty,
beauty.
 It can be a number which does not exist in the
data.

36
Continued…
 Some times it leads to wrong conclusion if the
details of the data from which it is obtained are
not available.
a) It gives high weight to high extreme values and less
weight to low extreme values.

37
b) Mode
• Mode is a value which occurs most frequently
in a set of values.[The most frequent value in
the data .]
• The mode may not exist and even if it exist, it
may not be unique.
• In case of discrete distribution the value
having the maximum frequency is the model
value.

38
Examples:

 The mode for raw data

1. Find the mode of 5, 3, 5, 8, 9

Mode =5
2. Find the mode of 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 2, and 5.
It is a bimodal Data: 8 and 9
3. Find the mode of 4, 12, 3, 6, and 7.
No mode for this data.

 The mode of a set of numbers 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … 𝑋𝑛 is usually

denoted by 𝑋.

39
Note:

 If a distribution has more than two modal values

then we call the distribution multimodal.
 If in a set of observed values, all values occur
once or equal number of times, there is no mode.
 The mode is also useful in finding the most
typical case when the data are nominal or
categorical.

40
Example:
A survey showed the following distribution for the number of
students enrolled in each field. Find the mode.

Subject Number of students

Business 850
Liberal arts 825
Computer sciences 645
Education 478
General studies 100
Solution: Since the category with the highest frequency
is business, the most typical case is a business major.
41
Mode for Grouped data.

• If data are given in the shape of continuous

frequency distribution, the mode is defined as:
∆1
𝑋 = 𝐿𝑚 + 𝑤
∆1 + ∆2
• Where:
• 𝑋 =The mode of the distribution.
• 𝐿𝑚 = The lower class boundary(not class limit) of
the modal class.
• 𝑤= Class width.

42
Continued…
• ∆1 = 𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑚;1
• ∆2 = 𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑚:1
• 𝑓𝑚 = frequency of the modal class.
• 𝑓𝑚;1 = frequency the class above the modal
class.
• 𝑓𝑚:1 = frequency the class below the modal
class.
• Note: The modal class is a class with the
highest frequency.

43
Example:
Size of farms No. of farms
5- 15 ______________________________ 8
15- 25______________________________ 12
25- 35______________________________ 17
35- 45______________________________ 29
45- 55______________________________ 31
55- 65______________________________ 5
65- 75______________________________ 3

44
Continued…
• 𝐿𝑚 = 45, 𝑤= 15-5=10. 𝑓𝑚 = 31 , 𝑓𝑚;1 = 29
𝑓𝑚:1 = 5,
• ∆1 = 𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑚;1 =31-29=2
• ∆2 = 𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑚:1 =31-5=26
∆1
• The mode = 𝑋 = 𝐿𝑚 + 𝑤
∆1 :∆2
2
= 45 + 10
2 + 26
=45.71

45
Merits and Demerits of Mode

• Merits:
• It is not affected by extreme observations.
• Easy to calculate and simple to understand.
• It can be calculated for distribution with open end
class.
Demerits:
• It is not rigidly defined which means that it may
not have a definite value.
• It is not based on all observations.

46
Continued…
• It is not suitable for further mathematical
treatment.
• It is not stable average, i.e. it is affected by
fluctuations of sampling to some extent.
• Often its value is not unique.

47
c) Median
Definition : the median of a set of data is a value which divides
the set in such a way that the number of observations below it is
the same as the number of observations above it.
• Median for raw data
i. If the number of observations, say n, is odd then the median is
𝑛:1
equal to the 𝑡ℎ observation of the array.
2
ii. If the number of observations n is even then the median is
𝑛 𝑛
equal to the sum of 𝑡ℎ observation and + 1 𝑡ℎ
2 2
observation divided by two.

48
Continued…
• Notation: If X is the variable under consideration, then
𝑥 is used to denote the median.
Example: Find the median for the following sets of data:
i. 10 5 7 9 6 5 4
• Solution: First arrange the data in the form of an array.
• 4 5 5 6 7 9 10
• Here we have n=7 which is odd
𝑛:1
• Therefore, the median, 𝑥 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ observation =
2
the 4th observation = 6.

49
Continued…
ii) 10 5 7 9 6 5 4 8
• Solution: Arrange the data in ascending order.
• 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Here n=8 which is even.
• Therefore,
8 8
( )𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:( :1)𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 2
𝑥=
2
4 𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:5𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 6:7
• = = = 6.5
2 2
50
Continued…
iii) The following table shows final exam results
of 50-students.Find the median mark of the
students.
Marks Number of students
21 12
26 10
35 7
45 3
46 16
49 2
51
Continued…
The number of observations n=50 , even.
25𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:26𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 35 + 35
𝑥= = = 35
2 2
Marks Number of students LCF
21 12 12

26 10 22

35 7 29

45 3 32

46 16 48

49 2 50

52
Median for grouped data.

• If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency

distribution, the median is defined as:
𝑛 𝑤
• 𝑋 = 𝐿𝑚 + − 𝑐𝑓
2 𝑓𝑚
Where:
Lm= lower class boundary for the median class.
n= total number of observations in the distribution.
cf= less than cumulative frequency for the class
preceding the median class.
w= class width for median class.
fm= frequency for median class.

53
Continued…
Example : Find the median for the following frequency
distribution.
Class Limits Frequency (f)
6-10 1
11-15 2
16-20 3
21-25 5
26-30 4
31-35 3
36-40 2

54
Solution:
The class containing the (n/2) th observation or the 10th observation is the median
class. This class has class boundaries 20.5 & 25.5(4th class).

Class Limits Frequency (f) LCF

6-10 1 1

11-15 2 3

16-20 3 6

21-25 5 11

26-30 4 15

31-35 3 18

36-40 2 20

55
Continued:
𝑛 𝑤 20 5
• 𝑥 = 𝐿𝑚 + − 𝑐𝑓 = 20.5 + −6 =24.5
2 𝑓𝑚 2 5

Exercise: Find the median of Class Frequency

the following distribution. 40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 15
60-64 12
65-69 6
70-74 3
56
Merits and Demerits of Median

• Merits:
• Median is a positional average and hence not
influenced by extreme observations.
• Can be calculated in the case of open end intervals.
• Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.
Demerits:
• It is not a good representative of data if the number of
items is small.
• It is not amendable to further algebraic treatment.
• It is subjected to sampling fluctuations.

57
 Quartiles, Deciles and Percentiles

These are averages of position. They are

collective known as fractile (quantile) points.
Definition (Quartiles)
Quartiles are three points that divide an array into
four parts in such a way that each part contains an
equal number of elements. The 1st, the 2nd and the
3rd points are known as the 1st, the 2nd and the 3rd
quartiles and are usually denoted by Q1, Q2 and Q3,
respectively.
58
Definition:(Deciles)
Deciles are nine points which divide an array
into 10 parts in such a way that each part
contains equal number of elements. The 1st,
2nd,…, and the 9th points are known as the 1st,
2nd,…, and the 9th deciles and are usually
denoted by D1,D2,…,D9, respectively.

59
Definition:(Percentiles)
• Percentiles are 99 points which divide an
array into 100 parts in such a way that each
part consists of equal number of elements. The
1st, 2nd… and the 99th points are known as the
1st, 2nd… and the 99th percentiles and are
usually denoted by P1, P2… P99, respectively.

60
Example
The following is the data obtained by 20 students
in a test of statistics :
53, 74, 82, 42, 39, 20, 81, 68, 58, 28,
67, 54, 93, 70, 30, 55, 36, 37, 29, 61.
Find the quartiles, the seventh decile and the 90th
percentile.

61
Solution:

First arrange the data in ascending order. That is:

20, 28, 29, 30, 36, 37, 39, 42, 53, 54,
55, 58, 61, 67, 68, 70, 74, 81, 82, 93.
Here n=20.
𝑡ℎ
𝑛+1
𝑄𝑘 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
4
The 1𝑠𝑡 quartile is:
𝑡ℎ
20 + 1
𝑄1 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
4
𝑄1 =The value on the (5.25)-th position.
 But the value of the (5)-th item is 36 and that of the (6)-th item is 37.Thus
the first quartile is the value 0.25-th of the way between 36 and 37.
𝑄1 = (5)-th item +0.25(37-36)=36+0.25=36.25

62
The 2𝑛𝑑 quartile is:
𝑡ℎ
20 + 1
𝑄2 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
4
𝑄2 =The value on the (10.5)-th position.
 But the value of the (10)-th item is 54 and that of the (11)-th item is 55.Thus the second
quartile is the value 0.5-th of the way between 54 and 55.
𝑄2 = (10)-th item +0.5(55-54)=54+0.25=54.5

The 3𝑟𝑑 quartile is:

𝑡ℎ
20 + 1
𝑄3 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 3 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
4
𝑄3 =The value on the (15.75)-th position.
 But the value of the (15)-th item is 68 and that of the (16)-th item is 70.Thus the first
quartile is the value 0.75-th of the way between 68 and 70.
𝑄3 = (15)-th item +0.75(70-68)=68+1.50=69.5

63
Continued…
The 7𝑡ℎ decile is:
𝑛:1 𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑘 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
10
𝑡ℎ
20 + 1
𝐷7 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 7 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
10
𝐷7 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 14.7 − 𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
 But the value of the (14)-th item is 67 and that of the
(15)-th item is 68.Thus the seventh decile is the value
0.7-th of the way between 67 and 68.
𝐷7 = (14)-th item +0.7(68-67)=67+0.7=67.7

64
Continued…
The 90th percentile is:
𝑛:1 𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑘 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
100
20:1 𝑡ℎ
𝑃90 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 90 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
100
𝑡ℎ
𝑃90 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 18.9 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
 But the value of the (18)-th item is 81 and that of the
(19)-th item is 82.Thus the 90th percentile is the value 0.9-th
of the way between 81 and 82.
𝑃90 = (18)-th item + 0.9(82-81)=81+0.9=81.9

65
Relationships between fractile points

Q1=P25
Q2=P50=D5= 𝑋 = Median
Q3=P75
D1=P10; 𝐷2 =P20 … D9=P90.

66
Quartiles, Deciles and Percentiles for
Grouped Data
For grouped data: we have the following formulas:
a) Quartiles For Grouped Data:
𝑖𝑛 𝑤
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐿𝑄𝑖 + − 𝑐𝑓
4 𝑓𝑄𝑖

Where: i=1,2,3.
𝐿𝑄𝑖 = The lower class boundary of the quartile class.
[ The quartile class is the class corresponding to LCF in
𝑖𝑛
which 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠. ]
4

67
Continued…
n= total number of observations in the distribution.
cf= less than cumulative frequency for the class
preceding the quartile class.
w= class width of the quartile class.
𝑓𝑄𝑖 = frequency of the quartile class.

68
b) Deciles For Grouped Data:
𝑖𝑛 𝑤
𝐷𝑖 = 𝐿𝐷𝑖 + − 𝑐𝑓
10 𝑓𝐷𝑖
Where: i=1,2,3, ..., 9
𝐿𝐷𝑖 = The lower class boundary of the decile class.
[ The decile class is the class corresponding to LCF in which
𝑖𝑛
𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠. ]
10
n= total number of observations in the distribution.
cf= less than cumulative frequency for the class preceding the
decile class.
w= class width of the decile class.
𝑓𝐷𝑖 = frequency of the decile class.

69
c) Percentiles For Grouped Data:
𝑖𝑛 𝑤
𝑃𝑖 = 𝐿𝑃𝑖 + − 𝑐𝑓
100 𝑓 𝑃𝑖
Where: i=1,2,3, ..., 99
𝐿𝑃𝑖 = The lower class boundary of the percentile class.
[ The percentile class is the class corresponding to LCF in which
𝑖𝑛
𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠. ]
100
n= total number of observations in the distribution.
cf= less than cumulative frequency for the class preceding the
percentile class.
w= class width of the percentile class.
𝑓𝐷𝑖 = frequency of the percentile class.

70
 Example:
The following table shows the Weight Frequency LCF
weight of 120-tudents in 110-119 1 1
pound. Find 120-129 4 5
a) 1𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑟𝑑 quartiles. 130-139 17 22
b) 4𝑡ℎ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 9𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠. 140-149 28 50
150-159 25 75
c) 45𝑡ℎ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 90𝑡ℎ percentiles.
160-169 18 93
170-179 13 106
180-189 6 112
190-199 5 117
200-209 2 119
210-219 1 120
71
Solution:
a) 1𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑟𝑑 quartiles.
𝑖𝑛 𝑤
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐿𝑄𝑖 + − 𝑐𝑓
4 𝑓𝑄𝑖
1∗𝑛 𝑤
𝑄1 = 𝐿𝑄1 + − 𝑐𝑓
4 𝑓𝑄𝑖
Note the first quartile value is
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ 1∗120 𝑡ℎ
item= item=30𝑡ℎ item. Which belongs to the
4 4
fourth class. Thus the fourth class is the first quartile class.
1∗120 10
𝑄1 = 139.5 + − 22 =142.36
4 28
72
Continued…
𝑟𝑑 3∗𝑛 𝑤
The 3 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄3 = 𝐿𝑄3 + − 𝑐𝑓
4 𝑓𝑄𝑖
Note the third quartile value is
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ 3∗120 𝑡ℎ
item= item=90𝑡ℎ item. Which belongs to in the
4 4
sixth class. Thus the sixth class is the third quartile class.
3∗120 10
𝑄3 = 159.5 + − 75 =167.83
4 18

73
Continued…
b) 4𝑡ℎ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 9𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠.
𝑖𝑛 𝑤
𝐷𝑖 = 𝐿𝐷𝑖 + − 𝑐𝑓
10 𝑓𝐷𝑖
4∗𝑛 𝑤
The 4𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 = 𝐷4 = 𝐿𝐷4 + − 𝑐𝑓
10 𝑓𝐷𝑖
Note the 4𝑡ℎ decile value is
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ 4∗120 𝑡ℎ
item= item=36𝑡ℎ item. Which belongs to in the
10 10
4𝑡ℎ class. Thus the 4𝑡ℎ class is the 4𝑡ℎ quartile class.
4∗120 10
𝐷4 = 139.5 + − 22 =148.79
10 28

74
Continued…
9∗𝑛 𝑤
The 9𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 = 𝐷9 = 𝐿𝐷9 + − 𝑐𝑓
10 𝑓𝐷𝑖

Note the 9𝑡ℎ decile value is

𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ 9∗120 𝑡ℎ
item= item=108𝑡ℎ item. Which belongs to in the
10 10
8𝑡ℎ class. Thus the 8𝑡ℎ class is the 9𝑡ℎ decile class.
9∗120 10
𝐷9 = 179.5 + − 106 =182.83
10 6

75
c) 45𝑡ℎ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 90𝑡ℎ percentiles:
𝑖𝑛 𝑤
𝑃𝑖 = 𝐿𝑃𝑖 + − 𝑐𝑓
100 𝑓 𝑃𝑖
45∗𝑛 𝑤
𝑇ℎ𝑒45𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑃45 = 𝐿𝑃45 + − 𝑐𝑓
100 𝑓 𝑃𝑖

Note the 45𝑡ℎ percentile value is

𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ 45∗120 𝑡ℎ
item= item=54𝑡ℎ item. Which belongs to in the
100 100
5𝑡ℎ class. Thus the 5𝑡ℎ class is the 45𝑡ℎ percentile class.
45∗120 10
𝑃45 = 149.5 + − 50 =151.1
100 25

76
Continued…
90∗𝑛 𝑤
𝑇ℎ𝑒90𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑃90 = 𝐿𝑃90 + − 𝑐𝑓
100 𝑓 𝑃𝑖

Note the 90𝑡ℎ percentile value is

𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ 90∗120 𝑡ℎ
item= item=108𝑡ℎ item. Which belongs to in
100 100
the 8𝑡ℎ class. Thus the 8𝑡ℎ class is the 90𝑡ℎ percentile class.
90∗120 10
𝑃90 = 179.5 + − 106 =182.83
100 6

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Geometric mean
Definition : The geometric mean of any n positive numbers is
the nth root of the products of the numbers. Symbolically if
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑚 are given their geometric (G.M) mean is
given by
• 𝐺. 𝑀 = 𝑛 𝑥1 ∗ 𝑥2 ∗ 𝑥3 ∗ ⋯ ∗ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛𝑖<1 𝑥𝑖
Example: Find the geometric mean of the following numbers
2, 4, 8.
Solution:
3 3
𝐺. 𝑀 = 2 ∗ 4 ∗ 8 = 64 = 4.
Note: The geometric mean is useful in finding the average of
percentages, ratios, indexes, or growth rates.

78
• Example:If the arithmetic mean of 𝑥1 &𝑥2 is 5 and
their geometric mean is 4.Then find the value of
𝑥1 &𝑥2 .
𝑥1 :𝑥2 𝑥1 :𝑥2
Solution 𝑥 = ⇔5=
2 2
⇔ 10 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 …(1) and
𝐺. 𝑀 = 𝑥1 ∗ 𝑥2 ⇔ 4= 𝑥1 ∗ 𝑥2
16 = 𝑥1 ∗ 𝑥2 … 2
From equations (1) and (2) we get 𝑥1 =2 and
𝑥2 =8
79
Questions- ?

80
Thank you !!!

81