Engineering Thermodynamics

EXPERIMENT# 08
(Open Ended Lab)
Object:
To investigate and observe the zeroth law of Thermodynamics.

Theory:
The basic application of the zeroth law is the definition of thermal equilibrium and its
implication. It also defines the exchange of heat as well as defines the temperature. The law
deals with the concepts used for designing the thermometer.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
It states that,
“If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.”
The basic property which distinguishes thermodynamics from other sciences is temperature.
Temperature is as important to thermodynamics as force is to statics. Temperature is basically
associated with the ability to distinguish hot from cold. When two bodies having different
temperatures come in contact with each other, they attain a common temperature and hence
the state of thermal equilibrium.

According to the Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

When a given object or body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body or object B, and
separately with a body or object C also, then B and C would necessarily be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics is the basis for temperature measurement of a body or
object. A body at a lower temperature is called a cold body and a body at a higher
temperature is called a hot body.
Thermometric properties and thermometer:
A physical characteristic of an arbitrarily chosen body which changes with change in
temperature is called thermometric property (X). The reference body is then called the
thermometer. There are 5 different kinds of thermometers each with its own thermometric
property. The most common type of thermometer consists of a small amount of mercury in an
evacuated capillary tube.
The common thermometers are mercury in glass, resistance, thermocouple, constant volume
gas thermometer and constant pressure gas thermometer. Before 1954, two fixed points called
the ice point and the steam point were used to measure the temperature of a system. After it
only one point was used called the triple point of water which is the standard fixed point of
thermometry. An absolute temperature scale may be constructed by taking the temperature
directly proportional to the volume of the gas in a constant pressure gas thermometer. It is
known that the scale which is based upon a gas at zero pressure is the physical realization of a
logically formulated absolute thermodynamics temperature scale, which will be introduced in
connection to second law of thermodynamics. For ordinary purpose absolute temperature
may be found from the relation (C = 273.15 K).
 Engineering Thermodynamics
Thermal Equilibrium:
Temperature is basically associated with the ability to distinguish hot from cold. When two
bodies that have different temperatures come in contact with each other, they attain a
common temperature and hence the state of Thermal Equilibrium.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics is the basis for temperature measurement of a body or
object. The major consequence of this law is that it marks the thermal equilibrium between
systems as a transitive relation. The zeroth law is basically the generalization of thermal
equilibrium. The systems that are in thermal equilibrium have same temperatures. A system
is assumed to be in the state of thermal equilibrium if there is no net change in the thermal
energy.
Procedure:
Let us consider two beakers full of water. Then for one beaker, the temperature of water is
above the normal room temperature, and for the other beaker it is below the normal room
temperature. They are left on the table for some time such that they both are not in contact
with each other. If we check the beakers after some time, equilibrium for both the beakers is
reached. As observed both the beakers of water are at the same temperature. The two beakers
actually come in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. Hence they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other also, and they are at the same temperature.
Example of Zeroth Law:
Consider two separate cups of boiling water. If we place a thermometer into the first cup, it
gets warmed up by the water until it reads 100°C. We now say that the thermometer is in
thermal equilibrium with the first cup of water. Next, we move the thermometer into the
second cup of boiling water, and it continues to read 100°C. The thermometer is therefore
also in thermal equilibrium with the second cup of water. Using the logic of the zeroth law,
we can conclude that the two separate cups of boiling water are in thermal equilibrium with
each other. The zeroth law therefore enables us to use thermometers to compare the
temperatures of any objects we like.
Observation:

HOT BODY COLD BODY

S.No
TEMPERATURE °C TEMPERATURE °C
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Total Time to achieved Equilibrium………………….…Second

Conclusion:
Everybody in any system remain in thermal equilibrium after some time hence verified zeroth
law of thermodynamics
 Engineering Thermodynamics
EXERCISE
Q1: Explain the term thermodynamics?
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Q2: State zeroth law of thermodynamics?
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 Engineering Thermodynamics
EXPERIMENT# 09
Object:
To study, observe and verify 1st law of thermodynamics.
1ST Law of Thermodynamics:
It states that,
“Heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic processes are therefore subject to the
principle of conservation of energy. This means that heat energy cannot be created or
destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one location to another and converted
to and from other forms of energy.”
Theory:
The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, adapted
for thermodynamic systems. The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of
an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but
cannot be created or destroyed. The first law is often formulated by stating that the change in
the internal energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system,
minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings.
In all cases in which work is produced by the agency of heat, a quantity of heat is consumed
which proportional to the work is done; and conversely, by the expenditure of an equal
quantity of work an equal quantity of heat is produced.
In a thermodynamic process involving a closed system, the increment in the internal energy is
equal to the difference between the heat accumulated by the system and the work done by it.
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be transferred from one form to
another form. This physical statement is restricted neither to closed systems nor to systems
with states that are strictly defined only for thermodynamic equilibrium; It has meaning also
for open systems and for systems with states that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium.
An example of a mathematical statement is that of Crawford (1963): For a given system we
let ΔE kin = large-scale mechanical energy, ΔE pot = large-scale potential energy, and ΔE tot =
total energy. The first two quantities are specifiable in terms of appropriate mechanical
variables, and by definition:
Etot = Ekin + Epot + U

For any finite process, whether reversible or irreversible,

ΔEtot = ΔEkin + ΔEpot + ΔU

The first law in a form that involves the principle of conservation of energy more generally
is:
ΔEtot = Q + W
 Engineering Thermodynamics

Observation:
Voltage=………………………………………………………
Resistance=…………………………………………………..
A=…………………………………………………………
H=heat transfer Coefficient=…………………………………
Temperature of heating element=T1=………………….°C

Temperature of Air =T2=………………………°C

Calculation:
Energy in:
V2
Q= R
Energy Out:
Q=hA (T1-T2)
Conclusion:
1st law of thermodynamics is verified if the system can’t lost energy to surrounding and we
cannot able to calculate it.
 Engineering Thermodynamics

EXERCISE:
Q1: State 1st law of thermodynamics?
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Q2: Define internal energy?
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Q3: Define Kinetic and potential energy?
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 Engineering Thermodynamics
EXPERIMENT# 10
Object:
Demonstration of the variation of the effects of heat convection and radiation on the turning
surface of the cylinder. Determination of the combined effect of heat transfer by forced
convection and radiation 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.
Required elements

TXC-CC combined module of radiation and convection by Edibon.

Practical procedure

1. If your unit is the TSTCC:

1.1. Check that the sensors are connected to the interface.

1.2. Run the SCADA software and load the combined radiation and convection module.

1.3. Turn on the fan and fix the flow to 1000 l/min.

1.4. Turn on the cartridge heater and fix the power to 20W (see SW-1).

1.5. Click on Polar Graph in the software.

1.6. Set the limits of the polar representation scale in the software, as well as the angular
position at which the thermocouple is located with regards to the air flow.

1.7. Wait for 2 minutes approximately in order to reach stable working conditions. Press
“take data”.

1.8. Rotate the cylinder to put the thermocouple in different angular positions and wait for the
temperature to become stable; set those new positions in the software.

1.9. Write down the temperature measurements in the experimental sheet.

1.10. Repeat the steps for different angular positions. For that purpose, turn the heating
element by the white handle made of Teflon, taking into account the grooves in the handle,
which indicate angle sections of 45º.
 Engineering Thermodynamics

Results and tables

Table for the collection of measurements during the test:

 Engineering Thermodynamics
EXPERIMENT# 11
Object:
Study the working mechanism of two stroke petrol engine.

Two Stroke Engine:

A two-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle
with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution.

Different Parts of I.C. Engines (Parts Common to both Petrol and Diesel Engine):
1. Cylinder 5. Gudgeon pin 9. Engine bearing
2. Cylinder head 6. Connecting rod 10. Crank case
3. Piston 7. Crankshaft 11. Flywheel
4. Piston rings 8. Crank 12. Governor
13. Valves and valve
operating mechanism

Parts for Petrol Engines Only:

1. Spark plugs 2. Carburetor 3. Fuel pump

Parts for Diesel Engine Only:

1. Fuel pump
2. Injector

Two Stroke Engines

Theory:
In 1878, a British engineer introduced a cycle which could be completed in two strokes of
piston rather than four strokes as is the case with the four-stroke cycle engines.
In this engine suction and exhaust strokes are eliminated. Here instead of valves, ports are
used. The exhaust gases are driven out from engine cylinder by the fresh charge of fuel
entering the cylinder nearly at the end of the working stroke.
A two-stroke petrol engine (used in scooters, motor cycles etc.).
The cylinder L is connected to a closed crank chamber C.C. During the upward stroke of the
piston M, the gases in L are compressed and at the same time fresh air and fuel (petrol)
mixture enters the crank chamber through the valve V.
When the piston moves downwards, V closes and the mixture in the crank chamber is
compressed the piston is moving upwards and is compressing an explosive change which has
previously been supplied to L. Ignition takes place at the end of the stroke. The piston then
travels downwards due to expansion of the gases and near the end of this stroke the piston
uncovers the exhaust port (E.P.) and the burnt exhaust gases escape through this port.
The transfer port (T.P.) then is uncovered immediately, and the compressed charge from the
crank chamber flows into the cylinder and is deflected upwards by the hump provided on the
head of the piston.
It may be noted that the incoming air-petrol mixture helps the removal of gases from the
engine-cylinder; if, in case these exhaust gases do not leave the cylinder, the fresh charge gets
diluted and efficiency of the engine will decrease.
 Engineering Thermodynamics

The piston then again starts moving from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the charge gets compressed
when E.P. (exhaust port) and T.P. are covered by the piston; thus the cycle is repeated.
 Engineering Thermodynamics

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Working Mechanism:

 Upward stroke:
During upward stroke, the piston moves upward from bottom dead center to top dead center,
compressing the charge air petrol mixture in combustion chamber of the cylinder. Due to
upward movement of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crankcase, and a new
charge is drawn into the crankcase through the uncovered inlet port. The exhaust port and
transfer port are covered when the piston is at top dead center position. The compressed
charge is ignited in combustion chamber by a spark given by the spark plug.

 Downward stroke:
As soon as the charge is ignited hot gases compress the piston which moves downward,
rotating the crankshaft thus doing the useful work.
During this stroke the inlet port is covered by the piston and few charge is compressed in the
crankcase. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers the exhaust port and then the
transfer port, and hence the exhaust starts first through the exhaust port.
As soon as the transfer port open, the charge through it is forced into the cylinder. The strikes
the deflector on the piston crown, rises to top of the cylinder and pushes out most of the
exhaust gases. The piston is now at bottom dead center position. The cylinder is completely
filled with the fresh charge, although it is somewhat diluted with exhaust gases. The cycle of
events is then repeated, the piston making two strokes for each revolution of the crankshaft.
Figure:
Engineering Thermodynamics
 Engineering Thermodynamics

EXERCISE
I. Why the thermal efficiency of four strokes S.I. engines are more than two strokes S.I.
Engines?
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II. Mechanical efficiency of two strokes S.I. engines is more than four strokes S.I.
engines why?
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III. Exhaust noise from silencer in case of two stroke engines is more than four stroke
engines why?
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 Engineering Thermodynamics

EXPERIMENT# 12
(Open Ended Lab)
Object:
To study the four stroke petrol engine.

Apparatus used:
Model of two stroke & four stroke petrol engine.

Four Stroke Petrol Engine

The four stroke-cycles refers to its use in petrol engines, gas engines, light, oil engine and
heavy oil engines in which the mixture of air fuel are drawn in the engine cylinder. Since
ignition in these engines is due to a spark, therefore they are also called spark ignition
engines.

 Suction Stroke: 
In this Stroke the inlet valve opens and proportionate fuel-air mixture is sucked in the engine
cylinder. Thus the piston moves from top dead center (T.D.C.) to bottom dead center
(B.D.C.). The exhaust valve remains closed throughout the stroke.
 Compression Stroke: 
In this stroke both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during the stroke. The piston
moves towards (T.D.C.) and compresses the enclosed fuel-air mixture drawn. Just before the
end of this stroke the operating plug initiates a spark which ignites the mixture and
combustion takes place at constant pressure.
 Power Stroke Or Expansion Stroke:
In this stroke both the valves remain closed during the start of this stroke but when the piston
just reaches the B.D.C. the exhaust valve opens. When the mixture is ignited by the spark
 Engineering Thermodynamics
plug the hot gases are produced which drive or throw the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. and
thus the work is obtained in this stroke.

 Exhaust Stroke:
This is the last stroke of the cycle. Here the gases from which the work has been collected
become useless after the completion of the expansion stroke and are made to escape through
exhaust valve to the atmosphere. This removal of gas is accomplished during this stroke. The
piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases are driven out of the engine
cylinder; this is also called Scavenging.

Theoretical P-V diagram of a four-stroke engine

Applications:
i) I.C. engine are used in all road vehicles i.e. automobiles trucks, tractors etc.
ii) I.C. engine are widely used in rail road, aviation & marine.
iii) I.C. engine are extensively used in lawn movers boats, concretes mining equipment’s
etc.
iv) Petrol engine are used in light motor vehicles.
 Engineering Thermodynamics
EXERCISE
1) What is scavenging?
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2) How is an I.C. engine started?
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3) What is supercharging? How and where is it done?
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Engineering Thermodynamics