UNIT 21: MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Unit code: F/601/1626

QCF level: 4
Credit value: 15

LEARNING OUTCOME 1
TUTORIAL 3
On successful completion of this unit a learner will:

1 Be able to determine the properties and selection criteria of materials from tests and data
sources
Criteria for material selection: definitions of material properties and character appropriate to the
learner’s programme of study e.g. mechanical, physical, chemical, process character and costs
for range of materials (metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites)
Categorise materials: an appreciation of the properties of metals: ceramics, polymers and
composites; recognition of micro structural characteristics of the more commonly used
engineering materials
Materials testing: tests to determine the properties of commonly used engineering materials e.g.
metals, ceramics, polymers and composites (such as electrical conductivity/resistivity, magnetic
susceptibility, mechanical strength, hardness, toughness, fatigue and creep resistance, corrosion
and reactivity, wear resistance, optical and thermal properties, formability); appropriate
statistical methods and the processing of test data
Data sources: published data e.g. British Standards, ISO, product data sheets, IT sources,
standard published data sources, manufacturers’ literature, job-specific information such as
specifications, test data and engineering drawings; assessment of data reliability

Pre-Requisite Knowledge
Anyone studying this module needs to have studied the basic structures of materials probably by
having completed the materials module at national level. Some of this material is repeated here and
may be skipped if you have already completed it.

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CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS CLASSIFICATION AND TERMINOLOGY

3. METALS

Ferrous
Non Ferrous

4. POLYMERS
Thermoplastic
Thermosetting
Elastomer

5. CERAMICS

6. COMPOSITES

7. LAMINATES

8. SMART MATERIALS

1. INTRODUCTION

In engineering and technology the knowledge of materials has been at the forefront of science and has enabled
us to produce amazing advances in all fields from medicines to electronics. We need to know about the
mechanical properties (such as strength, durability, ductility and so on), the thermal properties (such
as specific heat, melting point and conductivity), electrical properties (such as resistivity), magnetic
properties, optical properties and many others.

This module is intended for students studying materials for mechanical and manufacturing, in
particular metals, plastics and ceramics. The more you understand the molecular structure of atoms,
the more you will understand the nature of the material that can be made from them. The goal of this
module is to enable you to select the best materials to use for a given purpose so that it performs the
desired task and can be made as economically as possible.

All materials are made up of atoms and combinations of atoms called molecules. The structure
determines the engineering properties of the material. You should have studied the basic structure of
materials in tutorial 1. There is a wealth of information on the internet and much of it appears
contradictory. This is because explanations are often simplified to avoid going into too much detail.
Hopefully the information here is sufficient to give you a good start on understanding engineering
materials.

One of the most useful websites for finding materials is www.matweb.com

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 2. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION AND TERMINOLOGY

Engineering materials are classified in various ways depending on the properties of the materials you wish to highlight. The chart below shows the way
they are classified in this tutorial and during the course of the tutorial you will learn what is special about them.

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 3. METALS

FERROUS MATERIALS

Ferrous metals are alloys or compounds in which most of the atoms are iron. Iron ore is quite
abundant and relatively cheap and can be made into a variety of iron based materials with many uses
in structural and mechanical engineering. Iron is produced by melting the ore and other materials in a
blast furnace and then refining it. In the early stages it contains many impurities including carbon
which has a dramatic affect on its properties. Pure iron is very difficult to produce and it is rarely
used on its own. Iron is one of the few substances that are magnetic.

CAST IRON

In the early stages of refining the iron contains a lot of carbon and this makes it very fluid in the
molten state so it is cast into ingots and then processed. Historically, cast iron was one of the first
materials to be used for large scale structures. The carbon forms as graphite flakes and this makes the
material very brittle but it is good for casting complex shapes. It does not rust easily so it is used to
make decorative outdoor structures such as garden furniture. Cast iron breaks very easily but when
used in compression it is strong so it was widely used for making columns, pillars and arch bridges.
Victorian shopping arcades had delicate cast arches and reached
its grandest level in the construction of the Crystal Palace. The
very first cast iron bridge at Iron Bridge, Shropshire is a place
well worth visiting or looking up on the internet. Graphite makes
a good solid lubricant and so the slides on machine tools are
often machined from cast iron. Many internal combustion
engines have cast iron cylinder blocks and cylinder heads. The
picture shows one illustrating the complexity of the casting and
the need for machining.

WROUGHT IRON

Wrought iron was another traditional material from the early times. It is produced by repeatedly
heating strips, stretching it and folding it. This disperses the carbon and produces a material with
properties similar to pure iron. Being difficult to make it is expensive and mainly finds use in
wrought iron gates and similar structures because it can be bent and shaped into decorative shapes.

CARBON STEELS

Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements that gives it the required properties. One of the most
important elements is carbon. Pure iron is almost unknown as carbon always gets into it during the
manufacturing stage when the ore is melted with coke. Steels with carbon fall between the extremes of
pure iron and cast iron and are classified as follows.

NAME CARBON CONTENT % TYPICAL APPLICATION

Dead mild 0.1 – 0.15 pressed steel body panels
Mild steel 0.15 – 0.3 steel rods and bars
Medium carbon steel 0.5 – 0.7 forgings
High carbon steels 0.7 – 1.4 springs, drills, chisels
Cast iron 2.3 – 2.4 engine blocks

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STRUCTURE OF CARBON STEEL

All metals form crystals when they cool down and change from liquid into a solid. In carbon steels,
the material that forms the crystals is complex. Iron will chemically combine with carbon to form
IRON CARBIDE (Fe3C). This is also called CEMENTITE. It is white, very hard and brittle. The
more cementite the steel contains, the harder and more brittle it becomes. When it forms in steel, it
forms a structure of 13% cementite and 87% iron (ferrite) as shown. This structure is called
PEARLITE. Mild steel contains crystals of iron (ferrite) and pearlite as shown.

As the % carbon is increased, more pearlite is formed and at 0.9% carbon, the entire structure is
pearlite. If the carbon is increased further, more cementite is formed and the structure becomes
pearlite with cementite as shown.

Carbon steel can have a wide range of mechanical properties (e.g. strength, hardness, toughness, and
ductility) and these properties can be changed by heat treatment. Heat treatment changes the structure
of the carbon and steel and this is a large area of study.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. State 3 advantages and one disadvantage of making something from cast iron. Name some items
that are made from cast iron.

2. If a component could perform equally well whether it is made from mild steel or titanium, for
what simple reason would steel be chosen?

3. What % carbon does steel contain when its structure is entirely pearlite?

4. What is the main mechanical property of cementite?

5. Conduct further research and then sketch and describe the crystal structure of cementite. Here are
two useful websites.
http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/Lattices/cementite.html)
http://www.ul.ie/~walshem/fyp/sub%20menu%20iron%20carbon.htm

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ALLOY STEELS

Besides carbon, iron is alloyed with other elements to produce desirable properties. Generally they
fall into two groups: low alloy steels and high alloy steels depending on the % of alloying elements.
This is done in order to improve the mechanical properties. Commonly alloy elements include
manganese (the most-common one), nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon and boron.
Less common elements include aluminium, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin
and zirconium. Some of these find uses in exotic and highly-demanding applications, such as in the
turbine blades of jet engines, in spacecraft and in nuclear reactors. Because of the ferromagnetic
properties of iron, some steel alloys find important applications where magnetism is important
including electric motors and transformers. This is a vast area of study and cannot possibly be
covered here.

LIST OF ALLOYING MATERIALS IN STEEL

Element Percentage Primary function

Aluminium 0.95–1.30 Alloying element in nitriding steels
Bismuth - Improves machinability (makes it easier to cut on machine tools)
Boron 0.001–0.003 A powerful hardenability agent
0.5–2 Increases hardenability
Chromium
4–18 Used in stainless steel and increases corrosion resistance
Copper 0.1–0.4 This can help improve corrosion resistance
Often with sulphur makes the steel machinable at high speeds (free
Lead -
cutting)
Combines with sulphur with phosphorus to reduce the brittleness.
0.25–0.40
Also helps to remove excess oxygen from molten steel.
Manganese
Increases hardenability by lowering transformation points and
>1
causing transformations to be sluggish
Stable carbides inhibit grain growth. Increases the toughness of steel,
thus making molybdenum a very valuable alloy metal for making the
Molybdenum 0.2–5
cutting parts of machine tools and also the turbine blades of jet
engines. Also used in rocket motors.
2–5 Toughens the steel
Nickel
12–20 Increases corrosion resistance
0.2–0.7 Increases strength
2.0 Spring steels
Silicon
Higher
Improves magnetic properties
percentages
Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness in
Titanium -
chromium steels
Tungsten - Also increases the melting point.
Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility; promotes
Vanadium 0.15
fine grain structure. Increases the toughness at high temperatures

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

Conduct some research on the internet to answer the following. In each case describe the
properties of the steel that make them suitable for purpose and manufacture.

1. The kind of steel used to make modern railway track.

2. The kind of steel is used to make car panels and the properties of the steel that makes it suitable.

3. The kind of alloying elements used in the manufacture of high quality hack saw blades.

4. The kind of steel that can be made into cheap wire for garden fences.

5. The kind of steel used to make crank shafts in internal combustion engines.

6. The ferrous material commonly used to make engine blocks.

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STAINLESS STEEL

One important alloy steel group is Stainless Steel. The name covers a wide range of steel types and
grades for corrosion or oxidation resistant applications. 'Stainless' is a term coined early in the
development of these steels for cutlery applications. It was adopted as a generic name for these steels
and now covers a wide range of steel types and grades for corrosion or oxidation resistant
applications. Stainless steels are iron alloys with a minimum of 10.5% chromium. Other alloying
elements are added to enhance their structure and properties such as formability, strength and
cryogenic toughness. These include metals such as:

 Nickel
 Molybdenum
 Titanium
 Copper

Non-metal additions are also made, the main ones being:

 Carbon
 Nitrogen

Stainless steels of various kinds are used in thousands of applications such as :-

Domestic Applications: - cutlery, sinks, saucepans, washing machine drums, microwave oven liners
and razor blades.
Construction:- cladding, handrails, door and window fittings, street furniture, structural sections,
reinforcement bar, lighting columns, lintels and masonry supports.
Transport: - exhaust systems, car trim/grilles, road tankers, ship containers, ships chemical tankers
and refuse vehicles.
Chemical/Pharmaceutical:-pressure vessels and process piping.
Oil and Gas: - platform accommodation, cable trays, and sub-sea pipelines.
Medical: - Surgical instruments, surgical implants and MRI scanners.
Food and Drink: - Catering equipment, brewing, distilling and food processing.
Water: - Water and sewage treatment, water tubing and hot water tanks.
General: - springs, fasteners (bolts, nuts and washers) and wire.

This a useful link to find out more about stainless steel. http://www.bssa.org.uk/index.php

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. Why is stainless steel used for containers where cleanliness and a sterile environment is
required?

2. An architect is trying to decide whether a balcony safety rail and supports should be made from
cast iron, steel or stainless steel. Discuss the relative merits of these materials?

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NON FERROUS METALS

There are a large number of metals with various properties that make them important. Here is a brief
list of some of them with some of their properties.

COPPER
- red colour.
- a good conductor of heat and electricity and widely used for electrical components.
- good corrosion resistance.
- malleable and ductile and easily drawn into wire and tube.
- easily joined by soldering.

ALUMINIUM
- white colour
- not as good as copper for conducting electricity but cheaper and often used instead of copper.
- good corrosion resistance.
- can be made into light and strong aluminium alloy and is used for many structural components.
- easily rolled into thin sheets and foil.
- often extruded into various sections for light structures.

LEAD
- bluish grey colour.
- very heavy (Dense). Used for screening from radiation.
- soft.
- good corrosion resistance.
- added to other metals to make them more machinable.
- added to tin it makes solder.

TIN
- silvery white colour.
- good corrosion resistance and used to coat other metals.
- widely alloyed with other metals e.g. to make bearings.

ZINC
- bluish white colour.
- good corrosion resistance.
- used to coat steel sheets and components such as nails (galvanised).
- widely alloyed with other metals to make a good casting material.

TITANIUM
- low-density element (approximately 60% of the density of iron)
- can be highly strengthened by alloying and working.
- nonmagnetic
- good heat-transfer properties.
- coefficient of thermal expansion lower than that of steels and less than half that of aluminium.
- high melting point (higher than steel).
- immune to attack by most mineral acids and chlorides
- non-toxic and very compatible with human tissue.

SILVER
- the best electrical conductor of all but too expensive for making wires and cables.
- mainly used for jewellery.
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GOLD
- very resistant to oxidisation and used for coating electrical contacts in high quality switches.
- mainly used for jewellery.

PLATINUM
- better than gold but more expensive
- mainly used for jewellery.

ALLOYS OF NON FERROUS METALS

Some of the alloys formed by non ferrous metals are:

Brass – Brass is basically a substitutional alloy of zinc in copper. It has a range of properties
depending on the exact structure including strength, machinability, ductility, wear-resistance,
hardness, colour, antimicrobial, electrical and thermal conductivity, and corrosion-resistance.
Brass is used in instruments (musical and other), coins, fixtures such as doorknobs, bolts, etc. Brass
is also used to decorate many household items such as clocks and mirrors.

Bronze – Is an alloy of copper with up to 10% that may contain phosphor, silicon, manganese,
aluminium, lead, iron and other elements. It can be quite hard and brittle. The tin gives the material
resistance to wear and it is often better than brass in resisting corrosion.
The various types of bronze have different levels of wearability, machinability, corrosion-resistance
and ductility for deep drawing. Bronze parts are typically used for bearings, clips, electrical
connectors and springs.

Aluminium Bronze – This is a copper-aluminium alloy that may contain iron, nickel, and/or silicon
for greater strength. It is used for tools and, because it will not spark when struck, for parts to be
used around flammable materials. Aluminium bronze is frequently used for aircraft and automobile
engine parts.

Manganese Bronze – This is often used for ship propellers because it is strong and resists saltwater
corrosion.

Aluminium – This can be made strong by adding other elements and on a weight for weight basis is
stronger than steel. These alloys are often classed as wrought or cast. Wrought alloys can be rolled
into plates. Aluminium alloys are extensively used in the production of automotive engine parts,
transport, packaging, electrical application, medicine, and construction of homes and furniture. High
grade alloys are widely used in the aeronautical industry because of the lightness and strength. They
are widely used to make tubes for structures requiring the same properties.
One of the best known alloys is Duralumin containing up of 90% aluminium, 4% copper, 0.5%-1%
magnesium, and less than 1% manganese.

Titanium – Pure titanium is suited to many uses including use in surgery to support bones and teeth.
The alloys have up to 6% aluminium and 4% vanadium by weight. This mixture forms a solid
solution which varies with temperature and so allows it to be strengthened by heat treatment.
The combination of high strength, stiffness, toughness, lightness, and resistance to corrosion over a
wide range of temperatures makes it highly suited for aerospace structures. The excellent corrosion
resistance and biocompatibility makes it useful in chemical and petrochemical applications and salt
water applications.

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

1. Copper is a good conductor of electricity and heat. What mechanical properties make it suitable
for forming into wires and tubes?

2. The leading edges of supersonic aeroplanes are often made from titanium alloy. What are the
properties that make it suitable for this?

3. Titanium alloy is better than steel for most applications. Why is it not more widely used in
engineering?

4. What are the mechanical properties of aluminium that makes it suitable for the manufacture of
drink cans and foil wrapping?

5. Decorative frames for pictures and fire places are often made from brass or brass plated steel.
What is the property of brass that makes it so suitable?

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 4. POLYMERS

The basic microstructure of polymers is covered in tutorial 1. Here are some basic terms and
definitions.

MONOMER

A monomer is a single molecule which when joined to others of the same kind in a chain is called a
Polymer.

CO-POLYMERS

These are long chain molecules made up of different monomer joined together in a regular pattern.
An example is polyvinyl chloride that has alternate molecules of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate.

THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF POLYMERS

When metals solidify we see a crystalline structure form as the small molecules move easily into
regular shapes with ionic bonds holding them together. Polymers have long chain molecules
entangled with each other and this makes it difficult for them to move and form a crystalline pattern.
The solidification process of polymers may produce some regions in crystalline form and these are
called crystallites. The rest of the material is amorphous. The crystalline region can be as much as
90% in some polymers.

MELTING

Metals and other crystalline materials melt at a fixed temperature but amorphous materials tend to
soften and become more like a viscous liquid. If a polymer has a large crystalline content, the change
from crystalline to amorphous structures when it melts is accompanied by an increase in the volume.
The temperature at which this occurs is denoted T m. Generally, the melting point increases in
temperature with the degree of crystallinity.

GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE

Polymers are generally soft at normal temperatures but they can become hard and brittle when
cooled. The temperature at which it changes from soft and flexible to hard and glassy, is called the
glass transition temperature denoted T g. Some polymers are hard and rigid at normal temperatures
and these have many uses.

THERMOPLASTIC

Heating the polymer vibrates the molecules and if they are not cross linked, the distance between the
molecules will increase and the Van der Waal forces will be reduced. This will make the polymer
soften so these types may be remoulded by heating.

THERMOSETTING

The raw material is in the form of soft dough like substance often in sheet form. They set into a hard
state by initiating a chemical reaction either by heating them or mixing them with a catalyst. This
process called curing makes the molecules become cross-linked forming a more rigid structure.
Reheating will not soften the polymer.

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ELASTOMERS

These are virtually the same as thermosetting but they have a very high degree of elasticity and
although they stretch easily compared to metals, they spring back into shape. The tangled molecules
tend to straighten when pulled but spring back when released.

GENERAL PROPERTIES

Polymers are often referred to as plastics because they often have a very large plastic range. This is
not always the case and polymers exhibit a wide range of mechanical properties (strength, toughness
and hardness etc.) In general polymers are very resistant to attack from chemical reagents. They have
a low density compared to other materials and so for example, a plastic bottle is much lighter than a
glass bottle of equivalent strength. They can be coloured or transparent and give a pleasing finished
appearance to many household items. These properties make them suitable for a wide range of
manufactured items such as:

 Plastic tubes/pipes
 Bottles
 Car shells/interior linings
 Cases for electronic goods
 Springs/shock absorbers
 Tool handles/cases
 Toys
 Electric wire insulation
 Seals used in hydraulics and pneumatics.
 Packaging.
 Linings to vessels.

Useful web sites

www.Vakoseals.com
www.Matweb.com
http://www.efunda.com/materials/polymers/history/history.cfm?list_order=time

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 5

List typical products that are made from thermoplastics and name the type of plastic.

List typical products that are made from thermosets.

List typical products that are made from elastomer.

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 5. CERAMICS

The word “ceramic” is traced to the Greek term Keramos, meaning pottery or potter. Ceramics may
be crystalline (e.g. diamond) or amorphous (e.g. glass). They may be broken into small particles and
bonded into a matrix (e.g. a grinding wheel). Here is a list of some of the modern ceramics materials.

Alumina Zirconia Silicon Carbide

Silicon Nitride Boron Carbide Beryllia
Steatite Sterite

Whilst Bricks, Pottery, Glass and so on are widely used for every day objects, modern ceramics for
engineering components have been produced for the following purposes.

 HIGH MELTING POINT – e.g. furnace linings.

 HIGH HEAT ABSORPTION (specific heat capacity) e.g. space shuttle tiles and storage
heaters.

 HARDNESS – e.g. cutting tools such as Tungsten Carbide tips and grinding wheels.

 LOW CREEP AND THERMAL EXPANSION – e.g. turbine blades where any elongation
would wreck the engine.

 POROSITY – e.g. used to make very tight filters whose absolute filtration rating is too tight
to allow the passage of bacteria and pathogens like cryptosporidium. Such filters are used in
survival kits for filtering urine and making it drinkable.

 ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES – e.g. used in semi conductors and microelectronics as parts

of components, substrate, or package.

 ELECTRIC PROPERTIES – e.g. used for insulators on high power transmission lines.

 HIGH RESISTANCE TO DEGRADATION – e.g. corrosion and chemical attack

There are a wide range of products. Here is a partial list.

 Bottles and glasses.

 Sanitary ware (WCs, Sinks and so on like in the picture).
 Tableware.
 Electrical insulators.
 Cooker hobs.
 Parts for heaters.
 Hair rollers and curlers.
 Parts for electronics.
 Fire bricks and tiles.
 High tech applications such as coating turbine blades and space shuttle tiles.

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Here are some more pictures of just a few of the many things made from ceramic.

Halogen Lamp Holder

GLASS

The main constituent of most commercial glass is sand in other words - SILICA. This is mixed with
other substances to produce the required properties.

A typical composition of glass is :

70% - 74% SiO2 (silica)
12% - 16% Na2O (sodium oxide)
5% - 11% CaO (calcium oxide)
1% - 3% MgO (magnesium oxide)
1% - 3% Al2O3 (aluminium oxide)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 6

Visit http://www.dynacer.com and then :

Name and describe three components made from ceramics for electronic purposes.

Name and describe three components made from ceramics for their thermal properties.

Name and describe three components made from ceramics for their biological properties.

Name and describe three components made from ceramics for their refractory properties.

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 6. COMPOSITES

A composite material is a combination of two or more materials to obtain the best properties of both.
There are broadly two classifications, PARTICLE and FIBRE.

PARTICLE COMPOSITES

This is a material in which particles of one material is fixed in a matrix of another. Some of the
simplest examples are materials used for the construction industry. Here are some examples.

Tarmac –gravel held in a matrix of tar, ideal for roads.

Mortar and Concrete – sand, gravel and stone bonded into a matrix of cement that sets and forms a
light material strong in compression. Since it can be moulded or laid down wet, it is an ideal building
material.

Particle composites are used in engineering to make a range of hard cutting tools. The main product
is called cermet.

Cermets – This is a material in which ceramic powder is bonded in a metallic matrix to get the best
properties from both such as hardness, high working temperatures and strength. The ceramic
materials are often oxides, borides and carbides. The metals are nickel, molybdenum and cobalt. The
volume of a typical cermet is about 20% to bond the ceramic particles.

Cermets are used widely in electronics to make resistors and capacitors for high temperature use.

Cermets are also used to make dies and cutting tips for tools used in machining and sawing of hard
materials. Particles of very hard ceramic materials are embedded in a metal. They have good
resistance to oxidation and keep their hardness at high temperatures. Typically the cermet contains
titanium carbide and titanium nitride. For example, tungsten carbide embedded in cobalt make very
hard cutting tools and dies. They can be compacted into the required shape and then heated to sinter
them. This means the cobalt is hot enough to re-crystallise and form a matrix around the tungsten.
The pictures show examples of cutting tools with cermet tips.

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FIBRE COMPOSITES

You will find a good illustrated tutorial on composites at

this link.

Examples are:
 Reinforced concrete.
 Glass reinforced plastics (GRP)
 Carbon fibres.
 Aramid fibres.
 Natural composites such as wood.

Concrete is very brittle and weak in tension so it is normally only used for support structures
(columns and solid floors). By adding steel rods, the structure becomes stronger in tension and
withstands some bending. Hence bridges, unsupported floors and other structures where some
bending occurs can be made to take the tension. The resulting structure is lighter than steel on its
own. Brittle materials fail by cracks spreading through them with little resistance. Adding fibres prevents the
crack opening and spreading.

Glass and carbon fibres when made new are very strong and
flexible and if they are imbedded in a matrix of plastic
(thermosetting) they retain their high tensile strength. The result
is a very strong flexible and light structure. Many things are
made from these materials such as boat hulls, tennis rackets,
fishing poles and racing cycle frames like the one shown.

Many GRP products are made from sheets of chopped fibres laying in
random directions. This is formed into the shape required often in a mould
and pasted with epoxy resin. All the air must be forced out of the fibres and
resin forced in either with rollers, brushes or with a vacuum process. A gel
coat is often used to form an outer layer with a smooth coloured finish.

You can see the process on this video link

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bwQCzyvVSvs

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 7. LAMINATES

An important type of composite material is those made up from laminated layers of either the same
or different materials glued to each other in layers to obtain an overall structure with the combined
properties of each layer. For example one layer may make the material water proof as in laminate
flooring. Other examples are snow boards and skis that need to be strong and flexible. Many aircraft
parts are made from sheets of laminated material.

PLYWOOD
Grainy materials like wood have strength in one direction only so if they are layered with the grain at
90o to each other, equal strength is obtained in both.

TYRES
An ideal tyre must have strength, good grip, not wear and not puncture. For this reason a tyre
consists of laminated layers of Rayon, Nylon and Steel in a rubber matrix with cross plies to produce
strength in all directions.

Tyre Laminate Flooring Plywood

It is very important that laminated structures do not come apart between any layers (de – lamination)
so appropriate bonding materials must be used. This can occur due to stress or environmental
conditions such as chemical spills.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 7

1. Explain how a material that is strong in one direction and weak in another may be formed to be
strong in both directions.

2. Find out what materials are used to manufacture snow boards and how they are joined together.
Explain the desired properties that are produced as a result of this process.

3. Look up at least 4 main parts of a modern aircraft that are made from composite materials.

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 8. SMART MATERIALS

This topic is not specifically mentioned in the syllabus but is added to complete the picture.

The structures and types of smart materials were described in outcome 1. The syllabus item is “The
effects of post-production use”. This phrase does not make a lot of sense to the author and has been
construed as meaning “post-production uses”. Here we will look at some uses for these materials.

PIEZOELECTRIC

These are materials that change shape when a voltage is applied to it so if an alternating voltage is
applied it can be made to emit sound. It works in reverse and produces a voltage when stressed in
various ways and so is used to make microphones and instruments such as pressure transducers.

The material is mainly crystalline ceramics and the most common one is
called QUARTZ which is Silicon Dioxide (SiO2). Silicon dioxide is the most
abundant mineral in the Earth's crust. Sand is mainly composed of this and
used to make glass. It occurs in many crystalline forms and is known as a
polymorph, which means many forms. Quartz is mostly a trigonal crystal
structure of SiO2 shown in the picture. There are other materials mineral,
biological and man made that exhibit piezoelectric properties.

Electronic oscillators/timers - Quartz can be cut into precise crystals and used in electronic
oscillators to regulate the frequency. The crystal resonates at the frequency defined by its dimensions
and so it can be used to regulate or filter electronic oscillations. A good post production use is in
quartz in watches.

Transducers – Many transducers involve making electrical measurements based on some form of
mechanical movement or stress. If the thing being measured can be made to stress the piezoelectric
material, a charge will be produced that forms the basis of the electrical signal that can be
electronically processed to display the thing being measured. Here are some examples.

Strain Gauge – The piezo-resistive material forms the basis of gauges fixed to
structures so that any changes in dimensions produce a change in resistance that
is electronically processed to indicate the strain. This can be applied to a variety
of instruments where the strain is produced by some other affect.

Force Gauge - Force produces strain so the strain gauge is the basis of many weighing
systems. The gauge can be incorporated into many systems such as Torque
measurement. The picture shows a button load cell.

Pressure Transducer – The pressure deforms a surface with piezoelectric material on

it and so the electric charge represents the pressure. A typical sensor is shown.

Accelerometers – Acceleration produces a force which produces strain and hence

strain gauges form the basis of instruments to measure acceleration. This forms the basis of many
systems ranging from navigation to computer toys.

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Vibration monitor – This is fundamentally a microphone that converts vibrations into a proportional
electric signal.

Audio Devices – Microphones pick up air vibrations so a piezoelectric material will

produce an electric signal representing the sound. When an oscillating electric signal is
applied to piezoelectric material, it vibrates so simple loudspeakers and tone
generators are made from this material. The picture shows an audio alarm using this
principle.

Igniters – When a piezoelectric material is struck the high fast

rate of strain produces a large charge of electricity that is
sufficient to produce a spark between two electrodes and this
is used in devices for igniting gas flames such as that shown.

Actuators and Motors – Piezoelectric materials change dimensions under the control of an
electric charge so they can produce small mechanical motion that can produce linear
movement or rotational movement. The movement is precise and is ideal for control devices.

ELECTRO-RHEOSTATIC (ER) FLUIDS

These change their viscosity in the presence of an electric field. This may be used to change a liquid
into a gel or almost solid structure. The basic structure of these fluids is fine solid particles
(colloidal) mixed and suspended in a fluid. ER fluids can be as simple as milk chocolate or
cornstarch and oil. In a strong electric field, the particles are polarised like little magnets and form
chains or columns parallel to the field. You can see a simulation at this link.
http://www.ssslab.com/ehtml/3_1.php

This may be used to change a liquid into a gel or almost solid structure. Here are some applications.

Hydraulic Valves – The change in the fluid is very quick so valves can be made to open and close
very quickly at a flick of a switch.

Clutches and Brakes – The plates of the clutch are locked together by applying a charge to the fluid
separating them. If one set of plates is fixed, the system is a brake.

Shock Absorbers – Many shock absorbers consist of a piston sliding inside a cylinder full of fluid.
The fluid is forced through holes to produce a damping force. Increasing the viscosity of the fluid
increases the resistance to motion so the stiffness of the shock absorber can be controlled electrically
if the fluid is ER.

Robots – The joints of a robot can be locked by solidifying the fluid in them.

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MAGNETO-RHEOSTATIC (MR) FLUIDS

These change their viscosity in the presence of a magnetic field. This may be used to change a liquid
into a gel or almost solid structure. MR fluid is composed of carbonyl iron particles, 'soft' iron
particles which are only 3-5 µm in diameter, hydrocarbon oil and other additives to produce the
required fluid properties. Applying a magnetic field forces the particles to line up so that the liquid
becomes solid. The stronger the field, the more viscous the fluid becomes. Removing the magnetic
field unlocks the particles and turns the solid back to liquid. MR fluids are being used in exercise
machines, washing machines, car shock absorbers, and artificial legs.

The applications are similar to those of ER fluids except that the change is produced by using an
electromagnet instead of directly applying the electric charge to the fluid. Dampers and shock
absorbers containing MR fluids are used in a variety of things like washing machines to damp out
vibrations. Here are additional applications.

Prosthetics – Artificial limbs make use of damping devices (shock absorbers) and MR fuids are
better for this than ER fluids.

Body Armour – It may become possible in the near future to make bullet proof clothes containing
MR fluid.

Exercise machines - The stiffness or resistance in an exercise machine is sometimes electrically

controlled with MR dampers.

SHAPE-MEMORY ALLOYS (SMA)

This is a metal alloy that "remembers" its original, cold-forged shape. When deformed beyond the
yield point normal metals will stay deformed but SMA will return to the pre-deformed shape when it
is heated. Imagine a car that can have its dents removed by simply heating the panel.

Alloys exhibiting this property are

 Copper/zinc/aluminium/nickel.
 Copper-aluminium-nickel.
 Nickel/Titanium.

You should have come across the terms Austenite and Martensite in tutorial 2 and learned that the
terms also apply to other alloys. Alloys that have these two phases form the basis of SMA. It is found
that Austenitic structures can be transformed into Martensitic structures by stress and strain as well
as by heat. The crystalline changes produce distortion in the crystal lattice and dimensional changes
in the bulk material. Heating can reverse this and this forms the basis of memory metals.

An important property of these alloys is that they are hard and springy above the transition
temperature (the Austenitic form). Below the transition temperature they are soft and easy to bend
(the Martensitic form).

NiTi alloys are more expensive. The transition from the martensitic phase to the austenitic phase is
only dependent on temperature and stress, not time, as with carbon steel. The change does not
involve the diffusion of atoms and it is reversible. This gives it the memory properties. While
martensite can be formed from austenite by rapidly cooling carbon steel this process is not reversible,
so steel does not have shape-memory properties.

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One of the most popular memory metals is called Nitinol. It is mainly produced as wire and thin
sheets before being turned into products.

You can download a very good tutorial on this material on this web site.
http://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/education/modules/documents/Nitinol.pdf

There is a lot of information about Nitinol manufacture and properties at this link.
http://www.memry.com/nitinol-iq/nitinol-fundamentals

You can see a Video demonstrating Nitinol wire at this link.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7jjqXh7bB4

An important property of these alloys is that they are hard and springy above the transition
temperature when in the Austenitic form. Below the transition temperature when in the Martensitic
form it is soft and easy to bend.

Nitinol is super elastic, biocompatible and resistant to fatigue. Here are some applications:-

Glasses – The alloy has a low transition temperature is makes it ideal for
the frames for optical glasses which are almost indestructible except at cold
temperatures. The picture demonstrates the super elastic properties at
normal temperatures.

Stents - are spring like devices inserted into arteries and veins to stop them
narrowing. Nitinol is ideal as it stretches easily and is biocompatible.

Teeth Brace - In dentistry the tooth brace has an archwire that is bent into the shape of the patient’s
teeth. When the wire warms up in the mouth it tries to change shape and pushes on the teeth to gently
force them into a new shape. The transition temperature for this use must be less than the body
temperature (typically 27 oC).

Thermostats – When used in devices like electric kettles, the change in shape can be made to switch
off the power at say 98oC and this is an example of a thermostat. This implies that SMA can be made
to have a range of transition temperatures. There are many applications for these devices such as
anti-scalding valves can be used in taps (water faucets) and shower heads.

Aircraft - Variable Geometry e.g. to reduce engine noise.

Pipe Couplings - oil line pipes for industrial applications, water pipes and similar types of piping for
consumer/commercial applications.

Muscle wire – This is nitinol wire that actually shortens in length when electrically powered. They
can lift thousands of times their own weight. The direct linear motion is ideal for robotic use and
small motors or solenoid activated devices. You can see a small robot in action with this wire at this
link.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k9f-W6Xi_Wo

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COLOUR CHANGING MATERIALS

Thermochromic – Some substances change colour with temperature and this property is called
Thermochromism. This has many uses such as indicating if a drink is too hot. There are two basic
types, liquid crystals and leuco dyes. Leuco dyes allow wider range of colours to be used, but their
response temperatures are more difficult to set with accuracy.

Liquid crystals – are the name given to the material used in liquid crystal displays (LCD) but the
optical properties are controlled by an electric field. These are widely used in display screens for
many electronic devices.

Photochromic – Some materials change colour with light intensity. Glasses

that darken in bright sunlight are an example. Usually, they are colourless in
a dark place, and when sunlight or ultraviolet radiation is applied the
molecular structure of the material changes and it exhibits colour. When the
relevant light source is removed the colour disappears. This is used with T
shirts to make logos appear. The picture shows colour changing threads.
These materials may be purchased from http://www.mindsetsonline.co.uk

Electroluminescent – These are materials that emit light of various colours

when electricity passes through them. The material may be organic or
inorganic. A typical EL material is a thin film of zinc sulphide with
manganese and gives out a yellow-orange light.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 8

1. List some uses for piezoelectric.

2. List some uses for ER.

3. List some uses for MR fluids.

4. List some uses for SMA.

5. Define the meaning of thermochromatic, photochromic and electroluminescent.

6. The SMA Nitinol stands for nickel, and tin and the “nol” part stands for something also. Find out
what this is.

7. Find out which kind of smart material has the brand named INDIGLO and give some uses for it.

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