ASTM E573-01 (2013) Standard Practices For Internal Reflection Spectroscopy - ATR

This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles
for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: E573 − 01 (Reapproved 2013)
Standard Practices for

Internal Reflection Spectroscopy1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E573; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 4. Significance and Use

1.1 These practices provide general recommendations cov- 4.1 These practices provide general guidelines for the good
ering the various techniques commonly used in obtaining practice of internal reflection infrared spectroscopy.
internal reflection spectra.2,3 Discussion is limited to the
infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum and includes a 5. Theory
summary of fundamental theory, a description of parameters 5.1 In his studies of total reflection at the interface between
that determine the results obtained, instrumentation most two media of different refractive indices, Newton (1)6 discov-
widely used, practical guidelines for sampling and obtaining ered that light extends into the rarer medium beyond the
useful spectra, and interpretation features specific for internal reflecting surface (see Fig. 1). In internal reflection
reflection. spectroscopy, IRS, this phenomenon is applied to obtain
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as absorption spectra by measuring the interaction of the penetrat-
standard. No other units of measurement are included in this ing radiation with an external medium, which will be called the
standard. sample (2,3). Theoretical explanation for the interaction
mechanisms for both absorbing and nonabsorbing samples is
2. Referenced Documents provided by Snell’s law, the Fresnel equations (4), and the
2.1 ASTM Standards:4 Maxwell relationships (5).
E131 Terminology Relating to Molecular Spectroscopy NOTE 1—To provide a basic understanding of internal reflection
E168 Practices for General Techniques of Infrared Quanti- phenomena applied to spectroscopy, a brief description of the theory
tative Analysis (Withdrawn 2015)5 appears in Appendix X2. For a detailed theoretical discussion of the
subject, see (4).
E284 Terminology of Appearance
3. Terminology 6. Parameters of Reflectance Measurements
3.1 Definitions of Terms and Symbols—For definitions of 6.1 Practical application of IRS depends on many precisely
terms and symbols, refer to Terminologies E131 and E284, and controlled variables. Since an understanding of these variables
to Appendix X1. is necessary for proper utilization of the technique, descriptions
of essential parameters are presented.
6.2 Angle of Incidence, θ—When θ is greater than the
1
These practices are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E13 on critical angle, θc, total internal reflection occurs at the interface
Molecular Spectroscopy and Separation Science and are the direct responsibility of between the sample and the internal reflection element, IRE.
Subcommittee E13.03 on Infrared and Near Infrared Spectroscopy. When θ is appreciably greater than θc, the reflection spectra
Current edition approved Jan. 1, 2013. Published January 2013. Originally
approved in 1976. Last previous edition approved in 2007 as E573 – 01 (2007).
most closely resemble transmission spectra. When θ is less
DOI: 10.1520/E0573-01R13. than θc, radiation is both refracted and internally reflected,
2
Internal Reflection Spectroscopy, IRS, is the accepted nomenclature for the generally leading to spectral distortions. θ should be selected
technique described in these practices. Other terms are sometimes used which far enough away from the average critical angle of the
include: Attenuated Total Reflection, ATR; Frustrated Total Reflection, FTR;
Multiple Internal Reflection, MIR; and other less commonly used terms. In older sample—IRE combination that the change of θc through the
literature, one may find references to Frustrated Total Internal Reflection, FTIR. region of changing index (which is related to the presence of
This should not be confused with Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy FT-IR. the absorption band of the sample) has a minimal effect on the
3
Other terms sometimes used for referring to the internal reflection element are:
ATR crystal, MIR plate, or sample plate.
shape of the internal reflection band. Increasing θ decreases the
4
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or number of reflections, and reduces penetration. In practice,
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website.
5 6
The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of
www.astm.org. these practices.
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1
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E573 − 01 (2013)
necessary to select an IRE with a refractive index considerably
greater than the mean index of the sample.
6.4.1 The refractive index of a material undergoes abrupt
changes in the region of an absorption band. Fig. 3 (6) shows
the change in refractive index of a sample across an absorption
band as a function of wavelength. When an IRE of index nA is
selected, there may be a point at which the index of the sample
is greater than that of the IRE. At this wavelength, there is no
θ at which total internal reflection can take place, and nearly all
of the energy passes into the sample. The absorption band
NOTE 1—The ray penetrates a fraction of a wavelength (dp) beyond the resulting in this case will be broadened toward longer
reflecting surface into the rarer medium of refractive index n2 (the wavelengths, and hence appear distorted. When an IRE of
sample), and there is a certain displacement (D) upon reflection. θ is the
angle of incidence of the ray in the denser medium, of refractive index, n1, index nB is selected, there is no point at which the index of the
at the interface between the two media. sample exceeds it. On the long wavelength side, however, the
FIG. 1 Schematic Representation of Path of a Ray of Light for refractive indexes approach each other. This results in an
Total Internal Reflection absorption band that is less distorted, but that is still broadened
on the long wavelength side. With an IRE of index nC, a
there is some angular spread in a focused beam. For instru- considerably higher refractive index than that of the sample,
ments that utilize f4.5 optics in the sample compartment, there the index variation of the sample causes no obvious distortion
is a beam spread of 6 5°, but the beam spread in the IRE is of the absorption band.
smaller because of its refractive index. The value will increase 6.5 Depth of Penetration, d p—The distance into the rarer
as lower f-number optics are utilized. This beam spread medium at which the amplitude of the penetrating radiation
produces a corresponding distribution of effective paths and falls to e−1 of its value at the surface is a function of the
effective depth of penetrations. wavelength of the radiation, the refractive indexes of both the
6.3 Number of Reflections, N—N is an important factor in IRE and the sample, and the angle of incidence of the radiation
determining the sensitivity of the IRE. Where multiple reflec- at the interface.
tions are employed, internal reflection occurs a number of 6.5.1 The depth of penetration, dp, can be calculated as
times along the length of the IRE depending on its length, l, follows:
thickness, t, and on the angle of incidence, θ, of the radiant λ1
beam. dp 5 (3)
2π ~ sin 2 θ 2 n 21 2 ! ½
NOTE 2—The length of an IRE is defined as the distance between the λ
centers of the entrance and exit apertures. where: λ 1 5 n 5wavelength of radiation in the IRE.
1
6.3.1 Absorption occurs with each reflection (see Fig. 2), The depth of penetration increases as the angle of incidence
giving rise to an absorption spectrum, the intensity of which decreases, and becomes infinitely large as θ approaches the
depends on N. For single-pass IREs, N can be calculated using critical angle (see Figs. 4 and 5) (7).
the following relationship:
N5 S D
l
t
cotθ (1)
For double-pass IREs:
N52 SD l
t
cotθ (2)
Many single-pass IREs employ approximately 25 reflec-

tions.
NOTE 3—N must be an odd integer for IREs in the shape of a trapezoid,
and an even integer for IREs in the shape of a parallelogram.
6.4 Relative Refractive Index, n21, of the Sample, n2, and
IRE, n1; (n21 = n2/n1)—Refractive index matching controls the
spectral contrast. If the indexes of the sample and the IRE
approach each other, band distortions can occur. Therefore, it is
Solid Line—Refractive index of sample.

Dotted Line—Absorption band of sample.
Dashed Lines—Refractive indices of reflector plates.
FIG. 2 Multiple Internal Reflection Effect FIG. 3 Refractive Index Versus Wavelength
2
E573 − 01 (2013)
NOTE 1—Total effective pathlength versus angle of incidence for

polystyrene stain on silicon surface. The sharp drop with angle of
incidence is largely, although not entirely, due to decrease of N with θ.
NOTE 1—Fractional penetration depth of electromagnetic field in rarer Points represent experimental measurements and solid curves are theo-
bulk medium for total internal reflection versus angle of incidence for a retical calculations (4).
number of interfaces. The penetration depth is infinitely large at the
critical angle and is about one tenth the wavelength at grazing incidence FIG. 6 Total Effective Pathlength Versus Angle of Incidence
for relatively high index media. λ1 = λ ⁄ n1 is the wavelength in the denser
medium.
FIG. 4 Relative Penetration Depth Versus Angle of Incidence of the incident radiation that is absorbed, and hence the spectral
contrast. The internal reflectance of bulk materials and thin
films, for small abosrptivities, is as follows:
R 5 1 2 α de (4)
The reflectance for N reflections is:

R N 5 ~ 1 2 αd e !N (5)
6.7.1 If αd e << 1, R N ≈ 1 − N · α· de, that is, the reflection

loss is increased by a factor of N. The relationships between the
absorption coefficient, α, and the absorptivity, a, are given by
Eq X2.13 and Eq X2.14.
FIG. 5 Variation of Penetration Depth with Wavelength of Radia- 6.8 Sampling Area—When multiple reflections are used, the
tion in Sample (7)
sampling area is somewhat analogous to the pathlength in
transmission spectroscopy. The amount of absorption by a
6.6 Effective Path Length, d e—The effective pathlength, or sample in contact with a multiple-reflection IRE is proportional
relative effective thickness, de, for the beam for each reflection to the area of contact within the sensitive region. Sampling area
is defined by Harrick (4) in detail, and is different for is proportional to 1/cos θ and increases with increasing θ.
'-polarized than for i-polarized radiation. For bulk materials, 6.8.1 The sensitive region of an IRE sampling face varies,
when θ = 45°, de' = 1⁄2 d ei, and the average effective thickness depending on the IRS system in which it is used. A small
is about equal to the penetration depth, dp. For larger angles, de region or the entire area of the sampling faces can be sensitive,
is smaller than dp and for smaller angles, de is larger than dp. as seen for the dispersive systems shown in Fig. 7. It must be
The total effective pathlength is equal to N times the effective emphasized that, in general, there is no relationship between
pathlength, de. An example of the effect of θ on N· de is shown the size of the sensitive sampling area and the optical efficiency
in Fig. 6. of the IRS system, provided that the slit height of the dispersive
6.7 Absorption Coeffıcient, α—As in transmission spectrophotometer is filled. In fact, it is preferred that an IRE
spectroscopy, the absorptivity of a material affects the fraction have insensitive edges so that gasket materials or sample
3
E573 − 01 (2013)
IRAs are presented in Fig. 8. For double-beam operation, it is
preferred that an IRA identical to that used in the sample beam
be used in the reference beam in order to compensate for
surface scatter, atmospheric absorptions, or absorptions in the
IRE. When using an IRA in a FT-IR spectrometer, a reference
FIG. 7 Sensitive Sampling Areas of IRE Plates spectrum (or background) is usually recorded using the same
IRE with no sample in contact with the crystal. Very careful
cleaning and sampling procedures (more than usual) are
holders do not cause spectral interference. It is important that required here. Spectral verification of IRE cleanliness is
samples be positioned so that they lie completely across the essential. Internal reflection equipment includes the following:
width of the sensitive area. For accessories utilizing single- 7.1.1 The IRAs designed to be placed into the sampling
reflection prisms and hemicylinders, the entire sample face compartment of a spectrophotometer. These are of the follow-
should be covered. If this area is not completely covered by the ing types: (a) variable-angle single internal reflection; (b)
sample, radiation bypasses the sample and the effect will be fixed-angle multiple internal reflection (θ usually set at 45°),
similar to a transmission cell with an air bubble in it. Knowing and (c) variable-angle multiple internal reflection (θ is either
the sensitive sampling area on an IRE is important when the continuously variable, usually between 30 and 60°, or a choice
sample is limited and it is desirable to place the sample on the of angles is preset by the manufacturer, usually at 30, 45, and
IRE in the most efficient manner (8). The sensitive region of an 60°. In order to have the θ that is specified on the attachment,
IRE sampling face may differ quite radically when used in an an IRE for that same θ must be used.) (d) platforms for
interferometer. The focused image is nearly circular and may supporting fixed-angle plates in a horizontal position, and (e)
not fill the vertical dimension of the crystal but often will IRAs for supporting prism IREs of various geometry.
overfill the width of the IRE face. This results in vignetting and 7.1.2 Goniometers—Goniometers are essential for absolute
introduces small wavenumber errors in Fourier Transform intensity measurements.
spectroscopy. The problem of overfilling the entrance aperture 7.1.3 Horizontal ATR Attachments—This family of accesso-
can be minimized by utilizing beam condensing optics, but this ries is based on single-pass IRE geometries, which may be of
will increase the angular spread of the incident rays. fixed-angle or variable-angle construction. They are designed
NOTE 4—It is recommended that an IRE with a vertical dimension only
so that only one crystal face is accessible to the user in a
slightly larger than the focused beam diameter be used. This ensures that horizontal plane. Some designs have the crystal set into the top
the sensitive area encompasses the full crystal face. surface of the accessory; others have a range of interchange-
6.9 Effıciency of Contact—In order to obtain an internal able plates, each with a different crystal material or sampling
reflection spectrum, it is necessary to bring the sample to a geometry. Plates are available to examine solid samples and
distance within the penetration depth, dp. Physical contact of often can accommodate a device to apply pressure to the
the sample with the IRE may be sufficient to obtain a sample. Other plates have a “boat” configuration and are
qualitative spectrum. However, if the exact contact conditions designed to accept liquid samples. Some accessories are
are not reproduced, a source of error may result, particularly designed to vary the temperature of the sample.
when interpretation requires a direct comparison with similarly 7.1.3.1 Liquid samples that are inhomogeneous (for
obtained spectra, or when quantitative measurements are made. example, engine oils) may suffer from separation or deposition
of heavier components onto the surface of the crystal. This
6.10 Electric Field Strength—Spectral contrast is affected results in a spectrum that shows an excessive contribution from
by the strength of the electric field, that is, the amplitude of the the settled material contacting the plate. Pressure applied to a
standing wave, in the rarer medium at the reflecting interface non-adhering sample by using a pressure plate cannot be easily
between two media. The field strength of the i-polarized controlled. Use of pressure causes some polymeric samples to
component is greater than that of the ' component, and both exude semiliquid onto the plate.
of these field strengths decrease with increasing θ.
7. Instrumentation
7.1 Internal Reflection Attachments—The internal reflection
attachment, IRA, holds the IRE. It directs some portion of the
radiation beam into the IRE, and then redirects the emerging
energy into the spectrophotometer slits or onto the FT-IR
detector without displacing or defocusing the beam while
maintaining the same beam spread. The IRA is placed into the
sampling compartment of a spectrometer. Most commercially
available infrared spectrophotometers can be equipped with a
reflection attachment for obtaining internal reflection spectra (a) (b)
(Note 4). The optical efficiency of internal reflection infrared
NOTE 1—(a) utilizes trapezoid IREs, and (b) utilizes parallelepiped
systems can be nearly equal to theoretical. However, in some IREs.
IRAs only half of the spectrophotometer energy may be FIG. 8 Fixed-Angle Multiple-Reflection Internal Reflection Attach-
available. Schematic diagrams of two types of fixed-angle ments
4
E573 − 01 (2013)
7.1.3.2 A variety of micro ATR accessories are commer- by use of IRAs that have provisions for repositioning IREs at
cially available. These include IRAS using single bounce set angles of incidence. Where a knowledge of θ is not as
prisms, spheres and hemi-cylinders as well as single pass important as the effect of angle change, fixed angle IREs may
multiple bounce prisms and parallelograms. Sampling areas be used in any baseplate position to effect an angle change. For
can be 0.5 to 2mm in diameter. Common IRE materials used example, if a KRS-5 IRE with θ = 45° is placed into an IRA
for these include zinc selenide, diamond, silicon and germa- position for θ = 60°, then the actual angle of incidence is 51.3°.
nium. Some of these allow the application of very high If the value of θ must be known, it can be calculated using the
pressures for achieving sample-IRE contact. following equation:
NOTE 5—It is not the intention of this practice to specify any particular
instrumentation for IRS. It is assumed that the equipment used is of the θ 5 θ IRA 2 sin21 S sin ~ θ IRA 2 θ
n1
!
IRE
D (6)
usual commercial quality and that the manufacturer’s instructions will be
consulted for proper IRA operation. where:
7.1.3.3 Caution is advised when using these accessories. In θIRA = angle of incidence of the IRA position,
some IRA’s, the angle of incidence is an average of many θIRE = angle of incidence of the IRE, and
angles and is therefore not defined. Spectra will not be n1 = refractive index of the IRE material.
NOTE 7—For further information on this subject, see (9).
comparable to those run at a 45 degree angle of incidence.
Spectra obtained at discrete angles of incidence using different 7.3.2.4 Cylindrical Internal Reflection Element, (CIRE),
IRE materials will sample different layers of a material. With (Fig. X3.1(f)—The CIREs are made from polished cylinders of
germanium and silicon, the ATR spectrum may be that of a any suitable IRE material with polished conical ends. The cone
surface coating or exudate in contrast to diamond, zinc selenide angle will vary with the material used but should be roughly
and KRS-5 where the spectrum can include surface and complimentary to the desired internal reflection angle. Al-
substrate materials. In single reflection, accessories where less though it is difficult to precisely describe the paths of all of the
than the entire sample area is used (that is, the sample is rays entering the entrance cone of the CIRE, empirical studies
smaller than the sample area), stray light effects can distort the have shown that the equations for number of reflections (1),
spectrum. depth of penetration (3), reflection (5), and absorptions (ap-
pendix) hold with reasonable accuracy. The end face of the
7.2 Internal Reflection Elements—Infrared radiation is
CIRE matches the circular shape of the FT-IR beam. When
propagated through the internal reflection element by total
used with instruments that refocus the FT-IR beam on the cone
internal reflection. Where multiple reflections are employed,
ends at the proper angle, the CIRE performs efficiently because
the long pathlengths required place stringent demands on both
it utilizes the entire beam. The CIREs are useful for construct-
the quality and the preparation of optical materials for IREs.
ing liquid cells because they can be sealed into a sample
The geometries of more common types and the properties of
chamber by means of O-rings. Such sealed cells can be made
the best optical materials are presented in 7.3 and 7.4.
to withstand several hundred pounds of pressure.
Additional information is available in the literature (4).
7.3.2.5 Prism Internal Reflection Element, (PIRE) (Fig.
7.3 Geometry—Common IREs are classified as follows: X3.1(h)—The PIREs are polished fixed-angle, elongated, four-
7.3.1 Single-Reflection IREs (Note 5): sided, double-pass prisms constructed from any suitable IRE
7.3.1.1 Fixed-angle prisms (Fig. X3.1(a)) material. These IRE’s are usually mounted vertically in a
7.3.1.2 Variable-angle hemicylinders (Fig. X3.1(b)), and chamber that can be used for liquid or solid powder sampling.
7.3.1.3 Micro hemicylinders. Liquid volume (when used as a sealed liquid cell) or immersion
depth (when used as a probe by dipping the IRE into a powder
NOTE 6—Prior to 1964, single-reflection IREs were the only type
commercially available. They are still used, but principally for strongly or liquid sample) controls the number of reflections used. The
absorbing materials. For weak absorbers, the angle of incidence must be throughput of a nine-reflection 45° angle double-pass ZnSe
set close to the critical angle and the kind of distortion depicted earlier prism liquid cell is about 40 % at 4000 cm−1 and 50 % at 1000
(Fig. 3) can result. cm−1.
7.3.2 Multiple-Reflection IREs (Diagrams of common types 7.3.2.6 Use of Optical Fiber as IRE—If cladding is removed
are shown in Fig. X3.1(c), (d), (e), (f ), and (n)): from a short length of an IR transmitting optical fiber, light
7.3.2.1 Single-Pass IRE—This is the simplest and most passing through the fiber becomes an IRE. If that portion of the
common. Radiation introduced through the entrance aperture fiber is immersed in a liquid or resin sample, the spectrum of
propagates by multiple internal reflections down the length of that material can be obtained.
the plate to the exit aperture. In these IREs, θ is generally fixed
7.4 Optical Materials—A perfect IRE material is not avail-
at 45°; however, plates are available with θ fixed at any angle.
able because some of the desirable properties are mutually
7.3.2.2 Double-Pass IRE—In this type, radiation propagates exclusive. Important characteristics of useful materials are:
down the length of the plate and is reflected back upon itself by
a metalized end reflecting surface. The beam returns at a 7.4.1 High mean refractive index, preferably n = 2.5 to 3.5,
slightly different angle of incidence. The average θ is usually 7.4.2 High transmittance and spectral purity,
between 45 and 50°. 7.4.3 Ability to take high polish,
7.3.2.3 Variable-Angle Multiple Reflection Plates, Single- 7.4.4 Toughness and resistance to cold flow, permitting
and Double-Pass (Note 7)—Angle variation may be obtained pressing and clamping to optimize contact, and
5
E573 − 01 (2013)
7.4.5 Chemical inertness, offering resistance to chemical where:
attack by samples and cleaning materials. T 1 = transmittance of the IRE,
NOTE 8—Properties of best available and most frequently used IRE and at normal incidence for the entrance or exit beam:
materials appear in Table 1. For a more complete coverage of the wide
range of optical materials suitable for fabricating IREs, consult (10) and ~n1 2 1! 2
R5 (8)
(11) ~ n 1 11 ! 2
NOTE 9—Coverage of all internal reflection instrumentation is beyond
the scope of these practices. For more extensive coverage of the subject, Many IREs exhibit transmittances close to the maximum
see (4),(12), and (13). value predicted by Eq 8 even when as many as 100 reflections
are employed.
8. Internal Reflection Elements
8.2.1 Reasons for Poor Performance:
8.1 Selection—The refractive index of the IRE should be 8.2.1.1 Poor Optical Material—Defects in the quality of
chosen so that measurements of bulk materials made at the IRE materials are magnified because of the long pathlengths
desired θ will not yield distorted spectra. Lower index yields and large Ns employed in IRS. Some pieces of KRS-5 exhibit
higher transmission because reflection losses at the entrance internal haziness that contributes to energy losses, especially at
and exit faces are reduced. For thin films (less than 100 nm), shorter wavelengths. Other pieces are soft and soluble in
the lowest possible index should be used so that distortion will organic solvents, leading to rapid deterioration of the surface.
be absent, while absorption will be enhanced. Hardness and
8.2.1.2 Inadequate Surface Polish—This causes scattering
inertness should also be considered. The system to be studied
losses for soft materials such as KRS-5. Harder materials like
determines to some extent the choice of IRE material since the
silicon and germanium are capable of excellent surface
surfaces must not be attacked chemically. Ionizable acids and
polishing, and seldom need reconditioning.
bases, for example, will etch the surface of KRS-5. Germanium
and silicon, on the other hand, can be washed or soaked in 8.2.1.3 Poor Tolerance on Lengths and Angles—The length
dilute acids and alkalies. to thickness ratio, l/ t, of the IRE controls N (usually θ is
predetermined) (see Eq 1). In single-pass IREs, l/t is chosen so
8.2 Evaluation—The quality of an IRE is judged by its that the central ray enters and leaves by way of the entrance
transmittance and the dependence of transmittance on wave- and exit apertures. If Eq 1 does not yield an integer, then a
length. The maximum transmittance expected is determined by single incoming beam will yield two spatially separated beams
considering the reflection losses at the entrance and exit at the exit aperture that partially or completely miss the exit
apertures. If only these losses are considered, then: aperture. (This occurs when the aperture is larger than the
T 1. ~ 1 2 R ! 2
(7) source image.) In double-pass IREs (Eq 2), loss of energy
TABLE 1 Properties of Typical Optical Materials for Internal Reflection ElementsA

Useful Range, Mean Refractive Critical
Material Properties
[µm] [cm−1] Index Angle,θc
Silver chloride 0.45–16 2.0 30 soft, moldable, light-sensitive, easily scratched,
22 000–700 insoluble in water
Silver bromide 0.5–35 2.22 27 slightly harder than silver chloride, otherwise similar,
20 000–500 insoluble in water and alcohol
Zinc sulfide 0.7–10 2.22 27 relatively hard and inert, water insoluble, attacked by
14 000–1000 concentrated acids and bases
Diamond C 0.22–4; 6–FIR 2.4 25 hard, expensive, permanent, insoluble in water, acids,
45 000–2 500; 1 600–FIR and bases
KRS-5, thallous bromide iodide 0.7–40 2.35 24.6 relatively soft, convenient index, favorable combination
14 000–250 of properties, soluble in warm water, soluble in
bases; insoluble in acids
Zinc selenide 0.5–14.3 2.42 24.6 expensive, brittle, water insoluble, releases H2Se, a
20 000–700 toxic material when used with acids, soluble in strong
acids, dissolves in nitric acid
Cadmium telluride 1.0–22 2.65 22.25 expensive, relatively inert, can be used with aqueous
10 000–500 solutions, insoluble in acids
Arsenic triselenide 0.9–11.8 2.8 20.9 brittle, can be soaked in 35 % HCL, 95 % H2SO4, 10 %
11 000–900 nitric acid, attacked by alkali, concentrated nitric acid
and aqua regia
Silicon 1.06–6.7; 30–FIR 3.5 15.6 hard, high resistivity material, useful at high
9 500–1 500; 350–FIR temperatures, insoluble in most acids and bases,
soluble in HF and HNO3
Germanium 2.0–11.4 4.0 14.5 limited range, sensitivity to temperature, becomes
5 000–900 opaque at 125°C, insoluble in water, soluble in hot
H2SO4 and aqua regia, fine penetration depth
Sapphire 0.4–4.5 1.8 31.8 extremely hard, chemically resistant, low index, short
transmission range
Cubic zirconia 0.4–5 2.1 27.3 extremely hard, chemically resistant, nontoxic, good
index, relatively short transmission range
A
For various applications, a wide variety of optical materials have been employed as IREs. These materials include MgO, CaF2, ZnSSe (zinc-sulfo-selenide solid solution),
NaCl, KCl, and KBr.
6
E573 − 01 (2013)
occurs if N is not an integer, since the beam might strike the requires that both the sample and reference beam IRAs be
entrance rather than the exit aperture, and so be directed back well-aligned. The sample-beam IRA must be realigned when-
toward the source. In this case, the condition for optimum ever a new (or refinished) IRE is to be checked and used
transmission can be satisfied by adjusting θ, provided that the because small differences of geometry always exist among
instrumentation permits angle variation. The tolerances on all IREs. An abbreviated procedure suffices for checking a used
angles of the surfaces from which reflection occurs and through IRE in the IRA that had previously been aligned with it.
which light is transmitted are strict. This is especially true for 8.2.3.1 The procedure for evaluating a new IRE in a
high-index IREs, because, if the angle of the exit aperture is off dispersive spectrophotometer in a double-beam internal reflec-
by δ degrees, the exit beam is deflected away from the normal tion system is:
to that surface by nδ. (a) Partially align the IRA-IRE optical system,
8.2.1.4 Nonparallelism—If an IRE does not have parallel (b) Turn the 100 % control of the spectrophotometer to
surfaces, and the deviation from θ is by an angle δ, then after move the recorder pen downscale to about 50 % T,
N reflections, θ within the IRE is changed by Nδ for a (c) Continue the alignment of the IRA to maximize trans-
single-pass plate. The exit beam will be deflected n·Nδ degrees mitted energy, and
away from the normal to the exit aperture. For double-pass (d) Turn the 100 % control of the spectrophotometer to
IREs, nonparallelism is not as serious, because any change in place the recorder pen at about 80 % T. Then run the IRE
θ as the beam traverses the IRE is compensated for in its return baseline.
path. A wavy surface in either single- or double-pass IREs 8.2.3.2 The procedure for evaluating a used IRE is as
might not be serious if the average flatness is maintained. follows:
8.2.2 Quality Checks of an IRE—Check the quality of an (a) Use a previously aligned optical system, having a
IRE by one or more of the following: highquality IRE in the reference beam and no additional
8.2.2.1 Visually inspecting for obvious surface or geometric external reference beam attenuation,
defects, (b) Place the IRE to be checked in the sample-beam IRA,
8.2.2.2 Employing the IRE as a transmission plate to deter- and turn the 100 % control of the spectrophotometer to place
mine its optical purity, the recorder pen at about 80 %, or as far upscale as possible if
8.2.2.3 Placing the IRE into a single-beam IRA in a disper- this is less than 80 %, and
sive spectrometer and measuring the transmitted power as a (c) Record the baseline of the IRE.
function of wavelength. Scattering, which goes roughly as λ−4
8.3 Care and Handling of IREs—For optimal performance,
, is more severe at shorter wavelengths if the surface polish is
it is necessary to maintain the cleanliness of the IRE. When
inadequate. Spectra of IREs with good and bad surfaces are
cleaning sealed cells (see 10.3.7), chlorinated and ketone
shown in Fig. 9. Very low overall transmittance of new IREs
solvents should be used with caution, so that cements or glues
could indicate poor geometry or poor crystal structure,
are not attached. The particular properties of each crystal
8.2.2.4 Mounting the IRE on a goniometer and reflecting a
material dictate special handling precautions. Recommenda-
highly collimated laser beam from the surface in question, then
tions for care of most used IREs are as follows:
noting the angular displacements for flatness and poor toler-
8.3.1 Germanium, Silicon, Zinc Selenide, and Zinc Sulfide—
ance on angles, and
The IREs of these materials are hard and brittle, and subject to
8.2.2.5 Comparing with a reference IRE. When a double-
mechanical fracture. They do not scratch easily and rarely need
beam internal reflection system is used, it is good practice to
repolishing. If necessary, they may be washed or soaked in
keep a previously tested high-quality IRE in the reference
water or in any organic solvents, without damage to optical
optics so that changes in a sample IRE can be readily observed.
properties.
8.2.3 Evaluating an IRE by comparing it with an unused
8.3.2 KRS-5—This material is relatively soft, and it
reference IRE, using a double-beam internal reflection system,
scratches and deforms fairly easily. Rough or hard samples
may dent or scratch the optical faces. The quality of this IRE
is variable, some crystals being softer and hazier than others.
Commercially available IREs of KRS-5 display wide varia-
tions in hardness and resistance to ketone solvents. The best
optical materials are hard and insoluble in acetone solvent.
Crystals that display acetone solubility scratch, deform, and
lose surface polish easily. Warm water, ionizable acids and
bases, chlorinated solvents, or amines should not be used on
these IREs. Hydrocarbon solvents, ketones, alcohols, and cold
water (for short intervals) may be used for cleaning.
NOTE 1—Comparison of the transmittance versus wavelength for a NOTE 10—Regarding the toxicity of KRS-5 and KRS-6, no extraordi-
number of KRS-5 single-pass plates with various qualities of surface nary hazard is encountered in normal handling as an IRE. Powdered or
polish; N = 26, θ = 45°. (a) Good polish; (b) hazy surface, needs resur- granular material which may be formed during grinding or polishing is
facing; (c) scratched, poor surface polish, needs repolishing. (Courtesy of dangerous since it may be ingested or absorbed through breaks in the skin.
G. D. Propster, Wilks Infrared Center, Foxboro Corp., South Norwalk,
CT.) 8.3.3 Silver Chloride—Silver chloride (AgCl) is consider-
FIG. 9 Comparison of Transmittance Versus Wavelength ably softer than KRS-5, and much more flexible. The IREs of
7
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this material scratch easily, and if they are left in contact with 8.3.6.6 If the procedure in 8.3.4.5 reveals a poor IRE
metal over a few hours, a reaction occurs that damages both the baseline (see Fig. 9), with a 15 to 20 % transmittance in the
IRE and the holder. For this reason, it is recommended that shorter wavelength region for a single-beam IRA, or a 60 to
AgCl not come in contact with the metal holder. This material 70 % transmittance in a double-beam IRA, then the IRE needs
is light-sensitive and accumulates surface-oxidation products reconditioning to restore its optical properties. Using bad IREs
upon exposure to light and air which can be removed by leads to poorly resolved spectra caused by low energy trans-
washing a solvent-cleaned AgCl plate with a 0.2 % hypo mission. The IRE reconditioning should be left to operators
solution. The AgCl has a low initial cost and it may be most skilled in this art because there are precise geometric and
economical to discard a worn AgCl IRE. optical polishing requirements, and some IRE materials are
8.3.4 Sapphire—An extremely hard material, it is chemi- toxic.
cally resistant to both strong acids and bases. With a relatively
9. Operation of Internal Reflection Attachments (9)
low index (1.8) and short transmission range (to 4.5 µm) it is
useful primarily in process applications where its nontoxicity 9.1 Operating conditions for individual IRAs are best ob-
and resistance to corrosive streams are important. tained from the manufacturer’s instructions. Some general
8.3.5 Cubic Zirconia—An extremely hard (third in the procedures that apply to most commercial internal reflection
hardness scale) durable material, it is superior to sapphire in instrumentation are (Note 11):
index (above 2) and transmission range (to 5 µm), and nearly NOTE 11—It is assumed that the infrared spectrometer is operating
equal in chemical resistance. It is nontoxic and suitable for properly. Performance of the instrument can be evaluated in accordance
process applications in foods and pharmaceuticals. with Practice E275. If radiation beam lengths are unequal, or if the source
is bent, the baseline will exhibit atmospheric absorptions even when a
8.3.6 General Recommendations—Preservation of optical double-beam IRA is properly aligned.
surfaces for all IRE materials can be accomplished as follows:
9.1.1 Single-Beam IRA Used in a Dispersive Spectropho-
8.3.6.1 Removal of nonslippery solid coatings may be tometer:
accomplished in the following manner: Place the pressure- 9.1.1.1 Set the spectrophotometer to transmit 100 % at 2000
sensitive side of an adhesive tape onto the sample across the cm−1 (5 µm).
length of the IRE. Apply light pressure on the release side of
9.1.1.2 Place the IRA into the sample compartment of the
the tape with a finger. (This will not deform even the softest
spectrophotometer with the IRE in position.
IREs since the tape acts as a cushion.) At an 180° angle, slowly
9.1.1.3 Align the optics in accordance with the manufactur-
peel the tape away from the IRE. Most nonslippery, resinous,
er’s instructions, so that the transmittance reading of the IRE is
elastomeric, and powdered samples are substantially removed
maximized. For new KRS-5, with t = 2 mm, l = 50 mm, and
by this technique.
θ = 45°, the transmittance reading should be between 25 and
8.3.6.2 For the removal of thin, organic films or residues 50 %.
that remain after the procedure in 8.3.4.1, flush the IRE with an 9.1.1.4 Attenuate the reference beam, bringing the pen to an
appropriate solvent. For best results, a solvent wash bottle 85 or 95 % transmittance reading.
should be used for all washing operations. This avoids unnec- 9.1.1.5 Check the pen response by interrupting the sample
essary handling of the crystal. For the removal of organic beam.
contaminants on germanium or silicon IRE surfaces, ultrasonic 9.1.1.6 If pen response is low, increase the slit program or
cleaning may be used, but caution must be used when cleaning the gain setting, or both, until the desired response is obtained.
KRS-5, as too much power damages this material. (Suggested The peak-to-peak noise level should be less than 2 % of full
cleaning time is 30 s.) scale.
8.3.6.3 Dab an IRE to dryness with soft rayon balls. Do not 9.1.1.7 Run the IRE baseline through the full range of the
rub. Soft IREs are scratched by many so-called soft tissues. spectrophotometer. The baseline should be flat within 5 % if
These should be avoided for cleaning use. Many commercially the IRE is new.
available rayon balls contain solvent extractables. To eliminate 9.1.1.8 Position the sample on the IRE. Recheck optical
possible contamination of the IRE, wash the ball with the alignment of the IRA before obtaining a spectrum, in order to
solvent used in the cleaning operation. compensate for any displacement of the IRE that might have
8.3.6.4 For the removal of fingerprints, saturate a soft rayon occurred when positioning the sample.
ball with cold water. Lightly wipe the contaminated area by 9.1.2 Double-Beam IRA Used in a Dispersive Spectropho-
dabbing the IRE surface. Drying of the IRE may be accelerated tometer:
by flushing with reagent grade acetone, and then dabbing dry. 9.1.2.1 Align the optics in accordance with the manufactur-
8.3.6.5 To determine the absence of residues, place the er’s instructions. If more radiant power is transmitted through
cleaned IRE into the IRA. Then scan through the range of the the reference IRE, the recorder pen will be deflected
spectrophotometer. Residual organic materials are revealed by downscale, whereas an upward deflection indicates greater
C—H, C—F, Si—O stretching, or carbonyl absorptions. Fin- transmittance of the sample-beam IRE. Alignment of the
gerprints are obvious by visual inspection, but if not noticed, reference optics should be continued until the pen no longer
they can cause spurious absorptions and overall reduction in moves upscale. The central rays of both the sample and the
transmitted spectral energy. If the spectrum indicates that the reference beam should be parallel and have matched vertical
IRE is not clean, repeat 8.3.4.2 through 8.3.4.4. displacements as they enter the photometer.
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9.1.2.2 Set the desired transmittance reading using the the concentration of the solids in the solution. Then draw the
spectrophotometer’s 100 % control. solution into a capillary tube and apply it to an IRE so that the
9.1.2.3 Record the baseline. If an optical imbalance is tip of the capillary does not touch it. Hold the IRE by the sides
present, the baseline will exhibit atmospheric absorption bands. in a tilted position, so that the solution flows down and spreads
In this case, realign until the baseline is free of atmospheric out. The area covered by the sample can be controlled to a
absorptions. certain extent by a manual tilting motion of the IRE. Permit the
9.1.2.4 Proceed in accordance with 9.1.1.5 – 9.1.1.8 for sample to dry until the solvent bands disappear. If the spectrum
single-beam operation. is too intense, remove the excess sample by saturating a soft
9.1.2.5 For best results, it is desirable to use matched IREs rayon ball with the solvent used, then carefully wipe off the
in the sample and the reference beam. sample at the edges until the sample produces the desired
9.1.3 Single-Beam IRA in an FT-IR Spectrometer: spectral contrast.
9.1.3.1 Place the IRA in the sample compartment and
10.3 Nonadhering Samples:
partially align with the internal alignment source, if available.
10.3.1 Solid Sample Holder—Use a solid sample holder to
9.1.3.2 Monitor the system energy (for example, interfero-
support nonadhering samples. To obtain uniform contact be-
gram centerburst intensity, energy meter, or sample beam) and
tween the sample and the IRE, apply pressure by adjusting the
align in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions to
pressure plate. Apply pressure reproducibly by using a torque
maximize this signal. The signal should be 25 to 50 % of the
wrench. This is particularly important when an attempt is made
signal observed with the IRA not present.
to obtain spectra of reproducible contrast. If the pressure is not
9.1.3.3 Record a background single-beam spectrum using a
uniformly distributed across the IRE surface, brittle IREs will
clean IRE.
crack and soft IREs will be deformed. Distribute the pressure
9.1.3.4 Carefully remove the IRE and position a sample on
by lining the metal pressure plate with a relatively soft
it. Replace the IRE to the IRA as reproducibly as possible.
neoprene-backed or TFE-fluorocarbon(heavy gage) backed
9.1.3.5 Record the sample single-beam spectrum, ratio
pressure-sensitive adhesive tape. If the entire area of the lined
against the background recorded in 9.1.3.3 to obtain a spectrum
pressure plate is not completely covered with sample, there is
in transmittance units.
a possibility of the lining material making contact with the IRE
NOTE 12—A poor baseline (either low transmittance or highly sloped) surface. This could lead to erroneous interpretation of the
may indicate loss of alignment between background and sample collec- sample spectrum. To eliminate possible mistakes of this type,
tion. This necessitates starting at 9.1.3.1 and repeating all steps through
9.1.3.5.
the dimensions of the lining material should not exceed those
of the sample.
10. Sampling Techniques 10.3.2 Films—Cut the sample to size, place into a solid-
10.1 Sampling is accomplished by placing the material of sample holder with the identical side of film of the same
interest in contact with the reflecting surfaces of the IRE. dimensions and in the same position on both sides of the IRE.
Physical contact is generally sufficient for obtaining qualitative Apply uniform pressure in accordance with the manufacturer’s
spectra. In general, smooth pliable samples such as rubber, instructions. The manner and ease of obtaining uniform pres-
films, coatings on soft substrates, and so forth, make excellent sure depends on the specific design of the holder.
contact with slight pressure; thus only a small area of sample 10.3.3 Fibers—Sample long, single filaments or yarns by
may be required for obtaining a suitable spectrum. If this is the winding a band about 20 mm wide around both sides of the
case, the desired number of reflections can be selected by using solid-sample holder. Strands should be close together, but not
only a small section of the IRE surface. crossing each other, so that an even sample area is produced.
10.1.1 It is possible to obtain an identifiable spectrum of With careful sampling, sufficient uniform pressure can be
suitable spectral contrast by random placement of a sample applied without deforming soft IREs. However, there is a
onto the IRE. However, if a good quality spectrum with danger of deforming the IRE, leaving an imprint of individual
reproducible spectral features is desired, and less than the strands on the surface, if too much pressure is applied. An
entire IRE is to be contacted, then the sample must be placed alternative approach is to lay the strands onto the adhesive
across the width of the sample plate covering the sensitive surface of a length of tape. The tacky adhesive holds each
region (see Fig. 7). Guidelines for sampling the various strand in place while the next is being applied. In this way, the
material types are presented in 10.2 and 10.3. entire surface of adhesive is uniformly covered with aligned
filaments or yarns. Two identical samples may be cut to the size
NOTE 13—Manufacturers supply a variety of holders for supporting
IREs and samples. Designs vary and holders are not universally inter-
of the IRE and placed in the sample holder on both sides of the
changeable among IRAs of different manufacturers. It is possible to obtain IRE. Sufficient uniform pressure is easily applied with no risk
custom-made holders of preferred designs. Information concerning these of deforming or fracturing the IRE.
is best obtained from manufacturers of IRS equipment. 10.3.4 Powders—Powders may be sampled in several ways.
10.2 Self-Adhering Materials: Soluble powders may be deposited from solution directly onto
10.2.1 With tacky solids, viscous semisolids, or pastes, good the IRE using a capillary tube. Evaporate the solvent, thereby
physical or optical contact is readily obtained by placing the leaving the sample. Sufficient contact may not be obtained
desired sample area against the IRE. using this method. If it is not, press the powder against the IRE
10.2.2 Dissolve soluble nontacky solids in a suitable sol- in a solid sample holder. Care should be taken if the particles
vent. Control the thickness of the sample partly by adjusting are hard, since the IRE may be scratched or deformed when
9
E573 − 01 (2013)
pressure is applied. Another approach is to spread the powder relative refractive index, n21, and therefore caution is advisable
uniformly across the sticky side of an adhesive tape, then when comparing spectra with those obtained by transmission
sample in the same manner as for films. Insoluble powders may methods.
be suspended in a solvent, then deposited onto an IRE as a 12.2 The penetration depth in IRS is proportional to the
slurry. A powdered film remains on the IRE after solvent wavelength (Eq 3). Therefore, absorption bands at longer
evaporation. Special double-pass plates or prism IREs can be wavelengths appear relatively stronger than those at shorter
dipped into the powder. If sufficient contact is obtained using wavelengths. This variation in penetration depth may cause
this approach, immersion depth controls spectral intensity. (14) bands at 3 µm to show only one fifth the absorption intensity
10.3.5 Pliable Insoluble Solids—High-molecular weight expected from the transmission spectra, relative to bands at 15
polymers, papers, fabrics, and foams may all fall into this µm. The IRS spectra of very thin films more closely resemble
category. Cut or slice an appropriate sample to size so that the those obtained by transmission than do the IRS spectra of
surface is reasonably smooth before sampling in the same thicker specimens. The effective thickness of films up to 100
manner as for films. nm is proportional to the actual thickness. When all of the
10.3.6 Hard Brittle Materials—These types are among the variables are understood and controlled, IRS spectra can be
most difficult to sample in their natural state. If the surface is obtained in which the band shapes and positions are sufficiently
smooth, cleave the sample to size with a sharp razor blade. If similar to those of transmission spectra that available libraries
not, even the surface by careful abrading. Pulverize brittle of spectra may be consulted for identification. For identifica-
samples and sample as powders. If the sample is completely tion by direct comparison, it is preferable that IRS spectra of
intractible, pyrolysis may provide the only means for identify- standards be consulted.
ing organic components from condensable pyrolyzate fractions
12.3 Spectra of very thin films cast onto IRES in any IRA
by transmission or IRS data.
configuration [micro or macro] will be different from ATR
10.3.7 Liquids—Sealed cylindrical internal reflection cells, spectra obtained on bulk samples [that is, the sample is thicker
sealable and demountable prism liquid cells, platform cavity than the penetration depth] and different from transmission
cells, and special double-pass plates, mounted in a vertical spectra. Thin film ATR spectra may appear similar to transmis-
position, are available for liquid sampling. In fixed volume sion spectra. These spectra cannot be compared on a 1/1 basis
types, fill the cell or cavity volume using a syringe. When using to bulk ATR or transmission spectra. See Fig. 10.
prism liquid cells, adjust the liquid height in the cell chamber
so that the IRE immersion depth provides optimum spectral 13. Applications
intensity for the material type. Using the vertical-mounted
13.1 Practically all samples adaptable to transmission tech-
IREs, dip the IRE into a beaker of the liquid sample. Control
niques can also be studied by reflectance methods. The choice
the spectral intensity by adjusting the immersion depth of the
of which method is better for a particular sample depends on a
IRE in the liquid. Take care in selecting the IRE material in
combination of considerations: specific spectral information
order to avoid corrosion. (Whenever the liquid contains mul-
desired, physical form of sample, opacity of sample, available
tiple components, surface potentials can contribute to a segre-
reference spectra, amount of sample, ease of sampling, or
gation of components near the IRE surface. The spectrum
analysis time.
recorded in this case may not be a true representation of the
13.1.1 The IRS can be employed when a sample cannot be
mixture.)
conveniently studied by transmission techniques. For opaque
or intractible samples, reflectance methods might provide the
11. Record of Experimental Conditions
only means for obtaining a spectrum. The IRS is the preferred
11.1 Label the IRS spectrum with the following informa- technique when a knowledge of an untampered functional layer
tion: or a nondestructive method is desired. Useful spectra of
11.1.1 Sample identification, special treatment, size, posi- coatings, adhesive rubber and rubberlike materials, laminates
tion on IRE, and sampling conditions, (15) (see Fig. 11), textiles, fibers, paper, soft thick films,
11.1.2 IRE material, θ, N, or l/t, geological samples, aqueous solutions, and very small residues
11.1.3 IRA manufacturer and model number, and can easily be obtained by IRS. In some cases, a combination of
both transmission and reflection methods can provide a more
11.1.4 Infrared spectrophotometer manufacturer, model
accurate characterization of the composition of bulk materials
No., and instrumental conditions.
than is possible by use of either method alone.
13.1.2 Some applications that are more conveniently
12. Interpretation of Data
handled by IRS methods are noted in this section. Suggested
12.1 It should be remembered that, in internal reflection experimental conditions that provide good quality spectra are
spectra of bulk materials, only a thin layer of film near the presented and are intended to serve as guidelines for sampling,
surface is sampled. The spectrum depends principally upon the and do not necessarily indicate conditions for optimum spectral
composition of the part of the sample that is in contact with the contrast. Although optimum sampling conditions are
IRE surface. This may be different from the bulk of the sample preferable, it is possible to obtain useful spectra by using the
in thin-layer laminates or in materials exhibiting orientation best available compromise of IRS equipment, provided that θ
effects or exudation of some components. Band intensities, remains above the critical angle, and that the experimental
shapes, and locations depend on the angle of incidence and conditions are reproducible.
10
E573 − 01 (2013)
FIG. 10 Comparison of Transmission, Thin Film ATR and Thick Film ATR Spectra of VECTOR 4111 Block Styrene-Isoprene-Styrene, SIS,
Rubber
FIG. 12 Typical Beampath Followed in Horizontal IRA (9)

NOTE 1—The top spectrum might be misinterpreted as a copolymer.
IRS spectra of Side 1 and Side 2 clearly indicate the composition of the
laminate (15).
FIG. 11 IRS and Transmission Spectra of a Mylar-Polyethylene
Laminate effects encountered during the sample preparation that is
required for transmission spectra.
13.3 Cellulose Derivatives and Chemically Modified Cot-
13.2 Biological Samples: Skin, Bone, and Collagen from tons (17)—Obtain reflection spectra of these samples by
Connective Tissue (16)—Cut thin slices of these samples with sandwiching a 1 by 20 by 50-mm, 45°, KRS-5, IRE between
a razor or microtome. Mount on a 45° KRS-5, IRE in an two fabric samples that are cut to identical dimensions (but
appropriate sample holder. The IRS spectra of these materials slightly smaller than the IRE), and then mounting in a lined
provide the advantage of in situ sampling, avoiding the solid sample holder. Apply uniform pressure with a torque
possibility of denaturing the samples, and also providing wrench. With unmodified cellulose for comparison, the differ-
identification of mineral components without the spurious side ences in chemical treatment can be observed and sometimes
11
E573 − 01 (2013)
identified. Inspection of both sides of fabric can reveal prefer- sandwiching a 2 by 20 by 50-mm, 45° KRS-5, IRE between
ential treatment of one side. Sateen fabric, woven with mer- them. Apply uniform pressure using a torque wrench.
cerized filling threads and unmercerized warp threads, indi-
13.7 Residues on Pressure-Sensitive Adhesive Tape Surface
cates a face spectrum (Side 1) characteristic of mercerized
(8)—The performance of a pressure-sensitive adhesive can be
cellulose and a back spectrum (Side 2) of unmodified cellulose.
adversely affected by the presence of very small amounts of
This information cannot be obtained using transmission meth-
surface contaminants. Frequently only a few monolayers of
ods.
contaminant are involved. The IRS furnishes a means for
13.4 Aqueous Solutions (18)—The IRS is useful in this case obtaining a spectrum of the surface in question without altering
since transmission measurements may not be possible if the layer of interest. Detection of a contaminant can generally
inorganic or polar-organic material is only slightly soluble in be accomplished by completely covering both faces of a 1 by
the common infrared solvents. Using a liquid-sample holder, 20 by 50-mm, 45°, KRS-5 IRE with sample. If the contaminant
IRS spectra of aqueous solutions of carboxylic acids and alkali is sufficiently thick, a spectrum of the contaminant will result.
salts of carboxylic acids, sulfonic acids, glycine, amine salts, If not, as is usually the case: (1) Using a double-beam
amino acids, amides, phenols, carbohydrates, and inorganic dispersive system, a compensation spectrum can be run,
salts such as potassium hydrogen carbonate, potassium placing a control sample free of contamination on the reference
carbonate, sodium sulfate, potassium sulfite, sodium nitrate, IRE. The area of the reference sample is adjusted until
sodium phosphate, and so forth, can be obtained. Good quality absorptions of the adhesive are cancelled, leaving a spectrum
spectra of inorganic salts in water are obtained using a of the contaminant. Identification of a mixture of zinc salts of
single-reflection IRE of Irtran-2, θ = 40°, N = 1. fatty acids (21) can be made in this manner. (2) Using a
13.5 Minerals—Qualitative spectra of minerals are obtained computerized (dispersive or FT-IR system, the control spec-
by grinding the sample to a powder of mixed-particle size, then trum subtracted from that of the contaminated adheseve pattern
sampling it as a powder. Provided θ is maintained above the generates a difference spectrum of the contaminant. For ex-
critical angle, no scattering is observed in non-absorbing tremely thin surface residues, the tape may be applied to the
regions of the spectrum, offering an advantage over IRE with slight pressure, then slowly peeled away at a 180°
transmission, where useful spectra cannot be obtained with angle. This procedure will generally deposit the contaminant
large-diameter particles. Spectral contrast of minerals using onto the IRE. The thickness of the residue can be built up by
IRS is somewhat dependent on particle size, smaller particles successive reapplications until the desired spectral contrast is
giving higher spectral contrast. In spite of this, good quality obtained.
spectra (19) of albite and augite have been obtained using 13.8 Pyrolyzates—Intractible samples such as highly filled
mixed particles up to 100 µm in diameter. Experimental and tightly cured resistor coatings, carbon black-filled tire
conditions that render good quality spectra are: stock and crosslinked, insoluble elastomers are difficult to
Mineral IRE θ, ° N sample by conventional transmission or reflectance techniques.
quartz Ge 45 100
albite, augite KRS-5 45 20
This type of sample may be thermally decomposed using
pyrolysis IRS. During pyrolysis, volatile and condensable
NOTE 14—Quartz has a refractive index from 0 to above 7 over one phases are generally formed. Condensable degradation prod-
absorption band, so that the critical angle will move from zero to well ucts most often include smaller polymer segments formed by
above the angle of incidence regardless of the refractive index of IRE
material. Very large absorptivities occur, and these, combined with means of a chain scission. This material is collected onto the
refractive index variations, make the reflection metallic in certain spectral optical face of a multiple-reflection IRE (usually KRS-5)
regions (19). In spite of this, internal reflection spectra can be obtained for supported by the pyrolysis chamber.
quartz particle diameters up to 150 µm. Band shapes and locations depend
on particle size and the degree of polarization of the radiation beam. 13.9 Other IRS Applications—Many other IRS applications
are reported in the literature, and include: determination of
13.6 Polymers Stability—Reactions occurring at polymer
optical constants (22) and coating thicknesses (4); molecular
surfaces are conveniently studied by IRS (20). Polyethylene,
orientation studies (22) using polarized internal reflection
polypropylene, polycarbonate, poly(vinyl chloride), ABS, and
measurements, such as molecular orientation of polypropylene
other polymers may be artificially aged using ultraviolet light
(23) during uniaxial drawing; spectroscopic studies of electro-
or heat. Since some aging effects are initially concentrated on
chemical reactions using germanium (24) and other special
polymer surface, reflection spectra provide a means for early
IRE-electrodes (25,26); and recording spectra of monomolecu-
detection of surface reactions. Oxidative stability may be
lar films and powdered samples (27). For a more complete
studied by monitoring the intensity of carbonyl absorption at
coverage of the subject, consult the literature and manufactur-
1709 cm−1 (5.85 µm). The ratio of carbonyl to methylene
er’s bulletins which include a variety of suggested applications.
absorption at 1449 cm−1 (6.9 µm) can be used to estimate the
relative extent of the oxidation. This ratio may then be related
14. Quantitative Aspects
to some physical property such as tensile strength or brittle-
ness. For these studies, mold the polymer to a uniform 14.1 Reproducibility of Spectra—Measurements of care-
thickness with flat surfaces, or sample the film as is. After an fully designed IRS spectra yield Beer’s law plots of absorbance
appropriate aging cycle, cut samples to cover an IRE face versus concentration which can be used for quantitative analy-
entirely, then place them into a lined solid-sample holder, sis. For the quantitation of IRS data, it is essential that the
12
E573 − 01 (2013)
infrared scans be reproducible. Experimental parameters must 14.1.6 When bulk samples are studied, the relationship of
be rigidly controlled, and can be, if the following guidelines are the analysis surface to the overall sample composition must be
used: known. For some types of samples, such as coated films,
14.1.1 Select only the best quality IREs for quantitative plasticized films, or adhesive tapes, the surface will not be
analysis. representative of bulk composition. In these cases, the surface
14.1.2 Maintain a reasonably constant IRE baseline (geom- composition may be related to that of the coating or the
etry and optical condition) throughout the analysis of standards adhesive or to some prior treatment of the sample. If standards
and samples. It is important that the energy transmitted by the cannot be prepared and conditioned in the same manner as the
IRE be sufficiently high that low-energy spectra do not result. sample, IRS should not be used for quantita-tive analysis.
If spectra are completely reproducible, quantitative informa- 14.2 Special Applications—There are some samples for
tion may be derived even from spectra recorded under low- which IRS spectra may have advantages over transmission
energy conditions. However, such spectra are frequently dis- spectra for quantitative work. For example, if films over 5 µm
torted and difficult to reproduce when using another IRE thick are used for obtaining IRS data, interference fringes can
having the same geometry and composition and low-energy be avoided. Multiple reflections or large surface areas, or both,
transmission. can enhance weak absorption bands to provide high sensitivity.
14.1.3 Reproduce area and quality of contact of the sample
14.2.1 Levels of aromatic components in modified alkyds
IRE throughout the analysis. Uniform, reproducible contact is
and alkyd resins and levels of unsaturation, for example, trans
easily obtained with self-adhering and smooth, flat samples,
unsaturation at 970.9 cm−1 (10.3 µm) of petroleum resins, can
but may be difficult with hard, and impossible with rough,
be determined in IRS spectra, provided appropriate standards
surfaces. When less than the total IRE surface is used, samples
are available.
should be mounted on the plate so that the identical region of
the IRE is covered. It is not essential to know N, but only to N OTE 15—For selecting analytical wavelength, absorption
reproduce N. measurement, analytical curve preparation, and calculation methods,
14.1.4 Maintain a balanced optical system of the transfer consult Practice E168.
optics.
14.1.5 Where thin films are studied, maintain a constant film 15. Keywords
thickness or determine the exact film thickness. 15.1 internal reflection spectroscopy
APPENDIXES
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. SYMBOLS RELATING TO INTERNAL REFLECTION SPECTROSCOPY12
A' = aperture of IRE. κ = attenuation index.

a = absorption parameter. l = length of IRE.
α = absorption coefficient. N = number of reflections.
ATR = attenuated total reflection. n = index of refraction.
d = film thickness. n1 = index of refraction of IRE.
de = effective pathlength, or effective thickness of a film. n2 = index of refraction of rarer medium or sample.
dp = penetration depth of electromagnetic field in rarer medium. n21 = refractive index ratio for reflecting interface, n21 = n2/ n1.
δ = phase shift of light due to reflection. ν = frequency of light.
P = radiant power. φ = angle of refraction.
Po = radiant power of incident beam. θ = angle of incidence.
IRA = internal reflection attachment. θc = critical angle.
IRE = internal reflection element. R = reflectance, R = r 2.
IRS = internal reflection spectroscopy. r = reflected amplitude for unit incident amplitude.
i = square root of minus one. t = thickness of IRE.
13
E573 − 01 (2013)
X2. THEORY OF INTERNAL REFLECTION SPECTROSCOPY
X2.1 Nonabsorbing Media7

X2.1.1 Electromagnetic radiation that strikes an interface
between two nonabsorbing media that have different refractive
indexes, n1 and n2, is partially transmitted and partially
reflected. The angular relationship between the incident and
refracted rays of the transmitted beam is given by Snell’s law:
n 1 sinθ 5 n 2 sinφ (X2.1)
in which θ and φ are the angles of incidence and refraction.

For the reflected rays, the angle of reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence (Fig. X2.1).
X2.1.2 For incident rays of unit amplitude, the amplitudes
of reflected rays are given by Fresnel’s equations:
sin ~ θ 2 φ !
r' 5 2 and (X2.2)
sin ~ θ1φ !
tan ~ θ 2 φ !
ri 5 (X2.3)
tan ~ θ1φ !
Here, the electric field vector is perpendicular (') to the

plane of incidence for perpendicular polarization, and lies in
the plane of incidence for parallel (i) polarization. NOTE 1—Reflectance versus angle of incidence for an interface between
media with indices, n1 = 4 and n2 = 1.33, for light polarized perpendicular,
X2.1.3 Reflectance, that is the fraction of the incident R' , and parallel, Ri, to plane of incidence for external reflection (solid
radiant power that is reflected, is equal to the square of the lines) and internal reflection (dashed lines). θc, θB, and θp are the critical,
amplitude of the reflected ray. Near normal incidence, where φ Brewster’s, and principal angles, respectively.
≈ n12θ (n12 is the refraction index ratio, n1 /n2), the reflectance FIG. X2.2 Reflectance Versus Angle of Incidence
is the same for both components of polarization, and is given
as follows: The reflectances for both polarizations are total (100 %) at
grazing incidence (θ = 90°).
~ n 12 2 1 ! 2
R5 (X2.4) X2.1.5 For internal reflection, when the radiation strikes the
~ n 1211 ! 2
interface from the medium of higher refractive index, the
X2.1.4 For external reflection, when the radiation strikes the reflectances vary with angle of incidence as shown by the
interface from the medium of lower refractive index, the broken curves of Fig. X2.2. These are similar to the curves for
reflectances of the perpendicular and polarized rays vary with external reflection, but extend over a smaller range of angles.
angle of incidence as shown by the solid curves of Fig. X2.2. The G reflectances for both polarizations are total at the critical
The reflectance of the parallel-polarized component is zero at angle, θc, as follows:
Brewster’s angle (also called the polarizing angle):
θ c 5 sin21 n 21 (X2.6)
θ B 5 tan21 ~ n 12! (X2.5)
X2.1.5.1 The reflectance of the parallel component is zero at
an internal polarizing angle, θp, which is called the principal
angle, and is the complement of Brewster’s angle:
7
The Symbols provided in Appendix X1 are not to be considered standard θ p 5 tan 21 n 21 (X2.7)
nomenclature. These are under advisement by Subcommittee E13.04 on Nomen-
clature and must be further approved by ASTM Committee E13 on Molecular X2.1.5.2 The reflectance of the parallel component in-
Spectroscopy. creases abruptly over a very small range of the angle of
incidence from θp to θc. This is accompanied by an abrupt
change of the angle of refraction: φ becomes 90° for incidence
at θc, and is imaginary for θ > θc. The Fresnel reflection
equations become:
cos θ 2 i ~ sin2 θ 2 n 21 2 ! ½
r' 5 (X2.8)
cos θ1i ~ sin2 θ 2 n 212 ! ½
n 21 2 cosθ 2 i ~ sin2 θ 2 n 21 2 ! ½
ri 5 (X2.9)
n 212 cosθ1i ~ sin 2 θ 2 n 212 ! ½
When n21 is real (both media nonabsorbing), |r'| = |ri| = 1,

FIG. X2.1 Refraction and Internal Reflection of Rays of Light and internal reflection is total for θc ≤ θ = 90°.
14
E573 − 01 (2013)
X2.2 Absorbing Rarer Medium between θ = 0 and θ ≈ θ p, internal reflectance is rather
X2.2.1 When the rarer medium is absorbing, its complex insensitive to absorption coefficient, until it becomes very
refractive index large. For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle,
however, internal reflectance can be highly sensitive to the
n̂ 2 5 n 2 ~ 11iκ 2 ! (X2.10) absorption coefficient, and the parallel component of polariza-
replaces n2 in the Fresnel Eq X2.8 and Eq X2.9 (Note X2.1). tion is more sensitive than the perpendicular.
The attenuation index, κ, is related to the absorption
coefficient, α, and the absorptivity, α, of the Bouguer-Beer law X2.3 Attenuated Total Reflection
by: X2.3.1 Maxwell’s equations predict the evanescent wave
nκ 5 αc o /4πν (X2.11) that extends into the medium of lower refractive index, beyond
P/P o 5 e 2ab 5 102abc (X2.12) the reflecting interface. The frequency of this wave is that of
the incident radiation, and its amplitude diminishes exponen-
α 5 M·a·c (X2.13) tially with distance from the interface. It is possible to couple
Here, co is the velocity of light in vacuo, and ν its frequency. with this evanescent wave and extract energy from it, thereby
M is the natural logarithm of 10, M = 2.303; b is sample making the reflection less than total. The strength of the
thickness, and c is the concentration of the absorbing species in coupling depends (in part) on the amplitude (electric field
the sample. strength) of the evanescent wave. Frustrated total reflection
occurs when the coupled medium does not absorb the energy,
NOTE X2.1—The complex refractive index is written n2 = n2 + iκ2 by
IUPAC, and κ2 is called the absorption index.
but conducts it away from the interface. Attenuated total
reflection occurs when the coupled medium absorbs the energy
X2.2.2 Internal reflection is affected by an absorbing rarer extracted from the evanescent wave.
medium as illustrated in Fig. X2.3. For radiation incident
X2.3.2 Attenuated total reflection is observed when the
angle of incidence is maintained greater than the critical angle
while wavelength is scanned across an absorption band. The
amount by which internal reflection is diminished from being
total, because of absorption of energy from the evanescent
wave, that is, the reflectance loss per reflection, is the absorp-
tion parameter, a:
a512R (X2.14)
The absorption parameter is greater near the critical angle

than at larger angles, and is also greater for i-polarization than
for '-polarization.
X2.3.3 The relationship between attenuated internal reflec-
tance and the absorption coefficient of Beer’s law can be
expressed in simplified form if absorption is small, for
example, αb < 0.1. Then Beer’s law can be approximated by:
P/P o '1 2 αb (X2.15)
where αb is the fraction absorbed for transmission through a

sample of thickness, b. The corresponding quantity for internal
reflection is the absorption parameter, so that the internal
reflectance of a single reflection can be expressed by:
NOTE 1—Internal reflectance at an interface versus angle of incidence at R 5 1 2 a 5 1 2 αd e (X2.16)
λ = 0.4 µm for n21 = 0.333 and various values of absorption coefficient
α2. Note that the curves tend to resemble those for external reflection when Here de is an effective pathlength, or effective thickness of a
α2 becomes high.
thin film, and is defined by:
FIG. X2.3 Internal Reflectance at an Interface Versus Angle of
Incidence d e 5 a/α (X2.17)
15
E573 − 01 (2013)
X3. INTERNAL REFLECTION ELEMENTS
X3.1 Various transparent optical elements used in internal

reflection spectroscopy for establishing the condition necessary
to obtain the internal reflection spectra of materials are shown
in Fig. X3.1.
FIG. X3.1 Internal Reflection Elements
REFERENCES
(1) Newton, Opticks II, Book 8, 1917 p. 97. (7) Gilby, A. C., Cassels, J., and Wilks, P. A., Jr., “Internal Reflection
(2) Fahrenfort, J., “Attenuated Total Reflectance—A New Principle for Spectroscopy III, Microsampling,” Applied Spectroscopy, Vol 24, No.
Production of Useful Spectra of Organic Compounds,” Molecular 5, 1970.
Spectroscopy, 1962, p. 701. (8) Paralusz, C. M., “Internal Reflection Spectroscopy Applied to the
(3) Harrick, N. J., Discussion of December 1959, p. B.D.-4, following Analysis of Adhesive Tapes,” Journal of Colloid and Interface
paper presented by Eischens, R. P., “Infrared Methods Applied to Science, Vol 47, No. 3, 1974, pp. 719–746.
Surface Phenomena in Semiconductor Surfaces,” (Proceedings of (9) Compton, Senya V., and Compton, David A., “Optimization of Data
Second Conference), Pergamon Press, London, 1960, p. 56. Recorded by Internal Reflectance Spectroscopy,” Practical Sampling
(4) Mirabella, F. M., and Harrick, N. J., Internal Reflection Spectroscopy Techniques for Infrared Analysis, P. B. Coleman, ed., CRC Press,
Review and Supplement, Harrick Scientific Corp., Ossining, NY, 1993.
1985. (10) Wolfe, W. L., Ballard, S. S., and McCarthy, K. A., “Refractive Index
(5) Born, M., and Wolf, E., Principles of Optics, 2nd ed., Pergamon Press, of Special Crystals and Certain Glasses,” American Institute of
NY, 1964. Physics Handbook, 2nd ed., Edited by E. E. Gray, McGraw Hill,
(6) Wilk’s Scientific Corp., “Internal Reflection Spectroscopy,” 1965, p. New York, NY, 1963, p. 11.
1. (11) McCarthy, K. G., Ballard, S. S., and Wolfe, W. L., “Transmission and
16
E573 − 01 (2013)
Absorption of Special Crystals and Certain Glasses,” American (21) Medeck, E., “Some Qualitative and Quantitative Applications of
Institute of Physics Handbook, 2nd ed., Edited by E. E. Gray, Multiple Internal Reflection Spectroscopy,” Canadian Spectroscopy,
McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1963, p. 45. Vol 13, 1968, pp. 76–80.
(12) Gilby, A. C., Burr, J., Jr., and Crawford, B., Jr., “Vibrational (22) Hansen, W. N., “Internal Reflection Spectroscopy and the Determi-
Intensities XII, An Optical-Mechanical System from Infrared At- nation of Optical Constants,” ISA Transactions, Vol 4, 1965, p. 263.
tenuated Total Reflection Measurements,” Journal of Physical (23) Flournoy, P. A., “Attenuated Total Reflection Spectra from Oriented
Chemistry, Vol 70, 1966, p. 1520. Polypropylene Films,” Spectrochimica Acta, Vol 22, 1966, p. 15.
(13) Fahrenfort, J., and Visser, W. M., “On the Determination of Optical (24) Mark, H. B., and Pons, B. S., Analytical Chemistry, Vol 38, 1966, p.
Constants in the Infrared by Attenuated Total Reflectance,” Spectro- 119.
chimica Acta, Vol 21, 1965, p. 1433. (25) Hansen, W. N., “Spectroscopic Observation of an Electrochemical
(14) Harrick, N. J., “The Internal Reflection Probe,” Analytical Reaction via Internal Reflection,” Modern Aspects of Reflectance
Chemistry, Vol 43, No. 11, 1971, pp. 1533–1535.
Spectroscopy, Edited by W. Wendlandt, Plenum Publishing Corp.,
(15) Luongo, J. P., “Characterization of Polymeric Films by Reflection
New York, NY, 1968, pp. 182–191.
Spectroscopy,” Paper No. 2,137, National Meeting of the Electro-
(26) Prostak, A., Mark, H. B., Jr., and Hansen, W. N., “Simultaneous
chemical Society in Los Angeles, CA, 1970.
Electrochemical and Internal Reflection Spectrometric Measure-
(16) Furedi, H., and Walton, A. G., “Transmission and Attenuated Total
Reflection Spectra of Bone and Collagen,” Applied Spectroscopy, ments Using Gold-Film Electrodes,” Journal of Physical Chemistry,
Vol 22, No. 1, 1968, pp. 23–26. Vol 72, 1968, p. 2576.
(17) McCall, E. R., Miles, S. H., and O’Connor, R. T., “Frustrated (27) Harrick, N. J., “Enhanced Sensitivity for Internal Reflection
Multiple Internal Reflectance Spectroscopy of Chemically Modified Spectroscopy,” Modern Aspects of Reflectance Spectroscopy, Edited
Cottons,” American Dyestuff Reporter, Vol 55, No. 11, 1966, pp. by W. Wendlandt, Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, NY, 1968 ,
31–35. pp. 207–215.
(18) Katlatsky, B., and Keller, R. E., “ATR Infrared Analysis of Aqueous (28) Flournoy, P. A., and Schaffers, W. J., “Attenuated Total Reflection
Solutions,” Analytical Chemistry, Vol 35, 1963, p. 1665. Spectra from Surfaces of Anisotropic Absorbing Films,” Spectro-
(19) Harrick, Internal Reflection Spectroscopy, pp. 233–239. chimica Acta, Vol 22, 1966, p. 5.
(20) Chan, M. G., and Hawkins, W. L., “Internal Reflection Spectroscopy (29) Wilks, P. A., “Internal Reflection Spectroscopy I, Effect of Angle of
in the Prediction of Outdoor Weatherability,” Polymer, Vol 2, 1968, Incidence Change,” Applied Spectroscopy, Vol 22, No. 6, 1968, pp.
p. 1638. 782–784.
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What are the main parameters that determine the results obtained from internal reflection spectroscopy?

What are the main parameters that determine the results obtained from internal reflection spectroscopy?

What are some essential parameters that need to be precisely controlled in practical application of internal reflection spectroscopy?

What are some essential parameters that need to be precisely controlled in practical application of internal reflection spectroscopy?

This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

Designation: E573 − 01 (Reapproved 2013)

Standard Practices for

1. Scope 4. Significance and Use

3. Terminology 6. Parameters of Reflectance Measurements

For double-pass IREs:

Many single-pass IREs employ approximately 25 reflec-

Solid Line—Refractive index of sample.

NOTE 1—Total effective pathlength versus angle of incidence for

The reflectance for N reflections is:

6.7.1 If αd e << 1, R N ≈ 1 − N · α· de, that is, the reflection

TABLE 1 Properties of Typical Optical Materials for Internal Reflection ElementsA

FIG. 12 Typical Beampath Followed in Horizontal IRA (9)

X1. SYMBOLS RELATING TO INTERNAL REFLECTION SPECTROSCOPY12

A' = aperture of IRE. κ = attenuation index.

X2. THEORY OF INTERNAL REFLECTION SPECTROSCOPY

X2.1 Nonabsorbing Media7

in which θ and φ are the angles of incidence and refraction.

Here, the electric field vector is perpendicular (') to the

When n21 is real (both media nonabsorbing), |r'| = |ri| = 1,

The absorption parameter is greater near the critical angle

where αb is the fraction absorbed for transmission through a

X3. INTERNAL REFLECTION ELEMENTS

X3.1 Various transparent optical elements used in internal

FIG. X3.1 Internal Reflection Elements

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