Gilgit and Baltistan Regions of J&K

THE GILGIT
AND
BALTISTAN
REGIONS OF
JAMMU
AND
KASHMIR
STATE
Copyright (C) 2017, Centre for Joint Warfare Studies (CENJOWS),
New Delhi
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THE GILGIT AND
BALTISTAN REGIONS
OF JAMMU AND
KASHMIR STATE
By
R Chandrashekhar, Senior Fellow, CENJOWS
Centre for Joint Warfare Studies

Kashmir House, Rajaji Marg, New Delhi-110 001
Tel. Nos : 011-23792446, 23006535, 23006538/9, Fax : 011-23792444
Website : http://cenjows.gov.in, e-mail : [email protected]
Preface
The earlier CENJOWS study on ‘Understanding Baluchistan’

brought to fore the need to better understand the regions of
Gilgit and Baltistan, both legitimately Indian areas under illegal
occupation of Pakistan. While the issues relating to these
regions are generally well known and come up for regular
discussion, a need to understand the obtaining present state
of the people and polity, is what monograph seeks to address.
Apart from a snapshot of the land and its people, the ethnic
diversity, rich culture and traditions and their immense natural
resources that they are endowed, it has been endeavoured to
present the genesis of present day issues in the backdrop of
historical developments. Ill advised decisions on part of the
Maharajah of J&K regarding management of Gilgit and British
complicity and deceit in enabling Pakistan to illegally take
possession of these regions are what the study highlights.
With a Shia : Sunni inverse ratio to that obtaining in Pakistan,
maintaining peace, harmony and a social ‘balance’ in Gilgit
and Baltistan requires mature political handling. How this has
been poorly done by the various dispensations in Pakistan
and highlighting how mutual antipathy between the two
communities has exacerbated instead of being bridged is
another area of interest.
The study also focuses on the ‘Shaksgam valley’ or the “Trans-
Karakoram tract’ again in the context of its history, particularly
Younghusband’s mission, the compulsions of Pakistan to
cede the territory to China and the provisions of the Sino-Pak
Frontier Agreement of 1963.
Gilgit and Baltistan are both regions that have distinctive
cultures and traditions that are very different from the
otherwise rapidly radicalising canvas that is engulfing the rest
of Pakistan. Linkages between these regions and the rest of
India are presently minimal. There is much scope for enhanced
social, cultural as also economic ‘people to people’ connect,
which is an imperative precursor to the eventual political re-
integration whenever it takes place.
THE GILGIT AND BALTISTAN
REGIONS OF JAMMU AND
KASHMIR STATE
INTRODUCTION
The Gilgit and Baltistan Regions of India’s Jammu and Kashmir
State, which are presently under the illegal occupation of
Pakistan, are amongst the most spectacular regions of the
world. A land where the world’s three mighty mountain ranges
- the Karakoram, Hindukush and the Himalayas meet, the
regions are home to five of the fourteen mountain peaks in the
world with heights over 8000 meters. These include the K-2,
also known as Chogori (the world’s second highest peak).
Some of the largest glaciers outside the Polar Regions are
also located in Baltistan.
1
The two regions, Gilgit and Baltistan, have their own respective
history, geography, religions and traditions
Both regions have an abundant wealth of natural resources

with several mineral deposits. The Indus River, which flows
through the regions, offers enormous hydro-electric potential.
They are multi-lingual, with much socio-cultural and ethnic
diversity and are endeavouring hard to maintain their
distinctive traditions. This study seeks to collate facts relating
to the Regions and understand social and political issues
afflicting them in their historical context.
For convenience of reference, the two regions hereafter are

referred in this Monograph as ‘Gilgit Baltistan’.
The Land
The land of the province lies amidst towering mountains, snow-

clad peaks and narrow valleys with heights varying between
3000 feet and 28750 feet above sea level. The geology of
the rocky mountains of Gilgit Baltistan is ancient, with some
of the world’s oldest rocks forming the stratified Precambrian
peak groups such as the Baltoro, Rakaposhi, Ultar, Diran,
Broadpeak, Muztagh towers, Trango Towers, Batura, Saltoro
Kangri, the Gasherbrum, and Mashabrum.
Glaciers: Some of the largest glaciers outside the polar

region are also found in Gilgit Baltistan. Twelve percent
of the land of the two regions is covered by glacial ice.
The major glaciers of the province are the Biafo - 62
km, Baltoro - 58 km, Hispar - 61 km, Gasherbrum - 38
km, Chogo Lungma - 38 km, Passu - 32 km, Batura -
58 km, Rupal - 29 km, Nabandi - 32 km, Baraldu - 30
km, Snowlake Sim glacier - 20 km and importantly,
Siachen - 62 km.
2
Figure 1: The K2 Massif
Rivers and Valleys: While the river Indus and its

tributaries are cardinal to the landscape of Gilgit Baltistan
province. Except for a few places such as Skardu
and Chilas, the area along the banks of the river is
not amenable to large scale agricultural production.
People have therefore had to adopt to smaller valleys
and mountain slopes where glacial water is easy at hand
for drinking and irrigation.
Mountain Ranges: The Karakorum, Hindukush, and the
N.W. Himalaya ranges branch out from the Pamir knot.
The geology of the rocky mountains of Gilgit Baltistan is
ancient, with some of the world’s oldest rocks forming the
stratified Precambrian peak groups such as the Baltoro,
Rakaposhi, Ultar, Diran, Broadpeak, Muztagh towers,
Trango Towers, Batura, Saltoro Kangri, the Gasherbrum,
and Mashabrum and importantly, K2 Peak.
3
4
Major Passes
There are countless traditional passes that open from
both regions into to Afghanistan, the Tibet and Xingiang
Autonomous Regions of China, besides the Kashmir valley.
Some of the major passes of Gilgit Baltistan are :
Burzil Pass An ancient pass on the caravan route between Sri-

(4100 mtrs) nagar and Gilgit. Now closed for use.
Burji La Located between Skardu and Deosai National Park.
(4816 mtrs) Famous especially for its beautiful panoramic view of
many mountain peaks including that of K2, Nanga
Parbat, Masherbrum and the Gasherbrum peaks.
Bichhar Pass Lies at the boundary of the Ghizer and Gilgit districts.
(4,532 mtrs)
Gondogoro About 25 km south of K2. Connects the Gondogoro
Pass (5585 and Vigne Glaciers. Since 1986, a route to connect
mtrs) Concordia in the upper Baltoro Glacier to the Hushe
Valley has been constructed over this pass.
Chaprot Pass Located 70 km from Gilgit close to the Chaprote,
(5,639 mtrs) once the Capital of Nagar. The region is marked by
terraced fields and fruit orchards.
Darkot Pass The border between Chitral and Gilgit Baltistan runs
(4,706 mtrs) through this pass. Also known as “Darkut”. Open from
May to October.
Hispar Pass Located where the Biafo and Hispar Glaciers meet to
(5,128 mtrs) form the world’s longest glacial traverse outside of the
polar regions.
Irshad Pass Connects upper Hunza valley with Wakhan Corridor
(4,977 mtrs) in Afghanistan.
Kalandar Connects the upper Gilgit valley with Wakhan Corri-
Pass dor in Afghanistan.
(5,224 mtrs)
5
Khunjerab Strategically important pass on the northern border
Pass with China’s Xinjiang Autonomous Region and the
(4,693 mtrs) highest point on the Karakoram Highway.
Roadway completed in 1982 and preferred over the
Mintaka and Kilik Passes.
The name is derived from two words of the local
Wakhi language : ‘Khun’ means Home and ‘Jerav’
means a creek coming from spring water/water
falling.
Kilik Pass The two passes were, in ancient times, the two main
(4,827 mtrs) access points into the Upper Hunza Valley. During
and ancient times, these passes were the shortest and
Mintaka Pass quickest way into northern India from the Tarim Basin,
(4,827 mtrs) though regarded as extremely dangerous and only
suited for travellers on foot.
The Mintaka Pass was the main one used in an-
cient times but after its glaciation, the Kilik Pass was
favoured by caravans as it was free of glaciers and
provided pasture for caravan animals. Since the con-
struction of the new Karakoram Highway further south
over the Khunjerab Pass, this pass too has fallen out
of use.
Mustagh Pass Lies across the Baltoro Muztagh in the Karakoram
(5,376 mtrs) Range. There are actually two passes, the eastern or
‘Old’ Mustagh Pass (alt. about 5,422 m.) and the so-
called ‘New’ Mustagh Pass, about 16 km to the west
(altitude variously given as 5,700 and 5,800 m.) The
pass is on the watershed between the rivers which
flow towards the Tarim Basin and those flowing to the
Indian Ocean.The route across the Mustagh Pass is
the shortest route from Yarkand to Skardu.
Thoi Pass A high mountain pass that connects Gazin in Yarkhun
(5,008 mtrs) River valley in Chitral to Nialthi in the Yasin Valley in
Ghizer District.
Zagaran Pass A high mountain pass that connects Yarkhun River
(5,005 mtrs) valley in Chitral District to the Gupis valley and lies at
the border between Chitral and Gilgit Baltistan.
6
Major Valleys
Some of the Valleys in the Gilgit Baltistan Region Are:
Astore Valley Astore district comprises of numerous valleys with

prominent features being the Nanga Parbat, Rama
Lakeand the Deosai Plains.
Diamer Valley Presently the gateway to Gilgit Baltistan. It is the
location of pre-historic rock carvings, inscriptions and
petroglyphs. Nanga Parbat and Fairy Meadows are
some prominent locations.
Ghanche About 100 km from Skardu mostly along the Shy-
Valley ok River. Location of the Khaplu Fort Palace and
the Chaqchan Mosque, built around 1500 AD with
Buddhist influence and Tibetan architecture and is the
oldest mosque in Baltistan.
Valleys of Comprises of several independent and isolated val-
Ghizer leys including Puniyal, Gupis, Yasin and Ishkoman as
distinct features of each. Trout fishing and angling is
the most common attraction besides the annual Polo
Festival at the famous Shandur Pass.
Gilgit Valley Gilgit valley is the most important region in the Kara-
korum and has been the traditional centre for trade
for centuries and an important city on the historical
Silk Route, facilitating religions to spread across trans
boundaries.
Kargah Valley Located at a short distance from Gilgit, this is is the
location of the Kargah Buddha a rock wall carved
Buddha dating back to 8th century AD and ruins of a
Buddhist monastery and Stupa.
Hunza and The awesome view of four 7,000 m high peaks, i.e.,
Nagar Valley Rakaposhi, Diran, Golden and Ultar, from various
points of Hunza valley make it unique. The valley
is known for its delicious fruits, terraced fields, land
mark monuments and also for its changing colours in
various seasons.
7
Skardu Skardu district is located at the confluence of river
Valley Indus and the Shyok river and makes the base camp
for leading tourist destinations in Gilgit Baltistan
including K-2.
Bagrote Located in the Karakoram Mountain range. The
Valley: Bagrote riverthat flows through this valley and sup-
ports the townships of Jalalabad and Oshikhandass
before merging with the Gilgit River. Villages on either
side of the valley are linked via cable cars.
Chiporsun Located at the Northernmost part of the province bor-
Valley dering Afghanistan and China and Tajikistan.
Chorbat Located in Khaplu tehsil of Ghanche District. The
Valley valley is surrounded by high rising peaks of the Kara-
koram mountain range and the bank the Shyok River.
Hispar Valley Is the last Valley of Nagar, located about 28 km away
from Nagar Khas.
Hopar Valley Is a scenic portion of the Nagar Valley about 10 km
away from Nagar Khas and is the site of the Spantik
and Hopar (Hopper) glaciers.
Kharkoo Located in the Karakorum Mountains along the Shyok
Valley River nearby Khaplu Town. Kharkoo is surrounded
by greybrown colored mountains, which hide the
8,000 meter peaks of the nearby Karakoram Range.
Ishkoman High mountain valley in the Hindu Kush and Karako-
Valley rum mountains bordering Afghanistan and the Pamir
Wakhan Corridor.
Kunar Valley Shared by Gilgit Baltistan and Afghanistan, the valley
is arid, rocky, steep landscape with a fastmoving
Kunar River that flows South to join the Kabul River.
Khaplu Valley Located about 100 km from Skardu at the confluence
of the Indus and the Shyok Rivers, on the trade route
to Ladakh along the Shyok River. Khaplu is the ad-
ministrative capital of the Ghanche District.
Shandur Has a complex of extremely shallow, snowmelt-fed
Plateau lakes, which are only about 10 feet deep. One of the
great bird migration flyways, the plateau is a major
grazing ground for sheep, goats and yaks.
8
Plateaus: Gilgit Baltistan also has some picturesque
plateaus, such as the Deosai plateau of glacial origin
which is located between Astore and Skardu to the
Southwest of the latter.
‘Deosai’, which means ‘the Land of Giants’, is known
as ‘Ghbiarsa’ meaning ‘Summer Place’ in Balti, being
accessible only during the summer months.
Climate
The climate of Gilgit Baltistan varies from region to region.
Generally, the eastern part has the moist zone of the western
Himalayas, but going towards the Karakoram and Hindu Kush,
the climate dries considerably.
At an altitude of 1,500 meters Gilgit has a desert climate
with warm summers and cold winters. During the summer
temperatures above 30 degrees Celsius are uncommon.
Winters are cold longer periods with sub-zero temperatures
are not uncommon. Precipitation figures are low all year
round. During the winter precipitation often falls in the form
of snow or hail. There are towns like Gilgit and Chilas that
are very hot during the day in summer, yet cold at night, while
valleys like Astore, Khaplu, Yasin, Hunza, and Nagar where
the temperatures are cold even in summer1.
1
http://trulypakistan.com/climate-of-Gilgit Baltistan/
9
Languages
Following languages are spoken in Gilgit Baltistan:-
Shina: The main language in Gilgit, it is also spoken in the
Diamer, Ghizer and Astore districts. Shina-speaking people
are also found north in the Ishkoman valley and in Hunza and
Nagar besides further east in Baltistan.
Burushaski: The main language of Hunza valley. It is spoken
by the people settled on either sides of the Hunza River, on
its northern bank (Hunza) as well as on its southern bank
(Nagar). There are also Hunza speaking settlements in Yasin
and in Gilgit. Burushaski is still an unwritten language.
Khowar: The main language of Chitral. Khowar speakers are
also found in Yasin and in some families of Gilgit on account
of marriuage ties. .
Balti: The main language in the Baltistan. Balti peaking people
are settled in Skardu, Rondu, Shigar, Khapolu, Kharmang,
Gultari and Ganche.
Domaaki: The language of the Domas of Berichos who are
also found in Gilgit and in some Shina speaking villages of
the lower Hunza valley. The Domas are mainly musicians and
smiths.
Wakhi: Wakhi is spoken in Ishkoman valley and in upper
Hunza valley. It belongs to the Pamirian branch of Iranian
languages.
Gojri: The language of Gojars who are settled in Naltar valley,
Kharga and in the surrounding areas of Gilgit.
A small minority of people also speak Pashto, Punjabi and
Kashmiri. Urdu and English are the official languages.
10
Religion
Around 75% of the people of these regions adhere to some
form of Shia Islam, which is in exact reversal to that obtaining
in the rest of Pakistan which illegally occupies these regions.
Of the four major Islamic ‘Sects’, the Shia, Noorbakshi
and Ismailis believe in the Offices of the Imamat runs after
the Prophet Mohammad through Ali and his male successors.
The Sunnis believe in the office of the Khilafat and according
to them Abu baker, Umar, Usman and Ali were the Caliphs
after the death of Mohammad.
The Shias are the largest sect in Gilgit Baltistan and
form a majority in the Gilgit, Skardu and Granche Districts.
The Sunnis are the second- largest community in
Gilgit Baltistan with overhelming population as adherants in
the Diamer District. They are also found in the Districts of
Astore, Ghizer, Gilgit and Skardu.
The Ismailis are the majority community in the Ghizer
District and in some sub division of Hunza.
The Noorbakshi Community largely resides in Skardu
and Granche.
A small number of Christians also reside in Gilgit.
Adherence to past Traditions: Historically, the Baltis
practiced Bön and Tibetan Buddhism. Islam arrived in Baltistan
via Sufi missionaries Ameer Kabeer Syed Ali Hamadani in the
15th century, and soon Sufism became dominant. The local
people however still retain many traits of pre-Islamic Bön and
Lamaist rituals. The Swastika (Yung drung) sign is considered
auspicious and is carved on wooden planks that can be seen
in historical mosques and Khanqahs.
During the 19th century, many Baltis converted to Shi’a and
Sunni Islam. However, small pockets of Bön and Tibetan
11
Buddhist believers still exist in Kharmang valley. Showing
respect to the Bon Gods Lha and Lhu (Bön Gods) continues to
be customary during village rituals.
The Noorbakshi Tradition: The Noorbakshis, apart from
following the Quran and Sunnah also follow the ‘Al-Fiqatul
Akhwat’, ‘Usool-e-Etaqadia’ and the (Usool-e-Islam) written by
Syed Mohammad Nurbakhsh. They are hence named Sufia
Noorbakshia. Just as Ahle Sunnat & Ahle Shia, Nurbakhshis
fundamentally believe in God, angels, holy books, Mohammed
and last day judgment with oral declaration of Kalma-e-
Shahadat. They offer prayers five times a day, fast during
Ramzan and perform Haj. Nurbakhshis are known as peaceful,
tolerable and moderates, who not only respect other Muslim
school of thought but also stress upon human beings to behave
kindly.Syed Ali Hamdani and Syed Muhammad Nurbakhsh are
claimed by both Shia and Sunnis.
Khanqahs: In the Noorbakhshi Mosque (called Khanqah),
there are small rooms adjacent to the main Praying Hall
which are used for solitary praying (Atikaf). Khanqahs have
been using as a central coaching and preaching place by the
Noorbakhshia.The students are trained to achieve spiritual
purity (Tazkiah) under well-practiced spiritual guides, who
have already attained certain degree of spirituality.
Culture and Heritage
Gilgit Baltistan is home to a number of diversified cultures,
ethnic groups, languages and various backgrounds.
Festivities: There are mainly two types of festivals i.e.
religious and cultural. Religious festivals include: Eid-e-Ghadir,
Edi-ul Fitr and Eid Milad-un-Nabi. The Cultural occasions are
Navroz, Jashn-e-Baharan and the Harvest Festival.
The Shandur Polo Festival is held each year in July. There
is a belief that the town of Shigar is the birthplace of this Royal
sport. Shandur was till recently the highest polo ground in
12
the world at 12,263 feet, a distinction that has since shifted
to Babusar at 13,599 feet (located on the Babusar pass
connecting Diamer valley to Khagan in ther KPK province.
Dance : The dances that are common during the festivals,
traditional events and ceremonies are the Old Man Dance,
performed by men wearing old style of dresses, the Sword
Dance in which the participants hold a sword in one hand and
a shield in the other and mock fight with a partner and the
Cow Boy Dance (Payaloo) dance in which a person wears an
old style dress, long leather shoes and dances with a stick in
hand.
Music : The famous trio band music is played in this region.
On the rhythm of loud music, men dance in a typical way. There
are some variations in lyrics from region to region.
Traditional Music: The instruments commonly used
in Gilgit Baltistan are the Dadang (drum), the Damal
and the Surnai while some other instruments like Sitar,
Gabi(Flute) Rabab and Duff are played in some areas. In
Baltistan, the khiling-boo. chang, porgho-too are played.
Alghani: The people of Gilgit, Ghizer Yasin, Puniyal,
and Gupis play a rhythm they call Alghani to celebrate a
happy occasion.
Ajoli: A rhythm used during departure of bride and groom
from the house.
Souse: A martial rhythm that has a fast rhythm and is
used specially in sword dances.
Dani: The traditional music of Hunza which links it to
Tibet, Baltistan and Ladakh.
Wildlife & Nature
Gilgit Baltistan is rich with large mineral deposits of Nickel,
Cobalt, Copper, Lead, Tin, Bismuth, Mica, Quartz, Zircon, Coal
13
and Actonolite. It also has substantial resources of Iron, Silver,
Gold, Zinc, Marble, Granite, Sulpher, Calsite, Fluorite, Lime
Stone, Arsenic, Spinel, Garmet, Epidot, Topaz, Moon Stone,
Pargasite, Tourmoline, Aquamarin, Pyrite and feldspar. The
region is also a producer of stone jewellery which are exported,
as are the dry fruits produced here.
Beef and poultry farming in the region is well developed.
Improved road and network communications have enhanced
potential for further economic development.
Hydro power is another sector where there is enormous
potential. Gilgit Baltistan has a small but growing industrial
base, producing manufactured goods. The major ‘industry’
of the regions remains tourism. While the CPEC is touted to
vastly improve their lives, the people of the Gilgit and Baltistan
regions have been protesting against China and the multi-
billion dollar Project which passes through the regions for
several reasons. Besides the fear that the project would create
a huge ecological imbalance, a large number of people in
the region have been displaced as their houses have been
demolished and farm lands acquired for the CPEC project
for which no compensation for lands acquired has been yet
made. Next, though in all roads and pipelines crossing into
China from Pakistan are to pass through these regions, not a
single Special Economic Zone is being set up here to support
the local residents. People of both regions also fear that
the multi-billion dollar project will hardly benefit them and
is a deliberate attempt to change the demography of the
regions.
THE ECONOMY OF GILGIT BALTISTAN
Gilgit Baltistan is rich with large mineral deposits of Nickel,
Cobalt, Copper, Lead, Tin, Bismuth, Mica, Quartz, Zircon, Coal
and Actonolite. It also has substantial resources of Iron, Silver,
Gold, Zinc, Marble, Granite, Sulpher, Calsite, Fluorite, Lime
Stone, Arsenic, Spinel, Garmet, Epidot, Topaz, Moon Stone,
14
Pargasite, Tourmoline, Aquamarin, Pyrite and feldspar. The
region is also a producer of stone jewellery which are exported,
as are the dry fruits produced here. Beef and poultry farming
in the region is well developed. Improved road and network
communications have enhanced potential for further economic
development. Hydro power is another sector where there is
enormous potential. Gilgit Baltistan has a small but growing
industrial base, producing manufactured goods. The major
‘industry’ of Gilgit Baltistan region however is tourism.
Agriculture Sector: As over 90% of the population is engaged
in agriculture, the sector holds a very important place for Gilgit
Baltistan’s growth and poverty reduction. Due to its seasonal
and elevation advantages, there has been a move towards
production of higher value cash crops like fruits and vegetables,
apricot and potato being the largest in terms of area and
production. A number of pilot projects by USAID, JICA, AKRSP
and ASF have demonstrated the potential for improved returns
for farmers through improved agriculture products, value
addition, processing and marketing. However, these pilots are
yet to be taken to a scale due to existing limitations in terms
of low productivity and scattered production, high postharvest
losses, limited irrigated lands, inadequate extension and
research support, poor road access and disconnects between
public sector, private sector and farmers/producers. Gilgit
Baltistan currently produces 169,000 tons of fresh and dry
fruits out of which only 10,119 is being marketed in mostly low
end markets and a huge volume equal to 57,178 tons is wasted
due to issues along the value chain. Similarly, in vegetables,
against the production of 152,000 tons, around 12,000 tons
goes waste. In short, the region’s rural economy suffers
from the classic triad of challenges i.e. density, distances
and division and needs an integrated solution involving
institutions, infrastructure and incentives.2
2
Economic Transformation Initiative Gilgit Baltistan - Programme Design Re-
port march 2015@https://webapps.ifad.org/members/eb/114/docs/EB-2015-114-
R-14-Project-design-report.pdf
15
Gems of Gilgit Baltistan: A large variety of minerals
including peridot, emerald, aquamarine, tourmaline, topaz,
ruby, sapphire, garnet, red spinal, pargasite, actinolite,
diopside, epidote, vesuvianite, axinite, rodingite, sphene,
fluorite, apatite, zircon, rutile, azurite, moonstone, ametrvst,
rose quartz and agate are found in the region. The three
mountain ranges that form Gilgit Baltistan were formed as
result of two collisions between India and Asia that occurred
between 100 and 50 Ma (million years) ago. These collusions
induced crustal thickening that resulted in metamorphism
and multiple phases of deformation in these rocks. This was
followed by the emplacement of leucogranites and associated
pegmatites which geological processes have produced a
distinctive mineral kingdom within Gilgit Baltistan. Most of
the gemstones are pegmatite-related, such as aquamarine,
tourmaline, topaz, garnet, and apatite. Some of the
gemstones are hydrothermal and /or metamorphic in genesis
such as emerald, ruby, sapphire, pargasite, rutile, azurite
and pink topaz. The pegmatites are generally composed of
feldspar (albite and microcline), quartz, biotite, muscovite and
tourmaline.
The important gemstones of Gilgit
Baltistan are:
Aquamarine: Gilgit is centre
for the blue variety of beryl. The
aquamarine of the region has
light green and blue coloration,
and the crystals are well shaped.
Large and matchless specimens
of aquamarine (about 10 Kg
in weight and 40 cm long) are
usually associated with apatite or
fluro-apatite, topaz, gem garnet,
and sheaths of muscovite, is the
Figure 6: A large Aquamarine
specialty of the region. crystal found in Gilgit
16
Ruby: Extensive belt of more than 100 Km in the Hunza
Valley.
Tourmaline: Found in Stak, Bulechi and Shingus areas
of Gilgit District.
Topaz: Gilgit and Skardu Districts.
Aesthetic Crystals: Haramosh mountains.
The Diamer Basha Dam
The Diamer-Bhasha Dam –to be the world’s highest Roller
Compacted Concrete Dam, is located on Indus River, about
315 km upstream of Tarbela Dam, 165 km downstream of
the Northern Area capital Gilgit and 40 km downstream of
Chilas. The proposed dam would have a maximum height of
270 m, and impound a reservoir of about 7,500,000 acre feet
(9.25×109 m3), with live storage of more than 6,400,000 acre
feet (7.89×109 m3). Mean annual discharge of Indus River at
the site is 50,000,000 acre feet (6.2×1010 m3). Thus the dam
will impound 15% of the annual river flow. The dam project
would cover an area of 110 km2 and extend 100 km upstream
of the damsite up to Raikot Bridge on Karakoram Highway. The
Diamer Basha Dam is under consideration for inclusion
as a CPEC Project where after its construction would be
funded by China.
Project Benefits
yy Availability of about 6,400,000 acre feet (7.89×109 m3)
annual surface face water storage for supplementing
irrigation supplies during low flow periods
yy Harnessing of renewable source of clean and cheap
energy through installed capacity of 4500 MW
yy Reduction of dependence on thermal power, thus
saving foreign exchange
yy Employment opportunity, particularly to the locals,
17
during the construction and operation
yy Creation of massive infrastructure leading to overall
socio-economic uplift of the area and standard of living
of people.
(A large number of Buddhist artefacts have been recovered
at the site of the Diamer-Basha Dam. It has been decided
to secure and relocate all items of archaeological
significance from the areas that will be inundated by the
Diamer-Bhasha Dam and its reservoir and to place them
in a newly constructed museum near the Dam site).
18
Administrative Districts
ASTORE
Geographical Area 5411 Sq km.
Population 2013 (estimated) 0.114 Mn
Ethnic Groups Yashkun, Sheen, Wakhi
Religious Sects Sunni: 70%, Shia 30%
Language Shina, Urdu
According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India, around 1600,
one “Ghāzī Mukhpun, a Persian adventurer, is said to have
married a princess of the Skārdu reigning family. The four
sons born of this union became Rās of Skārdu, Astor, Ron-
du, and Kharmang respectively, and from them are descend-
ed the families of the present chiefs of those places. Afzal,
Guada, Chilma respectively was sons of Astor.
The independence of Astor ceased with the Dogra conquest.
In 2004, Astore separated from Diamer to become an inde-
pendent District.
19
DIAMER
Population 2013 (estimated) 0.214
Ethnic Groups Yashkun, Sheen, Others
Religious Sects Sunni: 100%
Language Shina
The major project of the district is the Diamer-Bhasha Dam, a
gravity dam in the preliminary stages of construction, on the
River Indus the foundation stone for which was laid on 18 Octo-
ber 2011, Upon completion, Diamer-Bhasha Dam would be the
highest RCC dam in the world. The dam site is situated near
a place called “Bhasha” in Gilgit Baltistan’s Diamer District,
hence the name. The dam is under consideration for inclusion
amongst CPEC Projects.
The Gilgit Baltistan government has decided to allocate a sub-
stantial piece of land to Pakistan Army in Diamer district so it
can set up headquarters and ensure security for the China-Pa-
kistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). The site is situated in Thak
Das, a barren piece of land near Chilas, where a brigade will
be stationed.
GHANCHE
Ethnic Groups Balti
Religious Sects Sunni: 23%; Shia: 2%; N/
bakshi 75%
Language Balti
The easternmost district of Gilgit–Baltistan. The word Gang-
chay is Balti and means “glacier”. It is locally used by natives
for the Shyok river which flows the length of Khaplu town.
The Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) at the easternmost
part of Ghanche District.
This region is also called the “Third Pole” with temperatures
reaching below -20 °C in the winter.
20
GHIZER
Ethnic Groups Yashkun, Others
Religious Sects Sunni: 10%; Shia: 5%; Is-
maili:85%
Language Shina, Khowar and Buru-
shaski. Wakhi, Tajiks.
Located in the westernmost part of the Gilgit Baltistan re-
gion of Pakistan. Its capital is Gahkuch. Ghizer is a distorted
form of the name “Gherz” which means “refugees” in Khow-
ar. Ghizer is at the crossroads between Gilgit and Chitral
and also to China, Tajikistan via the Karambar Pass and
is a multi-ethnic district where three major languages are
spoken.
GILGIT
Ethnic Groups Yashkun, Sheen, Mughal,
Wakhi, Gujar
Religious Sects Sunni: 35%; Shia: 45%;
Ismaili: 19.5%; N/Bakhshi:
0.5%
Language Shina, Domaki
Gilgit District includes Gilgit town, Bagrot Valley, Juglot,
Danyore, Naltar, and Nomal.
Towering above Gilgit is Mount Rakaposhi at 7,788 metres
(25,551 ft).The highest peak in the district however is Dis-
taghil Sar 7,885 metres (25,869 ft).
21
HUNZA
Geographical Area 10,700 Sq km.
Population 2013 (estimated)
Wakhi, Gujar
Religious Sects Shia 55%; Ismaili 45%
Language Wakhi, Tajiki.
The land of the Hunza people who are ethnically Burusho
people indigenous to the Hunza Valley. A popular belief
among some Burusho clans is that they are the descendants
of the Macedonian soldiers who came to the region with Al-
exander the Great’s army in the 4th century BC. Upper Hun-
za locally called Gojal, is inhabited by people whose ances-
tors moved up from proper Hunza in an effort to irrigate and
defend the bordering lands with China and Afghanistan.
Local legend states that Hunza may have been associated
with the lost kingdom of Shangri-La
KHARMANG
Population 2013 (estimated) NA
Ethnic Groups Balti
maili:85%
Language Balti
The Kharmang Valley is one of the five biggest valleys of
Baltistan; recently it became a district, whose headquarters
is Tolti. The valley is located about 100 km from the capital
city of Baltistan Skardu. Kharmang District borders Kargil
district and its largest village, Olding Kharmang is located
near Kargil town.
22
NAGAR
Wakhi, Gujar
Religious Sects Shia 55%; Ismaili 45%
Language Burushaski, Shina.
Is a new District that has been carved out of the erstwhile
Hunza Nagar District in 2015. An older type of Burushaski
is still spoken in the valley with a mild modern accent. A third
language, Bedeski, is also still spoken in Chalt Nagar.The
terrain of Nagar is extremely mountainous, which provided
a certain degree of protection against invading forces.
The highest mountain is the 7,788 m (25,551 ft) Mount
Rakaposhi, south of the town of Nagar. The Karakoram
Highway crosses Nagar, connecting Pakistan with China via
the Khunjerab Pass. The road follows the Hunza river for
some distance through Nagar and into the Hunza region.
SHIGAR
Ethnic Groups Balti
maili:85%
Language Balti
Shigar is a town in the Baltistan division of Gilgit–Baltistan
near Skardu and is located near the Shigar River.
The town is inhabited mostly by Balti people of Tibetan de-
scent and has several buildings of architectural relevance to
the Noorbakshi Sufi Sect. Shigar Fort, the Amburik and Kh-
ilingrong Mosques, the Khanqah e Muallah Shigar, Hashoo
pi Bhag, Marapi Ranga, the Ree Masjid and the Astana of
Syed Mir Yahya are the popular places to visit. Shigar valley
is very fertile and rich in fruits.
23
SKARDU
Geographical Area 19697
Ethnic Groups Sheen, Balti
Religious Sects Sunni: 6%; Shia: 88%; N/
Bakshi: 6%
Language Shina, Balti
The name “Skardu” is believed to be derived from the Tibetan
word for “stony meteorite.
Most part of the Deosai Plateau and the Deosai national
Park is located in this District.
Along with Gilgit, Skardu is a major tourism, trekking and
expedition hub in Gilgit–Baltistan. (The mountainous
terrain of the region, which includes four of the world’s 14
Eight-thousander peaks, attracts tourists, trekkers and
mountaineers from around the world. The main tourist
season is from April to October).
Historical Backdrop
Gilgit has been an important staging post on the traditional
Silk Road as also on the Buddhism corridor along which the
religion spread from India to China and the rest of Asia. It
is through this route that many Chinese monks and scholars
came to Kashmir, then a prominent centre of the religion,
to learn and preach Buddhism. Owing to its location on the
intersection of the Silk Road, Gilgit Baltistan has received
cultural influences and cross-cultural contacts for centuries
with China, Central Asia, Tibet, Afghanistan and the rest of
India. Explorations have brought to surface rock carvings in
more than 10 languages, graves and wooden structures that
depict the antiquity and cultural diversity of the region.
Mention in Ancient Texts: “The region of Gilgit and Baltistan
was known as Daradadesa (Land of the Dards) in old texts
as in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. Its people are said to have
24
played an important role in the history of Kashmir. According
to the Tibetan Historian Taranatha, the route between it and
Kashmir was opened by Buddhist pilgrims and missionaries
who reached Kashmir with and following Madhyantika the
emissary of Moggaliputta Tissa at the time of Ashoka the
Great. The Dards also find mention by Ptolemy and along
with the Shinas are mentioned in old Pauranic lists of
peoples.
Fa Hein’s Accounts: The Chinese traveller Fa Hein’s noticed
that the region was studded with monasteries (Sangharamas),
their number being no less than five hundred, where the
newcomers were provided with all necessities for three days.
The Buddha is said to have visited the region and left his
footprint there which was highly venerated. Passing through
Soo-ho-to (Swastene), the pilgrims reached Gandhara and
were in Takshashila”.3
The Kargah Buddha: A rock statue of Buddha, is located near
Kargah Nallah, a ravine
and is 10 kilometres
from Gilgit Town and is
now a popular evening
spot.
The Jatakamala
manuscripts: In 1931,
a corpus of manuscripts
dating back to the
5th Century were
discovered in Gilgit that
contained several Buddhist texts particularly the four Sutras
including the Padma Sutra that were written on bark in the
Sharada script and covered a wide range of themes ranging
from folk tales, philosophy and medicine. These ‘Gilgit
3
Gilgit in Ancient Times by Buddha Prakash @http://himalaya.socanth.cam.
ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_07_03_02.pdf
25
manuscripts’ are amongst the oldest of such manuscripts
in the world and throw light on the evolution and state of
Buddhism of the time.
Medieval Times and Onwards
For purposes of this analysis, a historical perspective
commencing in the medieval times is suffice. Till around
the 14th century, Gilgit was ruled by Hindu dynasties who held
the title of ‘Ra’. There is no account available of the earlier
Hindu Ras except for Sri Buddutt, the last Hindu Ra who was
assassinated by a Muslim adventurer, Azur4 Jamshid (also
known as Shamsher), hailed to be a scion of an Iranian Royal
dynasty, who secretly married Sri Buddutt’s daughter and
founded a new dynasty, called Trakhàn. Reference is merited
to the Sri Buddutt who had the reputation of being an
“Adam Khor” (literally man-eater), who demanded a child
a day from his subjects. His demise is still celebrated by
locals with a Juniper procession by the river to mark the
chasing away of the cannibal king.
Azur Jamshid abdicated after 16 years of rule in favour of
his wife Nur Bakht Khatùn until their son and heir Garg, grew
of age and assumed the title of Raja and reigned thereafter
for 55 years. The dynasty flourished under the name of the
Kayani dynasty until 1421 when Raja Torra Khan became the
Ruler. His long reign upto 1475 is regarded as a memorable
one. The Trakhan dynasty’s rule ended in out 1810 with the
death of Raja Abas, the last Trakhàn ruler.
The 19th and early 20th Centuries
After the death of Raja Abas, Gilgit was conquered by
Sulaiman Shah, the Raja of Yasin but was soon taken by
Azad Khan the Raja of Punyal who killed Sulaiman Shah, but
4
‘Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh by Maj John Biddulph @ https://www.scribd.com/
document/243029254/Tribes-of-the-Hindoo-Koosh-1880-by-Major-J-Biddulph
26
was himself killed by Tair Shah, Raja of Buroshall (Nagar).
Gilgit thereby came to be inherited by Tair Shah’s son Shah
Sikandar who in turn was killed by Gohar Aman, Raja of Yasin
of the Khushwakhte Dynasty.
In 1841, Gilgit was deluged by a great flood in which the river
Indus was blocked by a landslip below the Hatu Pir and turned
the valley into a lake.
Karim Khan’s Rule with Support of Sikh Garrison: In 1842,
Shah Sakandar’s brother, Karim Khan, expelled the Yasin
rulers with the support of a Sikh army from Kashmir. Nathu
Shah, the Sikh General left a large garrison of troops at Gilgit
with whose support Karim Khan ruled until 1846.
Treaty of Amritsar: Thereafter, by the Treaty of Amritsar of
1846, Gilgit was ceded to Maharaja Gulab Singh of Jammu
and Kashmir. Nathu Shah and Karim Khan both transferred
their allegiance to Gulab Singh and continued to execute the
local administration. The Sikh troops were however replaced
by Dogra troops. In a Collection of Treaties, Engagements and
Sanads relating to India and Neighbouring Countries compiled
by C.U. Aitchison, Under-Secretary to the Government of
India in the Foreign Department (Volume XI of the 1909
edition), wrote: “The present State of Jammu and Kashmir
was created by the British government when Gulab Singh was
established as Maharaja under the Treaty of Amritsar.” The
British first signed the Treaty of Lahore with the Lahore State
on 9 March 1846 after the First Anglo-Sikh war, and acquired
“in perpetual sovereignty” inter alia the province of Kashmir.
This was in part-payment of the equivalent of “one crore of
rupees” which the British demanded as “indemnification for
the war expenses.”
J&K Ceded to Maharaja Gulab Singh: A week later, on 16
March 1846, the British ceded to Maharaja Gulab Singh the
lands it had thus acquired – the territories of Jammu, Kashmir
and Ladakh “for the sum of seventy-five lakhs of rupees.”
27
Gulab Singh on his part, “acknowledged the supremacy of the
British government.” Article 4 of the Treaty of Amritsar states
that “The limits of the territories of Maharaja Gulab Singh
shall not be at any time changed without concurrence of
the British government.”
Treaty of Amritsar March 16, 1846
The treaty between the British Government on the one part and
Maharajah Gulab Singh of Jammu on the other concluded on the
part of the British Government by Frederick Currie, Esq. and Brevet-
Major Henry Montgomery Lawrence, acting under the orders of the Rt.
Hon. Sir Henry Hardinge, G.C.B., one of her Britannic Majesty’s most
Honorable Privy Council, Governor-General of the possessions of the
East India Company, to direct and control all the affairs in the East
Indies and by Maharajah Gulab Singh in person - 1846.
Article 1 The British Government transfers and makes over for ever in
independent possession to Maharajah Gulab Singh and the heirs male
of his body all the hilly or mountainous country with its dependencies
situated to the eastward of the River Indus and the westward of the
River Ravi including Chamba and excluding Lahol, being part of
the territories ceded to the British Government by the Lahore State
according to the provisions of Article IV of the Treaty of Lahore, dated
9 March 1846.
Article 2 The eastern boundary of the tract transferred by the

foregoing article to Maharajah Gulab Singh shall be laid down by the
Commissioners appointed by the British Government and Maharajah
Gulab Singh respectively for that purpose and shall be defined in a
separate engagement after survey.
Article 3 In consideration of the transfer made to him and his heirs

by the provisions of the foregoing article Maharajah Gulab Singh will
pay to the British Government the sum of seventy-five lakhs of rupees
(Nanukshahee), fifty lakhs to be paid on or before the 1st October of
the current year, A.D., 1846.
Article 4 The limits of territories of Maharajah Gulab Singh shall not be

at any time changed without concurrence of the British Government.
28
Article 5 Maharajah Gulab Singh will refer to the arbitration of the British
Government any disputes or question that may arise between himself
and the Government of Lahore or any other neighboring State, and will
abide by the decision of the British Government.
Article 6 Maharajah Gulab Singh engages for himself and heirs to join,
with the whole of his Military Forces, the British troops when employed
within the hills or in the territories adjoining his possessions.
Article 7 Maharajah Gulab Singh engages never to take to retain in his

service any British subject nor the subject of any European or American
State without the consent of the British Governnent.
Article 8 Maharajah Gulab Singh engages to respect in regard to the

territory transferred to him, the provisions of Articles V, VI and VII of
the separate Engagement between the British Government and the
Lahore Durbar, dated 11 March 1846.
Article 9 The British Government will give its aid to Maharajah Gulab
Singh in protecting his territories from external enemies.
Article 10 Maharajah Gulab Singh acknowledges the supremacy of

the British Government and will in token of such supremacy present
annually to the British Government one horse, twelve shawl goats of
approved breed (six male and six female) and three pairs of Cashmere
shawls.
This Treaty of ten articles has been this day settled by Frederick Currie,
Esq. and Brever-Major Henry Montgomery Lawrence, acting under
directions of the Rt. Hon. Sir Henry Hardinge, Governor-General, on
the part of the British Government and by Maharajah Gulab Singh in
person, and the said Treaty has been this day ratified by the seal of
the Rt. Hon. Sir Henry Hardinge, Governor-General. Done at Amritsar
the sixteenth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight
hundred and forty-six, corresponding with the seventeenth day of
Rubee-ul-Awal (1262 Hijri).
(Signed) H. Hardinge (Seal) (Signed) F. Currie (Signed) H. M. Lawre
29
The Ladakhi Letter of Agreement and the Tibetan Letter
of Agreement, 1842: These were signed by Ladakh and
Tibet and were more commitments of non-aggression rather
than boundary treaty. They however marked the conclusion
of Zorawar Singh’s ambitious Dogra venture with Tibet.
The Persian text in Tibet’s possessions reads: “We shall
remain in possession of the limits of boundaries of Ladakh
and the neighbours subordinate to it, in accordance with
the old customs, and there shall be no transgression and
no interference in the country beyond the old- established
frontiers”5 (emphasis added, throughout). The Tibetan text in
Kashmir’s possession conveys the same.
TIBETAN LETTER OF LADAKHI LETTER OF

AGREEMENT, 1842 AGREEMENT, 1842
This agreement is made in the Translations of the original

interests of the friendship between letters written in Tibetan
the Lhasa authorities and Shri
Maharajah Sahib and Maharajah Shri Khalsaji Apsarani Shri
Gulab Singh. On the thirteenth Maharajah; Lhasa representative
day of the eighth month of the Kalon Surkang; investigator
Water-Tiger year (September 17, Dapon Peshi, commander of
1842), the Lhasa representative forces; Balana, the representative
Kalon Surkang, investigator of Gulam Kahandin; and the
Dapon Peshi, Shri Raja Sahib interpreter Amir Shah, have
Dewan Hari Chand and Wazir written this letter after sitting
Ratun Sahib, the representatives together. We have agreed that
of Shri Maharajah Sahib, sat we have no ill-feeling because
together amicably with Kunchok of the past war. The two kings
(God) as witness. This document will henceforth remain friends
has been drawn up to ensure the forever. The relationship between
lasting friendship of the Tibetans Maharajah Gulab Singh of
and the Ladakhis. We have Kashmir and the Lama Guru
agreed not to harm each other of Lhasa (Dalai Lama) is now
in any way and to look after the established. The Maharajah
5
India and China Facts of History by AG Noorani FRONTLINE Volume 20 -
Issue 18, August 30 - September 12, 2003.
30
interests of our own territories. Sahib, with God (Kunchok)
We agree to continue trading in as his witness, promised to
tea and cloth on the same terms recognize ancient boundaries,
as in the past, and do not harm which should be looked after by
Ladakhi traders coming into each side without resorting to
Tibet. If any of our subjects stray warfare. When the descendants
into your country, they should not of the early kings, who fled from
be protected. We will forget past Ladakh to Tibet, now return, they
difference between the Lhasa will be restored to their former
authority and Shri Maharajah. stations. The annual envoy
The agreement arrived at today from Ladakh to Lhasa will not
will remain firmly established be stopped by Shri Maharajah.
forever. Kunchok (God), mount Trade between Ladakh and Tibet
Kailash, Lake Manasarowar, and will continue as usual. Tibetan
Khochag Jowo have been called government traders coming into
as witnesses to this treaty. Ladakh will receive free transport
and accommodations as before,
Sealed by Kalon Surkhang and the Ladakhi envoy will, in
and Dapon Peshi turn, receive the same facilities
in Lhasa.
The Ladakhis take an oath before

God (Kunchok) that they will not
intrigue or reate new troubles in
Tibetan territory. We have agreed
with God as witness, that Shri
Maharajah Sahib and the Lama
Guru of Lhasa (Dalai Lama)
will live together as members of
Source: W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet:
the same household. We have
A Political History (New Haven,
written the above on the second
1967), pp. 327-328
of Assura, Sambvat 1899 (17
September 1842).
Sealed by the Wazir, Dewan,

Balana, and Amir Shah.
31
Treaty between the Sikhs and Chinese (1842): On 17
October 1842, the Sikhs and the Chinese concluded a
treaty which said (Article1): “That the boundaries of Ladakh
and Lhassa shall be constituted as formerly, the contracting
parties engaging to confine themselves within their respective
boundaries, the one to refrain from any act of aggression on
the other”6
Hunza Aggression of Gilgit (1848): Gilgit was attacked by
Hunza in 1848 and both Nathu Shah and Karim Khan were
killed but the State was soon re-conquered by Gulab Singh’s
Dogra troops.
Gilgit Revolt (1852): In 1852, Gilgit’s inhabitants rose in
revolt against their new rulers supported by Raja Gohar Aman
who assumed power and ruled the state thereafter until his
death in 1860.
Dogra Recapture of Gilgit (1860): In 1860, the Dogra forces
of Ranbir Singh, the son of Gulab Singh, captured Gilgit fort
and town.
Gilgit Agency established (1877): In order to guard against
the advance of Russia, the British India Government, acting
as the suzerain power of the princely state of Jammu Kashmir,
established the Gilgit Agency in 1877. The Agency was re-
established under control of the British Resident in Jammu
and Kashmir. It comprised the Gilgit Wazarat; the State of
Hunza and Nagar; the Punial Jagir; the Governorships of
Yasin, Kuh-Ghizr and Ishkoman, and Chilas.
Conquest of Hunza (1891): In 1891-92, after furious battles
at Nilt and Thol, the British Indian Army conquered Hunza,
Nagar and Gilgit, thus bringing the whole area under the
British Raj. During the period 1890-1935, the Gilgit Agency
6
(An ‘Agreed’ Frontier: Ladakh and India’s Northernmost Borders 1846-1947)
by Parashotam Mehra: Oxford University Press, 1991; pp. 167-170).
32
formed by the British brought all the four sub-units of the
region i.e., Gilgit, Ladakh, Skardu and Kargil under one single
administration.
Gilgit Agency ‘Leased’ to the British (1935): The British
India government fearing Soviet expansionist moves, in 1935,
sought to have direct control in the region and demanded
from the Jammu and Kashmir state to lease them Gilgit town
plus most of the Gilgit Agency and the hill-states Hunza,
Nagar, Yasin and Ishkoman for 60 years. Maharaja Hari Singh
had no choice but to acquiesce. The leased region was
then treated as part of British India, administered by a
Political Agent at Gilgit responsible to Delhi, first through
the Resident in Jammu and Kashmir and later a British
Agent in Peshawar. During this period the Jammu and
Kashmir State flag remained hoisted over residency along
with the Union Jack. Jammu and Kashmir State no longer
kept troops in Gilgit and a mercenary force, the Gilgit Scouts,
was recruited with British officers and paid for by Delhi. This
lease was, however, terminated in July 1947.
Gilgit Agency Lease Retroceded (01 Aug 1947): In April
1947, Delhi decided to formally retrocede the leased areas to
Hari Singh’s Jammu and Kashmir State as of 15 August 1947.
The transfer was to formally take place on 1 August.
Gilgit Scouts Mutiny (01 Nov 1947): A mutiny by the Gilgit
Scouts battalion under the guidance of Major WA ‘Willie’ Brown
however rebelled against this action and the new Governor
was arrested. Gilgit thereafter came under the effective
control of Pakistan.
Mahatma Gandhi visited Srinagar on 01 Aug 1947 to
find the city lit up in the midst of celebrations, quite in
contrast to the violence in other parts of the country.
He was informed that the rejoicing was for the return of
Gilgit Agency to the J&K State by the British who had
taken control of the province on a 60 year lease in 1935.
33
Gandhiji’s observation then was that it would be better if
Gilgit was awarded local area autonomy to govern itself
and to preserve its traditional ways. Maharaja Hari Singh
however chose not to take that advice and despatched
Maj Gen Ghansara Singh to be Governor of Gilgit. On 30
July 1947, the Administration of Gilgit was transferred
from the British to Governor Ghansara Singh of Kashmir.
Datta Khel: The region’s security was the responsibility of a
military force called the Gilgit Scouts, which was officered by the
British. Sensing an opportunity in the Maharaja’s predicament,
Major William Brown, the Maharaja’s commander of the Gilgit
Scouts, mutinied on 1 November 1947 and overthrew the
Governor Ghansara Singh. The bloodless coup d’état was
planned by Brown to the last detail under the code name
`Datta Khel’.Two officers of the Gilgit Scouts, Major W A Brown
himself and one Captain A S Mathieson, along with Subedar
Major Babar Khan, a relative of the Mir of Hunza, were loaned
to the Maharaja at Gilgit. But soon after Maharaja Hari Singh
signed Kashmir’s accession to India, Major Brown imprisoned
Ghansara Singh, and informed his erstwhile British Political
Agent, Lt Colonel Roger Bacon, who was then at Peshawar,
of the accession of Gilgit to Pakistan. On November 2,
Major Brown officially raised the Pakistani flag at his
headquarters, and claimed that he and Mathieson had
opted for service with Pakistan when the Maharaja signed
the Instrument of Accession in favour of India.
Aburi Hakoomat: A provisional government (Aburi Hakoomat)
was established by the Gilgit locals with Raja Shah Rais Khan
as the President and Mirza Hassan Khan as the commander-
in-chief. Two weeks later, a nominee of the Pakistan
government, Sardar Mohammed Alam, was appointed the
Political Agent, and took possession of the territory. Pakistani
army soldiers and tribals used it as a base to launch attacks
on the other towns and cities of the region like Skardu, Dras,
Kargil and Leh. On hearing of Brown’s coup in Gilgit, Sir
George Cunningham, who had been appointed governor
34
of North-West Frontier Province, instructed him to restore
order, giving Pakistan de facto control of the region.
Significantly, In the 1948 British gazette, the King-Emperor
awarded the “Most Exalted Order of the British Empire to
Brown, Major (acting) William Alexander, Special List (ex-
Indian Army)”.
Jammu & Kashmir before Independence
Before Independence, Jammu and Kashmir State had a total
area of 84471 square miles and was geographically divided
into three regions-Jammu Province (12,378 sq. miles),
Kashmir Province (8,539 sq.) and the Frontier Province of
Ladakh and Gilgit (63,554 sq miles). In 1947, portions of the
State came under illegal occupation of Pakistan (this included
5134 sq miles in the regions of Jammu and Kashmir and
29,814 square miles chunk of the Frontier Province of Ladakh
and Gilgit earlier called Northern Areas and now form the
province of Gilgit Baltistan.
Historically the Gilgit - Baltistan region belonged to the Dogra
kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir.
State elections were held in 1934, 1937 and 1941, and five
representatives of these areas were taken in the Jammu
& Kashmir Assembly. The Area was represented even in
the last State assembly, which terminated in 1947.
Administration Under Illegal Occupation
of Pakistan
After the coup by the troops of the Gilgit Scouts on 01 Nov
1947, an interim government constituted under Raja Shah
Rais Khan of Gilgit and the government of Pakistan was
invited to take control of the areas through a telegram. Sardar
Muhammad Alam (A tehsildar in the NWFP government at that
time) was appointed as the Political Agent of the government
of Pakistan.
35
In April 1949, an agreement was reached between the
Government of Pakistan and Government of Pakistan
Occupied Kashmir. According to this Agreement (sub-clause 8
of Section 3), administrative control of Gilgit and Baltistan was
temporarily transferred to the government of Pakistan. The
affairs of Gilgit and Baltistan thereby came under the control
of Political Agent appointed by the government of Pakistan.
However, while the Map of the state of Jammu and Kashmir
published by the Pakistan’s Ministry of Kashmir Affairs in
February 1954 shows Gilgit and Baltistan both in terms of area
and population, as part of the State of Jammu and Kashmir,
the Maps published by Survey of Pakistan continued to show
the Northern Areas as part of PoK even up to 1987.7
After Sardar Muhammad Alam’s assumption as Political
Agent of Pakistan in November 1947, the Frontier Crimes
Regulations (FCR) were enforced over whole of Northern
Areas. This was the English law for the tribal areas through
which a civil servant exercised all judicial and administrative
powers. (This was a major change from the time of the
rule of the Maharaja of Kashmir in whose times, an
independent judicial system existed for the areas with a
provision for appeal before the Kashmir High Court). The
FCR (Frontier Crimes Regulations) that remained in force 25
years until 1972 when they was belatedly lifted at the instance
of the then Prime Minister Z.A. Bhutto.
Initially, the Political Agent was also placed under the Political
Resident of the NWFP. In Í950, the affairs of the Northern
Areas were brought under the administrative control of
Ministry of Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas. A post of
Political Resident was created in place of the Political Agent.
In 1952, a Joint Secretary of the Ministry of Kashmir Affairs
was appointed Resident for the Northern Areas. Under the
7
His Masters Voice by Bhushan Parimoo @ http://www.earlytimes.in/m/news-
det.aspx?q=185555
36
Resident, there were two Political Agents, one each for Gilgit
and Baltistan agencies. However, the administrative and
judicial authorities remained centralized in the position of the
Resident and there was no System brought in place for any
political representation.
Significantly, the geographic details and explanation of the
areas under Pakistan, as given in the Constitutions of 1956,
1962 and 1973, do not cover Northern Areas as part of
Pakistan. When Martial Law was imposed in 1958, it was
not extended to Northern Areas, because according to
the principle stand of Pakistan, these areas (still) did not
belong to Pakistan.
Sinkiang (Xinjiang) - Kashmir Border Agreement (1963):
On March 2, 1963, certain areas were mutually transferred by
adjustment. The agreement contained a clause (article 6) that
after the Kashmir dispute was resolved, the government in
power in Northern Areas and the People’s Republic of China
will re-negotiate the agreement. India lodged protest against
the Sino-Pak Agreement. Taking the stand that the agreement
was a violation of the resolutions of the Security Council and
the U.N. Commission for India-Pakistan. Pakistan’s position
has been that Northern Areas were an integrated part
of the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir, and their
fate is yet to be decided along with the rest of the State,
through a plebiscite as provided in the U.N. resolutions.
Empowerment of Resident (1967): The Ministry of Kashmir
Affairs introduced reforms by transferring powers of High Court
and Revenue Commissioner to the Resident and appointed
two Political Agent one each for Gilgit and Baltistan. District
level powers delegated to the Political Agent to act as District
and Session Judge, Revenue Collector, Commissioner for
FCR, Chief of Police and Controlling Officer of Cooperative
Society.
37
Establishment of Representative Body of Northern Areas
(1970): Elections were conducted for the first time in the Gilgit
Baltistan Regions to elect 16 members of Northern Areas
Advisory Council (NAAC).
While the Council had the power to sanction development
schemes and all other matters were beyond its powers.
Initially, the Council was chaired by the Resident but later, the
Federal Minister for Kashmir Affairs became Chairman of the
Council.
Re-designation of the post of Resident as Resident
Commissioner (1972): Through a Presidential Order of
1972, the post of Resident was re-designated as Resident
Commissioner of Gilgit and Baltistan Agencies were
transformed into districts by appointing Deputy Commissioners
along with creating an additional district of Diamer.
The Z.A Bhutto Reforms (1972): The government of Z. A.
Bhutto announced a package of administrative and judicial
reforms by abolishing the State of Hunza and Frontier Crime
Regulation (FCR). The Presidential proclamation of August
1972, introduced the following fundamental structural reforms:
(a) The system of Feudal Lords, Rajas, Mir of Nagar and
Agency was abolished. (The Rajas (rulers) of abolished
States were given government jobs and maintenance
allowances).
(b) Gilgit and Baltistan agencies were given the status of
districts;
(c) “Resident” and “Political Agent” were re-named
Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner, respectively.
(d) A general amnesty was granted.
(e) Creation of two additional districts Ghizer and Ganche
was announced.
38
Abolition of the State of Hunza and creation of Two new
Districts (1974): In September 1974, Prime Minister Bhutto
visited Northern Areas and declared Ganche and Ghazar as
two new districts and abolished the state of Hunza.
Imposition of Martial Law and being placed in Zone ‘E’
(1977): When General Zia-ul -Haq imposed Martial Law in
Pakistan the Gilgit Baltistanwas declared as Zone-E and
imposed Martial Law in the area. This was the first major
step towards the deviation of Pakistan’s stand about on Gilgit
Baltistan with regard to Kashmir issue. The representatives
from the Area were included in the Majlis-e-Shura.
Zia-ul-Haq’s Changed Stance on Northern Areas (1982):
In April 1982, the then President of Pakistan, Gen Zia-ul-haq
stated that Gilgit, Skardu and Hunza were not “disputed”
areas, but part of Pakistan. On 09 May 1982, he reiterated
by stating that “Kashmir has been a disputed issue, but so far
as the Northern Areas are concerned, we do not accept them
disputed” he also nominated three individuals of the area,
for the Majlis-e-Shura, as observers. Speaking at the Shura,
he further stated in reference to the Northern Areas that “I
am not talking of Kashmir; I am talking about the Northern
Areas, which make part of Pakistan.” Zia’s statement de facto
deprived the people of the region the right to participate in the
eventual plebiscite to be held across the erstwhile State of
Jammu and Kashmir.
High Power Committee to settle the future of the Northern
Areas (1984-85): A High Power Committee was constituted in
1984-85 to settle the future of the Northern Areas. Members of
the Committee included the Secretaries of Divisions/ Ministries
of Establishment, Finance, Planning, Law, Interior, Education,
and Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas. The report of the
Committee was neither implemented, nor made public.
Appointment of Advisor to Minister for Kashmir Affairs
(1985): A high power Committee was constituted by the
39
government including Federal Secretaries of Finance,
Planning, Law, Interior, Education, and Kashmir Affairs and
Northern Areas (KA&NA) for introducing the reforms in
Gilgit Baltistan. On recommendations of the Committee a
representative from Northern Areas, Aga Ahmad Ali Shah was
appointed as Advisor to Minister Kashmir Affairs.
Appointment of Advisor to Prime Minister (1988): The
democratic government of Ms. Benazir Bhutto appointed an
elected representative of Northern Areas Council Mr.Qurban
Ali as Advisor to Prime Minister with equal status of a State
Minister.
Benazir Bhutto Introduced Reforms (1994): The Federal
Cabinet in 1994 approved a “Reforms Package” for the
Northern areas, which were now turned into a ‘de facto’
province. The Northern Areas Rules of Business were framed.
Major administrative provisions of the ‘package’ were:
• To administer Northern Areas, the Federal Minister
of Kashmir Affairs, will be the Chief Executive of the
Council; To assist the C.E; the Council will elect a
Deputy Chief Executive;
• Three to five members of the Council will be taken as
Advisors to C.E. They will enjoy the status of provincial
ministers. Their appointment will, however, depend on
the C.E’s discretion.
• The post of Judicial Commissioner will be abolished,
and a 3- member Chief Court will be constituted under
the chairmanship of a retired Judge. Any senior judicial
officer belonging to federation or the provincial High
Court will be deputed as member of the Chief Court,
whereas a District Session Judge from the Northern
Areas will also be its member. The Court was however,
not authorized to hear writ petitions.
40
• For the first time, the federal government appointed in
the area, a Chief Secretary and four Secretaries. The
positions of Chief Secretary and Civil Secretariats were
established and judicial reforms were introduced.
A positive outcome from the package had been that party-
based elections were held for the first time in 1994. A
member of Pakistan People’s Party got elected as Deputy
Chief Executive. PPP and Tahrik-i-Jafaria also sent two
Advisors each, while Muslim League (Junejo group) got
one seat of Advisor.
These Advisors were assigned public departments.
Rules of Business were also framed so that official matters
could be regulated.
The negatives of the package were mainly that:
• All the five Advisors including the Deputy CE, generally
complained that they had no powers. Authority instead
was still exercised by the bureaucracy.
• A non- representative person (C.E.) was made head
of the popularly elected Deputy Chief Executive. That
adversely affected the credibility of the elected body,
and gave the impression that it was only a showpiece.
• Financial and administrative powers remained centred
in the federal Finance and Establishment Divisions,
which the Chief Executive exercised as his exclusive
prerogative. Thus the lack of power of the Deputy Chief
Executive and the Advisors became evident.
Enhancement of NAC Members: On April 25, 1994, the
membership of the Northern Areas Council was enhanced
from 18 to 26. It was also decided that members will be elected
on the basis of adult franchise.
Decision of the Supreme Court of Pakistan (1999): In a
41
petition brought before the Supreme Court of Pakistan by
Habib Wahab al-Khairi (founder of Al-Jihad Trust, Rawalpindi)
for which the Secretary, Ministry of Kashmir Affairs and
Northern Areas was made Defendant, a plea was made before
the Court to restore the basic human rights of the people of the
area on grounds that though the constitutional position of the
Northern Areas is that they are part of the state of Jammu and
Kashmir, there is persistent confusion in the administrative
and judicial structure that gave rise to various problems and
the people of the area that needed to be redressed.
The significant portions of the directions of the Supreme Court
of Pakistan are as excerpted below:
“... since the geographical location of the Northern
Areas is very sensitive because it is bordering India,
China, Tibet and (erstwhile) USSR, and as the above
areas in the past have also been treated differently...
this Court cannot decide what type of Government
should be provided to ensure the compliance with the
above mandate of the Constitution. Nor we can direct
that the people of Northern Areas should be given
representation in the Parliament as, at this stage
it may not be in the larger interest of the country
because of the fact that a plebiscite under the
auspices of the United Nations is to be held. The
above questions are to be decided by the Parliament
and the Executive. This Court at the most can direct
that the proper administrative and legislative steps
should be taken to ensure that the people of Northern
Areas enjoy their above rights under the Constitution.”
“...As regards the right to access to justice through an
independent judiciary, it may be observed that the
Northern Areas has a Chief Court, which can be
equated with a High Court provided it is manned
by the persons or the statute who are fit to be
elevated as Judges to any High Court in Pakistan.
42
Its jurisdiction is to be enlarged as to include jurisdiction
to entertain Constitutional Petitions inter alia to enforce
the Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Constitution...”
“...To initiate appropriate administrative/legislative
measures within a period of six months from today
to make necessary amendments in the Constitution/
relevant statute/statues /order/ orders / rules/
notification / notifications, to ensure that the people
of Northern Areas enjoy their above fundamental
rights, namely, to be governed through their chosen
representatives and to have access to justice through
an independent judiciary inter alia for enforcement
of their Fundamental Rights guaranteed under the
Constitution.8
Response of the Government of Pakistan to the Supreme
Court Directions (October 1999):
In response to the Pakistan Supreme Court’s decision,
a special package deal for the Northern Areas. The then
Minister for Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas Lt Gen (Retd)
Abdul Majeed Malik made a detailed visit to the area and
on October 2, 1999, announced that government was soon
bringing a constitutional reforms package which would elevate
the Northern Areas Council into Northern Areas Legislative
Council. The Federal government also announced the holding
of elections for the Council and local bodies. (However, even
as the modalities for these were under discussion, the Army
took over power on October 12, 1999. The new government
nevertheless decided to hold the elections as scheduled
and these were held under the supervision of the military).
An amendment in the “Legal Frame Work Order 1994” was
subsequently also made on 07 July, 2000.
The main features of the Reforms Package were:
8
Supreme Court Monthly Review, vol. XXXII, May 28, 1999, “The Decision of
Supreme Court of Pakistan”.
43
• Northern Area Council was renamed “Northern Area
Legislative Council”, and was authorized legislation in
40 items;
• Council’s membership was raised to 29. Five seats
were reserved for women - one elected indirectly, from
each district;
• “Chief Executive” will not be from amongst the Council
members;
• The Speaker to be elected by the majority of the Council
members, will preside over council’s meetings;
• The Council members to be empowered to approve
development schemes;
• The Deputy Chief Executive to be authorized to
transfer officers of various grades but not the Deputy
Commissioner or the Superintendent of Police. For that
he will have to get prior approval of the Chief Secretary
Though it was expected that the “package” would
lead to the setting up of local government with powers being
devolved, the real transfer of power and decision-making
still does not rest with the elected representatives. Power
continued to vest with the bureaucracy and it became obvious
that unless the Deputy Chief Executive is not enabled to
exercise full financial and administrative powers, he will not be
able to show any meaningful performance in public service.
Establishment of Apex Court (2005): Northern Areas Court
of appeals was established. (In a separate order, the reserved
seats in the NALC were increased to six reserved seats for
technocrats and one additional seat for women).
NALC Name Changed (2007) : The Northern Areas Legal
Framework Order 1994 was renamed as Northern Areas
Governance Order 1994 and amended. The NALC was
renamed as Northern Areas Legislative Assembly.
44
The Gilgit Baltistan Reforms Package 2007
On August 23, 2007, President Musharraf visited Gilgit and
declared the promulgation of an amended version of the
existing Legal Framework Order (LFO) to fulfil a longstanding
demand of the local people.
As per the new amendments, the powers of the federal Ministry
of Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas have been curtailed
and vested in the elected government. The Deputy Chief
Executive stood promoted to the position of Chief Executive,
while the Minister of Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas who
is appointed by the federal government, will now perform as
the Chairman of the NA government.
Gilgit Baltistan Empowerment and Self-
Governance Order, 2009
On August 29, 2009, the Gilgit Baltistan Empowerment and
Self-Governance Order 2009, was passed by the Pakistan
Cabinet and later signed and promulgated as law by the
President of Pakistan. The major provisions of the Order are:
(a) Grant of self-rule to the people of Gilgit–Baltistan,
by creating, an elected Gilgit Baltistan Legislative
Assembly and Gilgit Baltistan Council. Gilgit Baltistan
thus gained de facto province-like status without
constitutionally becoming part of Pakistan.
(b) Gilgit Baltistan Legislative Assembly to be a 33-seat
unicameral legislative body. Of the 33 seats, 24 are
filled by direct elections. In addition, the reserves 3
seats for technocrats and 6 seats for women.
(c) A Speaker and a Deputy Speaker to be elected by
the Assembly from amongst its members,. After the
election of the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker, the
Assembly cannot transact any other business unless it
elects the Chief Minister.
45
(d) The Chief Minister is elected in a special session,
summoned by the Governor on a day specified by the
President. The Chief Minister obtains vote of confidence
from the Assembly within 60 days of assuming office.
(e) The Legislative Assembly has powers to make laws on
selected 61 subjects.
(f) A Gilgit Baltistan Consolidated Fund set up and the
annual budget to be presented to the Assembly and
voted upon as per practice in other Provinces (of
Pakistan).
Political Groups
Jama’at-e-Islami: Though the Jama‘at does not appeal on the
sectarian basis, it attracts a number of religious-minded people.
It is active both in PoK and in Gilgit Baltistan. It promotes a
belief that Kashmir would soon be free and if therefore, the
two areas are merged in one unit it will strengthen the freedom
movement, making it more difficult for India.
Pakistan People’s Party: Pakistan People’s Party is a
considerable force in Gilgit Baltistan politics and has had
good representation in the Northern Area Council. However
in the 2015 Gilgit Baltistan assembly elections, it was voted
out of power and won only one seat. Its principle stand is that
government can restore rights of the people without damaging
the cause of Kashmir.
Pakistan Muslim League (N): Pakistan Muslim League has
also been prominent in the electoral politics of Gilgit Baltistan.
The party’s stance is that the Northern Areas be given a
government on the pattern of PoK with the Azad Kashmir. The
Pakistan Muslim League (PML-N) has secured 14 seats out
of 23 in the 2015 Gilgit Baltistan Assembly elections.
The Gilgit League: In 1957, Colonel Mirza Hasan Khan, well
regarded locally as a military hero, established the first local
46
level political organisation, named the ‘Gilgit League’. After
the imposition of Martial Law in Pakistan in 1958, though the
law itself was not applied to the Northern Areas, The Gilgit
League was banned and its founder, Col Mirza Hasan Khan
himself joined the ‘Azad Kashmir’ Civil Service in 1961. He
subsequently joined the Pakistan People’s Party but was
arrested by ZA Bhutto regime on political differences in 1973
and jailed.
Gilgit Baltistan Jamhoori Mahaz: During 1967-71, a
group of youth led by Amir Hamza, a resident of Gilgit and a
former SSP of Ghizer district formed a political set-up named
Gilgit Baltistan Jamhoori Mahaz (Gilgit Baltistan Democratic
Forum) which had a one point demand for peoples’
representation either in the Pakistan National Assembly or
the region being given a status such as granted to the ‘Azad’
J&K Assembly. Hamza had even been jailed in his youth for
raising this demand. The Mahaz resorted to various means
such as the media, literature and demonstrations to espouse
their cause which effort resulted in the ‘Azad’ J&K Assembly
adopting a resolution seeking the Northern Areas joining of
AJ&K. The Mahaz however became inactive after 1973.
The Tanzeem-e-Millat (TEM) and the Girls’ School
Incident : In 1971, a body named the Tanzeem-e-Millat was
formed with an agenda for abolition of the Princely States and
award of Provincial status to the Northern Areas. Its founders
and leaders included Johar Ali, the first Advocate to hail from
the Northern Areas. An incident occurred during this period
brought a number of changes in the administrative set-up
in NAs. A delegation of the TEM went to see the Resident
Commissioner to get redressed the injustice done to the Head
mistress. The Commissioner insulted the delegation. To react,
the organization took to the streets with protest rallies and
meetings. The administration imprisoned fifteen top leaders
of the TEM, but people broke the jail and set their leaders
free. In response, the protestors attacked Gilgit Jail and set
free their arrested leaders but the leaders were re-arrested
47
and placed in other jails such as Haripur jail in NWFP. During
1972 the Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto government announced a
general amnesty with reference to the above incident as
also a package of reforms that included replacement of
the FCR besides the setting up of a new District of Diamir.
The TEM dissipated after these administrative reforms and
was merged in the Pakistan People’s Party.
Gilgit and Baltistan Students Federation: : A “Gilgit
and Baltistan Students Federation” was set up by students
of the Northern Areas who were studying in Karachi. While
the set up could not generate any political traction, they did
however play a role in creating awareness on the issues
affecting the region. The Federation lost steam and became
dysfunctional after 1976.
Response of Political Parties to Zia’s Statements of April
1982: In response to President Zia’s statements of Arril and
May 1982 regarding the position of the region, four major
political parties (Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference,
Azad Kashmir People’s Party, Jammu and Kashmir Mahaz-
e-Raiy Shumari, and Azad Muslim Conference) joined in a
movement for the restoration of democracy. Leaders of all the
four parties sent a jointly signed letter to President Zia on May
4, 1982. The letter explained in sufficient detail the position
of the areas: that they belonged to the state, and like the rest
of the state constituents, their future position was yet to be
decided.
Balawaristan National Front: The BNF, so named after a
historic name for the region, was formed in 1989 under the
Chairmanship of Nawaz Khan Naji and reorganised in 1993.
The BNF does not consider areas of Gilgit and Baltistan nor
the neighboring regions of Ladakh, or Kargil to be legally or
constitutionally part of Pakistan or India. Claiming that both
India and Pakistan do not want to let loose their respective
hold over Kashmir and Northern Areas, the BNF suggests a
“practical” solution, as they call it, for the world community.
48
Accordingly, PoK, Northern Areas, Srinagar, Jammu, and
Ladakh are to be declared five separate and independent
states and then brought into a “federation”. Plebiscite then
be carried under the auspices of the United Nations in all
these states to ascertain whether they would; (i) maintain the
federation; (ii) join Pakistan; or (iii) join India. The majority
vote of each state is to decide its fate.
The party fielded two candidates in the 2009 elections
for the legislative assembly of Gilgit Baltistan - though neither
candidate was elected to the 33-seat assembly, but in a
special by-election in 2011, BNF founder Nawaz Khan Naji
won seat LA-22 Ghanche-I, with 46.4% of ballots cast in his
favor. Upon taking his seat in the assembly, he undertook an
oath to “remain faithful to the state of Pakistan”. Its plea is
that the Gilgit and Baltistan regions had been predominantly
Shia in 1947 but the ethnic composition has been deliberately
sought to be altered by promoting Sunnis from other areas of
Pakistan to migrate to the area.
Gilgit Baltistan United Movement: A political movement
based in Skardu, the Movement demands a fully autonomy
to Gilgit and Baltistan. Its stanced is that the regions should
be denoted “Gilgit Baltistan” and be given the status of an
“Independent Constitutional Assembly”.
Gilgit Baltistan Democratic Alliance: A leading political
conglomerate of eight nationalist parties in Gilgit Baltistan.
It advocates political autonomy and the resolution of the
Kashmir dispute.
The KNM has been KNM is struggling for the freedom of
Karakorum from last 22 years and its cadres face harassment
through fake cases in various Courts.
49
Bolor9 Thinkers’ Forum: A small group of intellectuals
who, in a public seminar in Rawalpindi in 2005, called for
“an independent Bolor state,” and asserted that “it was their
legitimate right to demand an independent Bolor state”.
Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front: The organization
is one of those who exist in all parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
It considers that Jammu and Kashmir is an indivisible
entity. The permanent mebbers of the UNSC should form a
Kashmir Committee under the supervision of UN Secretary
General which Committee should declare Kashmir free and
independent for 15 years. Plebiscite be held after that period,
and the majority decision of the people be acceptable.
Northern Areas Bar Council: Though not a political party it
plays an important role in the struggle for basic rights of the
people and their constitutional position of Gilgit Baltistan. Its
stance is for Gilgit Baltistan being declared fifth province (of
Pakistan).
All Parties Mutahidda Council: The Mutahidda Council
of 12 political and religious parties wants Gilgit Baltistan
being given a provisional constitution like PoK with who
Gilgit Baltistan should have a common Senate with one
President.
‘AJ&K’ Leadership: All political parties, including the ruling
groups in AJ&K, maintain a unanimous position about Northern
Areas. In the context of the future of Northern Areas, frequently
held All Parties Conferences expressed consensus position
that: “Northern Areas are part of the state of Jammu and
Kashmir and may be merged in ‘Azad’ Kashmir (PoK).”
9
Bolor-Tagh is an old name for the longitudinal range in eastern Pamir Moun-
tains (ancient Mount Imeon) extending from Kunlun Mountains in the south to
the east extremity of the Trans-Alay Range in the north. Highest peaks Kongur
Tagh (7649 m) and Muztagh Ata. Bolor-Tagh lies entirely in the Xinjiang prov-
ince of western China. Marco Polo visited the area in 1271 during his travel to
China, describing it under the name of ‘Bolor’.
50
Sectarian Groups
Shia Groups
There are two principal Shia Groups in the Gilgit Baltistan
Province:
(a) Anjuman Ahle-Tashia was established before
the Partition (1947) and is registered under Societies
Act. Its major activity is establishment and running
of Madarsas and Masjids. Since 1980 it also started
working for securing Shia political rights. It is quite
effective in its community.
(b) Tahrik-e-Ja’fria Pakistan: Tahrik is a sister
organization of the Anjuman Ahle-Tashia and is
regarded as its political front. In the 1994 administrative
setup, two Advisors were taken from the Tahrik. A
Deputy Chief Executive elected on July 28, 2000, also
belonged to the group.
Both these organizations demand to make Northern
Areas, the fifth province of Pakistan. They claim that
historically the areas never belonged to Kashmir, nor they
have anything common in culture. They also argue that it
was the people of the Northern Areas who themselves
overthrew Dogra Raj and got the areas annexed with
Pakistan. Pakistan accepted the annexation, but
conditions at that time warranted not to announce it;
mainly because the Foreign Office considered that as
and when plebiscite is held people of the area will cast
their vote in favour of Pakistan. The two organizations
have also expressed apprehension many a time that if made
part of Kashmir, Northern Areas will remain backward and
disadvantaged, because being less developed they would
never be in a position to compete with more developed
Kashmiris.
51
The Sunni Group (Tanzeem-e-Ahle-Sunnah wal Jamaat)
Established as a social welfare organization in 1980
represents the Sunni sect. Its original purpose was the
establishment and administration of masjids and Madarsas.
However, when sectarian clashes started in 1980, Tanzeem
became the political and religious party of the Sunnis, and
was practically accepted in that position as representative of
Sunnis. The organization supports the option that together with
‘Azad Kashmir’ (POK), the Northern Areas should form one
unit. Tanzeem views that by bringing the two areas together,
Sunnis will command majority, and otherwise they will remain
minority in the Northern Areas.
Major Incidents of Sectarian Discord
Beginnings of Discord (1971): The first reported sectarian
clash in Gilgit Baltistan occurred when Sunnis objected to
Shias making a stage in the middle of a road and delivering
speeches. The Government of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto had then
sided with the Sunnis and stopped the practice. The Shias
took to the streets and in the resultant violence, several Shias
were injured in police firing.
The Girls’ School Incident (1971) : An incident occurred
during this period brought a number of changes in the
administrative set-up in NAs. A delegation of the TEM went
to see the Resident Commissioner to get redressed the
injustice done to the Head mistress. The Commissioner
insulted the delegation. To react, the organization took to the
streets with protest rallies and meetings. In response, the
administration resorted to firing killing a few demonstrators.
This incident turned into a political movement demanding
basic rights for the Northern Areas. Because of mishandling
by the administration, the element of violence entered into an
otherwise peaceful protest movement. The administration got
hold of and imprisoned fifteen top leaders of the TEM, but
people broke the jail and set their leaders free. In response,
the protestors attacked Gilgit Jail and set free their arrested
52
leaders but the leaders were re-arrested and placed in other
jails such as Haripur jail in NWFP. During 1972 the Zulfiqar
Ali Bhutto government announced a general amnesty
with reference to the above incident as also a package
of reforms that included replacement of the FCR besides
the setting up of a new District of Diamer.
Assassination of Local Leaders (1992 & 1993): The
assassination of one Gayyasuddin, a Sunni leader, on 30 May
1992 sparked a series of riots between the two communities
in which several people were killed. Peace was restored
through consensus but the killing of a Shia leader named Latif
Hassan on 4 August 1993 caused a breakdown of the fragile
peace and resulted in the death of at least 20 more lives.
Shia Riots (1988): Major anti-Shia riots in Gilgit broke out
in May 1988 over the sighting of the moon at the conclusion
of the holy month of Ramadan. While the Shias in Gilgit
were celebrating Eid al-Fitr, they were attacked by a group
of extremist Sunnis who were still fasting because their
religious leaders had not announced the sighting of the
moon. This resulted in violent clashes between Sunnis and
Shias. After a brief calm, the Military regime under Zia ul Haq
allegedly backed some Sunni Militants to ‘teach a lesson’ to
the Shias, which resulted in a large number of Shias being
killed, the unofficial reports placing the number killed at 700.
An assessment of the violence carried by The Herald, the
monthly journal of the prestigious Dawn group of Karachi in
its April 1990 is self-speaking:
In May 1988, low-intensity political rivalry and sectarian
tension ignited into full-scale carnage as thousands of
armed tribesmen from outside Gilgit district invaded
Gilgit along the Karakoram Highway. Nobody stopped
them. They destroyed crops and houses, lynched and
burnt people to death in the villages around Gilgit town.
The number of dead and injured was in the hundreds.
But numbers alone tell nothing of the savagery of the
53
invading hordes and the chilling impact it has left on
these peaceful valleys.
The Text Book Issue (2004): On 03 June 2004 violence
broke out in Gilgit City in which one person was killed and
several hurt. Over the following days, protests continued and
the unrest also spread to Baltistan. The cause of the violent
outbreak was that text books published by the Punjab Textbook
Board prescribed as teaching material for the Northern
Areas for Islamiyat Studies depicted Islamic practices in
a strictly Sunnite way and contrary to the faith of the Shias
of the area. There were a total of sixteen such textbooks in
which only sayings of the Prophet (hadith) accepted by the
Sunna were mentioned and Shi’ite personalities were left
aside or not referred to in due form. This conflict had in fact
been simmering since 2000 and many had predicted the
explosion of a ‘sectarian time bomb’.
Series of Sectarian Violence(2005)
Assassination of Syed Agha Ziauddin Rizvi (Jan
2005): In January 2005, Rizvi a prominent Shia leader
who was shot at and died after almost a week, sparked
another round of violence. One of the assailants who
was killed by Syed Rizvi’s bodyguards was identified as
belonging to the Lashkar-e-Jhangvi. The Shia reaction
to the death of their leader led to some Government
Offices and public properties being attacked. A Sunni
District Forest Officer and a Director of the Health
Department was also killed.
Killing of Police Officer (March 2005): A Sunni
Inspector General of Police, Sakhiullah Tareen, who
was in charge of the region at the time of Rizvi’s
assassination, was shot dead along with four Police
officials near village Jotal, 30 kilometers from Gilgit on
23 March 2005 in what is regarded as a retaliation to
the Shia leader Rizvi’s assassination.
54
Attack on Bus (July 2005): Four passengers were
killed and six injured in an attack on a bus in the Gonar
farms area of Chilas on July 17, 2005. The incident
was followed with retaliatory attacks with several
deaths occurring in the revenge attacks. The extent
of mistrust was such that people are reluctant to travel
on the roads running through the areas inhabited by
the rival sect.
Sectarian Violence at Hunza (2005): The population is
traditionally predominantly Shia (Jafria). Following sectarian
violence in January 2005, the Tanzim Ahle Sunnah wal
Jama’at representing Sunnis, and the Central Anjuman-e-
Imamia Northern Areas representing Shias (Jafria), signed a
six-point peace agreement arranged by the Northern Areas
Legislative Council (NALC) on 18 February 2005, to ensure
peace in the area.
Hunza Violence (2011): On August 11, 2011, 25 out of
the 457 families whose land had been destroyed by the
formation of Attabad Lake took to the streets and demanded
compensation. The Police action to clear Karakoram Highway
for Chief Minister Mehdi Shah, who was visiting the valley, to
pass through was use of tear gas followed by live ammunition.
In this action, two protesters—Afzal Baig and his father
Sherullah Baig were shot dead and riots erupted in Hunza
Valley. Protesters torched government offices and looted
a police station in Aliabad. Over a hundred suspects were
arrested. Though a Judicial Commission into the police action
had been instituted, the Report has not been made public.
In a Judgment delivered in September 2016, the ATC judge
exonerated five of the 17 people booked in the case and held
12 accused guilty of vandalising property, attacking public
servants, ransacking arms and ammunitions from the police
station. The ATC judge also imposed a fine of Rs100,000 on
each convict.
55
The Kohistan Killings (2012)10: On 28 February 2012, an
incuident occurred on the Karakoram highway in which at least
18 innocent pilgrims belonging to Gilgit Baltistan were killed
by unknown assailants. Those killed were part of a group
returning from a pilgrimage to holy shrines in Iran and were
travelling in a convoy of four buses from Rawalpindi to Gilgit.
The attack took place in Harban Nullah in Kohistan district
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The victims were forced
to disembark from the buses after having been identified as
Shia, all men, including three of the bus drivers. The injured,
however, included men, women and children. Ahmed Marwat,
commander of an outlawed terrorist group, Jundullah, owned
up responsibility for the attack, stating clearly that these people
were targeted because they belonged to the Shia community.
Jundullah, which allegedly has links to the Taliban and the
al Qaeda, is based in Balochistan. This group is said to be
different from the Jundallah active in neighbouring Iran. The
killers, dressed in military uniforms, managed to escape the
scene of attack without much difficulty.
The Massacre at Chilas (2012)11: Even before Gilgit Baltistan
could recover from the shock of the Kohistan killings, at least
15 to 20 people were killed and almost 50 injured in yet
another incident in Chilas, Gilgit on 03 April 2012. This incident
occurred in the wake of a procession led by Ahl-e-Sunnat-
Wal-Jamaat (ASWJ, is known to be the front of the banned
terrorist outfit Sipah-e-Sahaba) protesting against the arrest
of some its leaders in connection with the Kohistan incident.
In Gilgit, protesters burnt tyres on the roads to create a sense
of fear and forced shops to close. Grenades were lobbed at
this procession by unidentified men riding on motor cycles.
10
Extracted from IDSA ISSUE BRIEF Sectarian Strife in Gilgit Baltistan by
Priyanka Singh published on May 21, 2012 @ http://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/Sec-
tarianStrifeinGilgitBaltistan_psingh_210512
11
Extracted from IDSA ISSUE BRIEF Sectarian Strife in Gilgit Baltistan by
Priyanka Singh published on May 21, 2012 @ http://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/Sec-
tarianStrifeinGilgitBaltistan_psingh_210512
56
Simultaneously, armed men killed Shia passengers after
forcing them to get down from the bus they were travelling
in Chilas. The fallout was immediate: Sunni mosques made
public pronouncements against the Shia community and
similarly Shias in Baltistan mobilised to avenge the killings.
Some people, noted to be Sunnis, were taken hostage by
a mob in order to pressurise the authorities to take steps to
control the situation. The hostages included a civil judge and
a district health officer. The weeklong hostage crisis came to
an end when 31 Sunni hostages were released.
Causative Factors for Sectarian Conflict and
Tension
‘Nizam-e-Mustafa’ (1980s): General Zia-ul-Haq who
assumed power as the Martial law Administrator through
the 1980s. imposed Sharia with a distinct pro-Sunni bent
and interpretation. Several Sunni Islamic parties and
Deobandi Groups had come up during his rule which caused
disaffection amongst the majority Shia community in Gilgit
Baltistan. Region. This resulted in sectarian clashes erupting
to the politics played by the regional administrative officers
appointed by the Federal Government.
Tilting the Demographic Balance: There has been
a perceptible policy, since the Zia era, of altering the
demographic balance of Shia-dominated Gilgit Baltistan by
settling outsiders in the area. It is reported that, as of January
2001, the old population ratio of 1:4 (non-locals to locals) has
now changed to 3:4 (non-locals to locals). The Shia pockets
of Skardu and Gilgit are witnessing a constant increase in the
population of non-Shias. In the Gilgit and Skardu areas, large
tracts of land have been allotted to non-locals. Other outsiders
have purchased substantial stretches of land since they are
economically better off than the locals. The rapid induction of
Punjabi and Pushtun outsiders has created a sense of acute
insecurity among the locals.
57
Unemployed Mujahideens: Several local Sunnis, who had
fought against the erstwhile Soviet Union as mujahideen
(holy warriors) in Afghanistan, returned home after the Soviet
withdrawal in the late 1980s, and joined the anti-Shia sectarian
groups. In most of the Sunni-dominated areas, there was an
increase in the growth of training camps where Sunni militants
were given training along with arms and ammunition.The easy
availability of arms in the area, including AK-47 assault rifles
and rocket launchers, is another reason for the violence.
The Karakoram Highway: Has become a major battleground
in the sectarian strife with ‘sitting duck’ targets. This all-
weather road, stretching about 840 kilometers, runs through
a predominantly Sunni area from Gilgit to Rawalpindi, where
instances of firing on passenger buses have occurred several
times, claiming many lives. It also passes via the Shia
dominated Nagar Valley onwards to Hunza, where incidents of
selective killings and ambushing of buses are not uncommon.
Traveling on this road is considered a nightmare for both
communities.
Situation in 2016
Importantly, as per a very recently published summation of
violence in Pakistan including the illegally held regions of
Gilgit and Baltistan during 2016, these regions have seen the
least fatalities.
Figure 8 - Source:
The DAWN, 04
January 2017
58
India’s Position on Gilgit Baltistan12
India’s case on Gilgit Baltistan rests on the accession of
the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir to India in
1947. From 1852, the British had maintained a Resident in
Srinagar and a Political Agent in Gilgit Wazarat, a tract of
semi-autonomous states like Nagar and Hunza, north of the
Kishenganga, to keep a watch on the Russian empire.
In March 1935, after the Soviets established control of Central
Asia, the British took the territory on a 60-year lease from the
Maharaja and it was administered by a British officer and
policed by the Gilgit Scouts.
On August 1, 1947 the British terminated the lease and
handed the territory back to the Maharaja. On October 31, two
officers of the Gilgit Scouts, Major William Brown and Capt
S. A. Mathieson, along with Subedar Major Babar Khan, a
relative of the Mir of Hunza, led a revolt of the state forces and
the Gilgit Scouts, arrested the new governor Ghansara Singh
and hoisted the Pakistani flag at the residency.
Though Pakistan later claimed that the Rajas of Nagar and
Hunza had acceded to it, but the only record of Gilgit’s accession
seems to have been a wireless message requesting that they
send a political agent to take charge from the republic that had
been set up in the wake of the coup. In any case, none of this
was legally tenable since they were part of J&K, and the only
authority who could legally accede to anyone was Maharaja
Hari Singh, who signed the Instrument of Accession to India.
Non-Muslim soldiers, many of them Sikhs or Gurkhas were
killed or captured and the Muslim rebels constituted irregular
forces, later supplemented by Pakistani regulars who attacked
Extracted from ‘Why India needs to think through its policy on Gilgit-Baltistan
12
and POK’ by Manoj Joshi, Observer Research Foundation, 26 August 2016 @

http://www.orfonline.org/research/why-india-needs-to-think-through-its-policy-
on-gilgit-baltistan-and-pok/
59
Skardu, Dras, Kargil and Leh. Skardu held out heroically for
eight months before surrendering, the Indian Army managed
to clear the Pakistani forces from Dras, Kargil and Leh before
the ceasefire came into force on December 31, 1948.
Pakistan also claimed legal rights through the so-called 1949
Karachi Agreement signed with Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas, the
supreme leader of “Azad Kashmir”.
No copy of this agreement can be found in the Pakistan
government records. The “Azad Kashmir” government never
had any control over the region, and so handing it to Pakistan
was a sleight of hand to disguise outright annexation of
territory that legally belongs even now to the State of Jammu
and Kashmir, whose capitals are Srinagar and Jammu.
The extent of official British complicity is not clear. Brown
apparently received a high British award in 1948. But,
as brought out by C. Dasgupta in his 2002 book, War and
Diplomacy in Kashmir, it is also visible in the coordination of
the British High Commissioners in Karachi and New Delhi who
got the British commanders of both forces to ensure that the
Indian Air Force did not interdict Pakistani air supply missions
to their forces in Gilgit.
Recent Indian Government Statements
Rajya Sabha Question No 44 ( by Shri Prakash Javadekar)
Answered on 15 March 2012.
Question:
(a) whether Government is aware of the media reports that
Pakistan is considering handing over Gilgit Baltistan area of
Jammu and Kashmir, presently in the PoK, to China on lease
of fifty years;
(b) in the perception of Government, in what manner the
proposed lease alters the security and geo-political perception
to India;
60
(c) the number of rivers flowing into India through or from the
Gilgit Baltistan area of Jammu and Kashmir; and
(d) Government’s response to it in the light of the status of
the entire Jammu and Kashmir, including Gilgit Baltistan area
being Indian Territory?
Answer (by Minister of External Affairs Shri SM Krishna)
(a) & (b) Government has seen media reports that Pakistan
is considering a proposal to lease Gilgit Baltistan region in
Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK) to China for fifty years.
Government has not seen any official statement or report by
the Government of Pakistan in this regard.
However, under the so called China-Pakistan “Boundary
Agreement” of 1963, Pakistan illegally ceded 5,180 Sq. Kms.
of Indian territory in POK to China. Government remains firm in
its resolve to take all necessary steps to effectively safeguard
India’s security and territorial integrity.
(c) No major river is flowing into India through or from the
Gilgit Baltistan area of Jammu and Kashmir.
(d) Government’s principled and consistent position is that
the entire State of Jammu and Kashmir is an integral part of
India and Pakistan has been in illegal occupation of parts of
the Indian state of Jammu & Kashmir. Government keeps a
constant watch on all developments having a bearing on India’s
security and takes all necessary measures to safeguard it.
Official Spokesperson’s response to media question on
elections in Gilgit Baltistan (08 Jun 2015)13
“India’s position is well known. The entire State of Jammu &
13
Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs website @
http://www.mea.gov.in/media-briefings.htm?dtl/25307/Official_Spokespersons_
response_to_a_media_question_on_elections_which_are_to_be_held_in_Gilgit-
Baltistan_on_June_8_2015
61
Kashmir which includes the regions of Gilgit and Baltistan is an
integral part of India.
The election in Gilgit and Baltistan on June 8 under the so
called “Gilgit Baltistan Empowerment and Self Government
Order” is an attempt by Pakistan to camouflage its forcible
and illegal occupation of the regions. We are concerned at the
continued efforts by Pakistan to deny the people of the region
their political rights, and the efforts being made to absorb these
territories. The fact that a Federal Minister of Pakistan is also
the “Governor of Gilgit Baltistan” speaks for itself.
Unfortunately in recent times the people of the region have also
become victims of sectarian conflict, terrorism and extreme
economic hardship due to Pakistan’s occupationary policies.”
J&K Governor’s Address to the J&K Assembly (02 Jan 2017)
On Cross-LoC CBMs: “A list of 21 more tradeable items
has been submitted to the Government of India for taking up
this matter with the Government of Pakistan,” and “The state
government is discussing with the Union Home Ministry the
opening of four new routes this year which include: Jammu-
Sialkot; Chhamb Jourian – Mirpur; Gurez-Astoor-Gilgit; and
Jhanger (Nowshera)-Mirpur. The opening of three other routes
viz Kargil-Skardu, Turtuk-Khapulu, and Titwal-Chilhan
(across the Neelam Valley) are also being explored”.
India’s Position on the CPEC at the Belt and Road Forum
at Beijing (14-15 May 2017)
While declining the invitation by Chia to attend the BRI Forum in
May 2017, the MEA issued a statement that “…No country can
accept a project that ignores its core concerns on sovereignty
and territorial integrity” and that “the connectivity initiative
must be pursued in a manner that respects sovereignty and
territorial integrity”.
62
The statement added that “Guided by our principled position
in the matter, we have been urging China to engage in a
meaningful dialogue on its connectivity initiative, ‘One Belt,
One Road’ which was later renamed as ‘Belt and Road
Initiative’. We are awaiting a positive response from the
Chinese side,”
The statement stressed that “India has been urging China
to engage in a meaningful dialogue on OBOR. Awaiting a
positive response from China.”
The Trans Karakoram Tract (Shaksgam)

The Trans-Karakoram tract, also known as Shaksgam or the
Shaksgam tract, an area of more than 9,900 km along both
sides of the Shaksgam River, extends from the Karakoram to
the Kunlun range.
The Shaksgam Tract is amongst the most inhospitable
areas of the world, with some of the highest mountains. It is
bounden in the North by the Kun Lun Mountains and by the
Karakoram peaks to its south and on its Southeast is adjacent
to the Siachen Glacier.
An area that is legally part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir
has since 1963 been administered by China as a part of
Kargilik County and Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County in
the Kashgar Prefecture of Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Prior
to 1963 The Shaksgam tract had been administered as a part
of Shigar.
The geographical entities in both the Aghil and Shaksgam
valleys largely possess Balti nomenclature demonstrating an
ancient socio-economic and political interlinks of these valleys
with Baltistan. The passes are called Sarpo Lago (yellow top
of the pass), Drenmang La (abundant with bears), Shingshol
La (pass where tree density is thinning) and Sagang La (pass
with earth and ice) while the mountains are named Skyang
Kangri (wild donkey), Kyagar Kangri (grey and white) and
63
Skamri (dry rock), and the valleys are Shaksgam (dried up
heap of pebbles), Aghil Ldepsang (plain), Marpo Lungpa (red),
Salungma (earthen), Khapulung (gateway valley), Kharkhor
Lungma (castle surrounding) and Skam Lungpa (dry). The
famous camping grounds include Moni Brangsa (residence
of musicians), Balti Brangsa (Balti residence) and Balti Pulo
(dwellings of the Baltis).
According to the local historians, the Raja of Shigar established
a polo-ground south of the Shaksgam valley in the 5th Century
AD. The ground, called Muztaghi Shagaran, the polo-ground
of ice-peak, attracted fanfare with players and musicians
when the autumn harvest festival was celebrated.
Hunza and China

Hunza was an independent principality for centuries. It was
ruled by the Mirs of Hunza, who took the title of Thum.
The Hunzas were tributaries and allies to China, acknowledging
China as suzerain since 1761. China granted Hunza a jagir
(Land grant) in Yarkand and paid the Mir of Hunza a subsidy
for assistance given by the Mir in suppressing a rebellion in
Yarkand.
In the late 19th century Hunza became embroiled in the Great
Game, the rivalry between Britain and Russia for control
64
of the northern approaches to India. The British suspected
Russian involvement “with the Rulers of the petty States
on the northern boundary of Kashmir”. In 1888 a Russian
Captain, one Bronislav Grombchevsky visited Hunza,
British Advent into Shaksgam
The following year the British Captain Francis Younghusband
visited Hunza. The purpose of his visit is best gleaned from
the writings of his own pen:
“ I have referred to a tribe of raiders who inhabit
the little State of Hunza (or Kanjut, as it is always
called on the Yarkand side), which is situated to the
north of Kashmir. Deep set among the mountains,
accessible only by lofty snowy passes or through
narrow impracticable defiles, the little state had bred
and harboured a race of men who, issuing from the
mountain fastnesses had raised incessantly upon
the countries around. The traders on the road from
Yarkand to India continually suffered from these
wild freebooters; the peace loving inhabitants of the
Yarkand valleys were ever subject to their attacks,
and compelled to hand them over blackmail; the
nomadic Kirghiz, scattered defenceless in their tents
over the open valleys of the Pamirs, had to pay their
tribute or suffer the consequences of refusal; the
Kashmir troops at Gilgit dreaded their attacks; and
even the poor Baltis in distant and inaccessible Askoli
shuddered at the thought of them. No one could get
at these wild Hunza raiders, secure as they were in
their impenetrable valleys, but they could strike at
everyone around them.
In the autumn of 1888 - the year after I had crossed the
Muztagh pass, these robbers had made an unusually
daring attack upon a large caravan, and had carried off
a number of Kirghiz from Shahidulla, on the Yarkand
65
road. The Kirgiz had applied to the Chinese to the
protection against such raids but had been refused
it, and they thereupon, in the spring of 1889, made
a similar petition to the British Authorities. It was
to inquire into and report upon the circumstances
of this raid, and to examine all the country between
the trade route and Hunza, with view to stopping
such raids for the future that I was now sent by the
Government of India’.14
Younghusband acted as a diplomat and spy on the frontiers
of this conflicted area, and in 1889 was politely, almost
charmingly, arrested by his Russian counterpart, who
informed him that the area they were in was now Russian.
The following excerpt from the Royal Scottish Geographic
Society titled “Lieutenant Colonel Sir Francis Younghusband
(1863-1942)” is interesting:
“Younghusband was wined and dined, and had a
delightful conversation with the Russian military man,
but was told in no uncertain terms to leave the area and
return to British-controlled India the following day. His
Russian host was very explicit in his instructions, telling
Younghusband that he could not travel via any of the 20
or so mountain passes, which were each treacherous
but were the only known routes back to India. The
intention was to force Younghusband east to China or
west through Afghanistan and Persia, either of which
routes could easily have led to his arrest or death. Being
an honourable man, Younghusband agreed, and he left
the following morning with a small party”.
In 1891 the British mounted the Hunza-Nagar Campaign
and gained control of Hunza and the neighbouring valley of
The Heart of a Continent By Francis Edward Younghusband, Asian Education-

14
al Services, New Delhi & Madras, 1993, Page 186.
66
Nagar. Mir Safdar Khan, the last of Hunza’s independent rulers
escaped to China and his younger brother Mir Mohammad
Nazim Khan was installed by the British as Mir in September
1892. Thereafter, Hunza became a princely state in a subsidiary
alliance with British India, a status it retained until 1947.
At the time of partition, the Kuomintang Republic of China
engaged in secret negotiations with the Mir of Hunza to restore
the State’s previous relations with China. The Mir of Hunza
however did not accept the Chinese suggestions.
Historically the people of Hunza cultivated and grazed areas to
the north, and the Mir claimed those areas as part of Hunza’s
territories. Those areas included the Taghdumbash Pamir and
the Raskam Valley.
According to Kanjuti traditions, as related by Capt AH
McMahon, the Mir’s eighth ancestor, Shah Salim Khan,
pursued nomadic Kirghiz thieves to Tashkurghan and defeated
them.“To celebrate this victory, Shah Salim Khan erected
a stone cairn at Dafdar and sent a trophy of a Khirghiz
head to the Chinese with a message that Hunza territory
extended as far as Dafdar”15. The Kanjutis were already in
effective possession of the Raskam and no question had been
raised about it. The Mir’s claims went a good deal beyond a
mere right of cultivation. He “asserts that forts were built by
the Hunza people without any objection or interference
from the Chinese at Dafdar, Qurghan, Ujadhbhai, Azar
on the Yarkand River and at three or four other places in
Raskam.”
McMahon was able roughly to define the territorial limits of
Kanjut. “The boundaries of Taghdumbash, Khunjerab, and
Raskam, as claimed by the Kanjuts, are the following: the
northern watershed of the Taghdumbash Pamir from the
Wakhjir Pass through the Baiyik peak to Dafdar, thence across
15
Captain AH Macmahon “Hunza’s Relations with China”
67
the river to the Zankan nullah; thence through Mazar and
over the range to Urok, a point on the Yarkand river between
Sibjaida and Itakturuk. Thence it runs along the northern
watershed of the Raskam valley to the junction of the Bazar
Dara River and the Yarkand River. From thence southwards
over the mountains to the Mustagh River leaving the Aghil
Dewan or Aghil Pass within Hunza limits.”
McMahon’s information was substantially corroborated in
1898 by Captain H. P. P. Deasy, who resigned his commission
to devote himself to trans-Himalayan exploration. An item
of special interest was Deasy’s description of the limits of
Raskam. Starting from Aghil Dewan or pass, in the Karakoram
range, the dividing line ran north-east to Bazar Dara, where it
met the Yarkand River. He found an outpost built of earth
at Bazar Dara, surmounted by a Chinese flag (by 1898 the
Chinese had intruded to the area south of the Kun Lun
Mountains with a few unarmed Kirghiz in occupation). This
was obviously intended as a Chinese boundary marker.
From there the line ran “along the northern watershed of the
Raskam valley to Dafdar in the Taghdumbash Pamir, to the
north of the mills at that place, and thence to the Baiyik peak.
Deasy also came upon clear evidence of what could only
have been Kanjuti occupation. South of Azgar “many ruins
of houses, old irrigation channels and fields now no longer
tilled, testify to Raskam having formerly been inhabited and
cultivated”.16
Maj Gen Sir John Ardagh, the then ADC to the C-in-C in
India prepared a Memorandum titled ‘The Northern Frontier
of India from the Pamirs to Tibet’, submitted by him on 1
January 1897 in which he proposed a proposed a border with
China that was demarcated on naturalgeographic borders.
Based on his recommendation, in March 1899 the British
proposed a new boundary between China and British India
History of the state of Hunza @ https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.

16
php?s=State%20of%20Hunza&item_type=topic
68
under a formal Note from Sir Claude MacDonald known as
the Macartney-Macdonald ( in short, the Macdonald) line.
The Note proposed that China should relinquish its
claims to suzerainty over Hunza, and in return Hunza
should relinquish its claims to most of the Taghdumbash
and Raskam districts.
The Chinese did not respond to the Note, and the British
took that as acquiescence.
The Macdonald line was modified in 1905 to include in India
a small area east of the Shimshal Pass, to put the border on
the Oprang Jilga River and a stretch of the Shaksgam River.
In 1926, Kenneth Mason a soldier and geographer and the
first statutory Professor of Geography at the University of
Oxford explored and surveyed the Shaksgam Valley. He
was then only the second European after Younghusband
to visit the valley. Mason had used photo-theodolite and
stereographic techniques for his survey which won him the
Royal Geographic Society’s Founder’s Gold Medal in 1927,
besides other accolades. The following extract from Kenneth
Mason’s Presentation to the Geographical Society are self-
speaking on the mission and objectives of his expedition:
The expedition was directed by my own
department, the Survey of India, at Dehra
Dun. The other members of my party were
Major Minchinton, m.c, of the 1st Gurkhas;
Major Clifford, d.s.o., m.c, Indian Medical
Service ; Captain Cave, M.c, the Rifle Brigade;
Khan Sahib Afraz Gul Khan, Survey of India;
one Pathan orderly from the Survey ; and
three Gurkha sepoys. We took three cooks for
this party, but no other servants.
The main object of the expedition was to
survey the unexploredmountains and valleys
69
west of pass “G,” especially the following:
(1) Valley “ H.”
(2) The sources and course of the Shaksgam.
(3) The northern glaciers of the Karakoram
range.
(4) The Aghil range and mountains north of
the Shaksgam.
We were also to explore for traces of any
human occupation or passage, ancient or
modern, in this area. Subsidiary points
requiring investigation cropped up during
the preliminary arrangements, and were
undertaken.
Some of these do not closely concern geography,
but I must mention that Clifford and I took
up field geology, Cave the collection of birds
and meteorological study, while Minchinton
and Clifford decided to collect butterflies and
plants respectively. The various results are
now being worked out by experts”.17
A discussion followed Mason’s presentation in which Sir
Francis Younghusband and Maj RC Clifford participated.
Excerpts from their descriptions of the area provide interesting
insights:
Sir Francis Younghusband : In case I forget to
do so later, I must commence by associating
myself with all that Major Mason has said
as regards the splendid work of the Ladakhi
The Shaksgam Valley and Aghil Range Kenneth Mason; The Geographical
17
Journal Vol. 69, No. 4 (Apr., 1927), pp. 289-323
70
coolies he had with him. No one who has
undertaken explorations in those parts can
fail to understand how much he is indebted
to those men upon whom, fundamentally, the
whole success of the expedition depends. It is
a great delight to me to know that the fine old
traditions of the Ladakhis, their staunchness
and loyalty, are still maintained. They do not
help entirely for the sake of pay, because after
all what explorers are able to give them does
not amount to much. The Ladakhis have a
real spirit of adventure. I am quite sure that
when any one comes along who is out for a
big adventure the Ladakhis are ready enough
to join, and it is by appealing to that spirit
of adventure that one gets the best work out
of them. …. As a result of the work of Major
Mason himself, of his indefatigable colleague,
the Khan Sahib Afraz Gul, and of the other
members of the expedition, we now have
an accurate map of that region which joins
up with the Duke of the Abruzzi’s farthest
surveys and just leaves room for my rough
reconnaissance of the Shaksgam river in 1889.
And now that that map work is done we can
get on in future with the real business of a
geographer, which I always consider to be the
description of the beauty of the region which
he is in. And this particular region is one of
the finest in the whole world. The photographs
you have seen to-night have given you some
idea of it. We generally hear from travellers
in such regions as this that it is not possible
to describe the beauty of what they have
seen, but at any rate Major Mason this
evening, with the gallantry of an explorer,
has made some slight attempt to achieve the
71
impossible, and he has given us an idea of
what the beauty of K2 at dawn can be. What
I very much hope is that some time just one
traveller by himself will go up into that K2
region and then, with nothing else to think
of now he has a map made for him, devote
himself entirely to describing either in words
or (like the great predecessor of Major Mason
in the Survey of India, Colonel Tanner), in
pictures what the glories of it are. I do not
suppose that in the whole Himalaya, except
perhaps in Nepal, where Mount Everest
can be seen from the south, is there such a
magnificent array of mountain majesty as
may be seen in that splendid panorama of
peaks?K2, 28,250 feet; another peak of 27,000
feet; four others of 26,000 feet; and others of
24,000 feet. The distinguishing features are
the ruggedness and jaggedness, the austerity
and dazzling purity of those mountain
summits. And not until we have a description
in painting or in words of the beauty of this
region will the geography of it be complete.
In conclusion, I should like to say what an
immense satisfaction it is to me to feel that
the means by which we have been able to join
up the rough reconnaissance I made in 1889
with the entirely accurate survey made by
Major Mason was by observation of the stars
for latitude. I like to feel the stars joined in
our minds with those highest mountains…..”
Major R. C. Clifford (Indian Medical Service):
……All along the Yarkand and its tributaries
we came on many herds of antelope, the same
Tibetan antelope that exists to the east in
the Chang-chhenmo, and in Tibet. I am told
72
that this is interesting because it shows that
these antelopes exist much farther west than
was previously recorded. Also on the lower
slopes of the hills in the valley which Colonel
Wood called “ I “ valley, and which is now
named the Lungmo-chhe, there were large
herds of burrhel, which were undoubtedly
the same species as are found nearer towards
India, though heavier in the head than those
found towards the Karakoram range……
The road by the Yarkand river is very easy,
once you get over the Saser pass and the
Depsang plains. In the Lungmo-chhe valley
there are a number of protected spots. There
is another interesting question which I think
somebody ought to be able to work out if he
can get there earlier than we did. We reached
the Yarkand river towards the end of June,
which is, I think, too late to see the trek of
the herds of wild horses which live up in that
part of the world….. We were, unfortunately,
just too late to see these herds of wild horses,
but I am sure they come there by their
markings, which were quite fresh, and they
extend right up near the head of the Lungmo-
chhe ; but they stop short of the gorge which
exists before you get right up into the glaciers
which Major Mason showed in his picture at
the head of the valley. The rest of the fauna
are a sort of mouse-hare, quite common in
other parts of the Himalayan regions, and a
certain number of birds. We came across birds
which are represented in India and in the
higher Himalayas by almost identical types,
such as the wagtail and finches of various
kinds….. Major Mason has added a great
deal to our knowledge, but there remains a
73
goodly portion about which we really know
absolutely nothing. As Sir Francis has said,
the district probably contains the finest group
of mountains of any similar area in the world.
I have had the good fortune at various times
to pass along the north side of practically
the whole of the Himalayas, a side which is
not very often seen, but from where one gets
better views than from anywhere else, and
I certainly have never seen such scenery
as one finds in the Karakorams. … I do not
want to dispute Major Mason’s wisdom in
deciding to go across the range to the north.
I should certainly, in his place, have done the
same thing. It is rather being wise after the
event, but I cannot help feeling that I should
like that someone had gone down that valley.
There is one other point, one which Major
Mason did not touch on to-night, but which
is given in his full report. He suggests that
the name “Karakoram “ should be changed
to “ Muz-tagh,” and as he quotes a letter of
mine, I am afraid this might lead you to think
that I am in agreement with that suggestion.
I do not like changes of names. I do not think
they are advisable, and more particularly
when a name has been in existence, as this
one has, for about sixty or seventy years. It
is quite possible that the Karakoram pass is
not on the main axis of the ranges known
as the Karakorams ; I think when the name
was given, sixty or seventy years ago, it was
intended as a regional name, very much like
the Himalayas and many others of mountain
regions. The mass of mountains is generally
known as the “ Karakorams,” and not as the
“ Karakoram range.” To apply definitely
74
that name to one particular ridge, as has
sometimes been done, is, I think, a mistake ;
because I do not consider we have sufficient
knowledge at the present moment to say how
all the various ridges run. I therefore would
like to register a protest against any change
of the name. I am sorry, however, to have to
disagree with Major Mason, and I hope he
will forgive me, particularly after the very
interesting lecture that he has given us to-
night18
From 1947 India claimed sovereignty over the entire area of
the pre-1947 independent state of Jammu and Kashmir, and
therefore maintained that Pakistan and China did not share a
common border.
The Sino-Pakistan Frontier Agreement
In 1959, Chinese maps were published showing large areas
west and south of the Macdonald line as being in China. The
Pakistan government became concerned over these Chinese
claims as reflected in these maps and in 1961, President Ayub
Khan sent a formal note to China on the matter. The Chinese
however did not respond to that note.
In 1962, the Government of Pakistan had published an official
map depicting the alignment of the northern Border of Kashmir
which showed much of the Cis-Kuen Lun Tract as being part
of Kashmir.
In January 1962, after Pakistan voted to grant China a seat
in the United Nations, the Chinese withdrew the disputed
maps and in March 1962, agreed for border talks with
Pakistan. Negotiations between the nations officially began
TThe Shaksgam Valley and Aghil Range: Discussion; Francis Younghusband,

18
R. C. Clifford and H. WoodThe Geographical Journal Vol. 69, No. 4 (Apr.,

1927), pp. 323-332.
75
on October 13, 1962 and resulted in an agreement signed
on 2 March 1963 by foreign ministers Chen Yi of China and
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan.
(A comparison with the dispute with China on the Aksai Chin is
interesting. The 1962 Sino-India war is rooted in the ‘Johnson
line’ of 1865, named after W. H. Johnson, a civil servant
with the Survey of India which put Aksai Chin in Jammu and
Kashmir. Though the Maccartney-Mcdonald line had put this
region in China, the Maharaja of Kashmir considered the
territory as being in his jurisdiction and reflected this in the
maps of his State, which is the position inherited by India. In
1956–57, China constructed a road connecting Xinjiang and
Tibet through Aksai Chin that was south of the Johnson Line in
many places and was featured on Chinese maps since 1959,
around the time areas of the Trans Karakoram tract were
also shown as part of China. Around the time negotiations
between China and Pakistan on that region were underway
in October 1962, the Sino-Indian issue instead led to a war
between the nations).
AG Noorani, the distinguished Journalist, has an interesting
take on this Agreement. In his article “What We Know and What
We Do Not Know, The SINO-PAK Boundary Agreement” he
states that “It was not China which pressed Pakistan for a
settlement. On the contrary it dragged its feet. It obviously
preferred to settle with India first. It was Pakistan who
pressed for an accord, not to forge an alliance with China
– and thus wreck its alliance with the United States – but
to profit by India’s experience and secure peace and
tranquillity in the area. It had been disturbed by China’s
patrols”.
Negotiations between Pakistan and China concluded in 1963
with the signing of an agreement by nations, represented by
Pakistani Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Chinese
Foreign Minister Chen Yi on March 2, 1963 that allowed
China to occupy over 5,800 square kilometers of territory of
76
the Shaksgam, Raskam, Shimshal and Aghil valleys of Gilgit
Baltistan. In agreeing to give up this territory, Pakistan had not
taken into confidence or sought consent of the local people.
The Ruler of Hunza, who had claimed the territory upto the
Aghil pass was threatened with imprisonment and torture to
acquiesce to the deal.
The text of the agreement is as follows:
The Government of the People’s Republic
of China and the Government of Pakistan;
HAVING agreed, with a view to ensuring
the prevailing peace and tranquillity on
their respective border, to formally delimit
and demarcate the boundary between
China’s Sinkiang and the contiguous areas
the defence of which is under the actual
control of Pakistan, in a spirit of fairness,
reasonableness, mutual understanding and
mutual accommodation, and on the basis
of the ten principles as enunciated in the
Bandung conference. Being convinced that
this would not only give full expression to the
desire of the people of China and Pakistan
for the development of good neighbourly and
friendly relations, but also help safeguard
Asian and world peace.
Have resolved for this purpose to conclude
the present agreement and have appointed
as their respective plenipotentiaries the
following.
For the Government of the People’s Republic
of China; Chen Yi, Minister of Foreign Affairs.
For the Government of Pakistan Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto, Minister of External Affairs.
77
Who, having mutually examined their full
powers and found them to be in good and due
form have agreed upon following:
Article 1
In view of the fact that the boundary between
China’s Sinkiang and the contiguous areas the
defence of which is under the actual control of
Pakistan has never been formally delimited,
two parties agree to delimit it on the basis
of the traditional customary boundary line
including features and in a spirit of equality,
mutual benefit and friendly cooperation.
Article 2
In accordance with the principle expounded
in Article 1 of the present agreement, the two
parties have fixed as follows the alignment
of the entire boundary line between China’s
Sinkiang and the contiguous areas the
defence of which is under the actual control
of Pakistan.
1 Commencing from its north western
extremity at height 5,630 metres (a peak
the reference coordinates of which are
approximately longitude 74 degrees 34 minutes
east and latitude 37 degrees 3 minutes north),
the boundary line runs generally eastward
and then South-eastward strictly along the
main watershed between the tributaries of
the Tashkurgan River of the Tarim river
system on the one hand on the tributes of the
Hunza river of the Indus river system on the
other hand, passing through the Kilik Daban
(Dawan), the Mintake Daban (pass), the
Kharchanai Daban (named on the Chinese
78
map only), the Mutsgila Daban (named on
the Chinese map only) and the Parpik Pass
(named on the Pakistan map only) and
reaches the Khunjerab (Yutr) Daban (Pass).
2 After passing through the Khunjerab (Yutr)
Daban (pass) the boundary line runs generally
southward along the above-mentioned main
watershed up to a mountain-top south of
the Daban (pass), where it leaves the main
watershed to follow the crest of a spur lying
generally in a south-easterly direction, which
is the watershed between the Akjilga river ( a
nameless corresponding river on the Pakistan
map) on the one hand, and the Taghumbash
(Oprang) river and the Koliman Su (Oprang
Jilga) on the other hand. According to the
map of the Chinese side, the boundary line,
after leaving the south-eastern extremity of
the spur, runs along a small section of the
middle line of the bed of the Koliman Su to
reach its confluence with the Kelechin river.
According to the map of the Pakistan side, the
boundary line, after leaving the south-eastern
extremity of this spur, reaches the sharp bend
of the Shaksgam or Muztagh river.
3 From the aforesaid point, the boundary
lines runs up the Kelechin river (Shaksgam
or Muztagh river) along the middle line of
its bed its confluence (reference coordinates
approximately longitude 76 degrees 2 minutes
east and latitude 36 degrees 26 minutes north)
with the Shorbulak Daria (Shimshal river or
Braldu river).
4 From the confluence of the aforesaid two
rivers, the boundary line, according to the
79
map of the Chinese side, ascends the crest of a
spur and runs along it to join the Karakoram
range main watershed at a mountain-
top (reference coordinates approximately
longitude 75 degrees 54 minutes east and
latitude 36 degrees 15 minutes north) which
on this map is shown as belonging to the
Shorgulak mountain. According to the map
of the Pakistan side, the boundary line from
the confluence of the above mentioned two
river ascends the crest of a corresponding
spur and runs along it, passing through height
6.520 meters (21,390 feet) until it joins the
Karakoram range main watershed at a peak
(reference coordinates approximately longitude
75 degrees 57 minutes east and latitude 36
degrees 3 minutes north).
5 Thence, the boundary line, running generally
south-ward and then eastward strictly follows
the Karakoram range main watershed which
separates the Tarim river drainage system
from the Indus river drainage system, passing
through the east Mustagh Pass (Muztagh pass),
the top of the Chogri peak (K2) the top of the
Broad Peak, the top of the Gasherbrum mountain
(8,068), the Indirakoli pass (names of the Chinese
maps only) and the top of the Teram Kangri
peak, and reaches its south-eastern extremity
at the Karakoram Pass. Then alignment of the
entire boundary line as described in section
one of this article, has been drawn on the one
million scale map of the Pakistan side in English
which are signed and attached to the present
agreement. In view of the fact that the maps
of the two sides are not fully identical in their
representation of topographical features the two
80
parties have agreed that the actual features on
the ground shall prevail, so far as the location
and alignment of the boundary described in
section one is concerned, and that they will be
determined as far as possible by bgint survey on
the ground.
Article 3
The two parties have agreed that:
i) Wherever the boundary follows a river, the
middle line of the river bed shall be the boundary
line; and that
ii) Wherever the boundary passes through a
deban (pass) the water-parting line thereof
shall be the boundary line.
Article 4
One the two parties have agreed to set
up, as soon as possible, a joint boundary
demarcation commission. Each side will
appoint a chairman(Chaudry Mohammad
Aslam for the Pakistani side), one or more
members and a certain number of advisers
and technical staff. The joint boundary
demarcation commission is charged with
the responsibility in accordance with the
provisions of the present agreement, to hold
concrete discussions on and carry out the
following tasks jointly.
1) To conduct necessary surveys of the
boundary area on the ground, as stated in
Article 2 of the present agreement so as to set
up boundary markers at places considered
to be appropriate by the two parties and to
81
delineate the boundary line of the jointly
prepared accurate maps.
To draft a protocol setting forth in detail the
alignment of the entire boundary line and
the location of all the boundary markers and
prepare and get printed detailed maps, to be
attached to the protocol, with the boundary
line and the location of the boundary markers
shown on them.
2) The aforesaid protocol, upon being signed
by representatives of the governments of the
two countries, shall become an annex to the
present agreement, and the detailed maps
shall replace the maps attached to the present
agreement.
3) Upon the conclusion of the above-
mentioned protocol, the tasks of the joint
boundary demarcation commission shall be
terminated.
Article 5
The two parties have agreed that any dispute
concerning the boundary which may arise
after the delimitation of boundary line
actually existing between the two countries
shall be settled peacefully by the two parties
through friendly consultations.
Article 6
The two parties have agreed that after the
settlement of the Kashmir dispute between
Pakistan and India, the sovereign authority
concerned will reopen negotiations with the
Government of the People’s Republic of China
82
on the boundary as described in Article.
Two of the present agreement, so as to sign
a formal boundary treaty to replace the
present agreement, provided that in the event
of the sovereign authority being Pakistan,
the provisions of the present agreement and
of the aforesaid protocol shall be maintained
in the formal boundary treaty to be signed
between the People’s Republic of China and
the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
Article 7
The present agreement shall come into force
on the data of its signature.
Done in duplicate in Peking on the second
day of March 1963, in the Chinese and English
languages, both side being equally authentic.
83
Post the Agreement with Pakistan, China has built feeder
roads eastward through Shaksgam linking Gilgit with Hotan, a
Military base located at the cross-section of the Tibet-Xinjiang
Highway and Hotan-Golmud Highway.
India’s Position on Sino – Pak Boundary Agreement 1963
India has not recognised the Sino-Pakistan Boundary
Agreement as a legitimate decision nor accepted Pakistan’s
sovereignty over Gilgit Baltistan. As the agreement stated that
it was between “China’s Sinkiang and the contiguous areas the
defence of which is under the actual control of Pakistan” India
protested this as a de facto recognition of Pakistan control of
Hunza and Baltistan. Prime Minister Nehru had remarked that
China and Pakistan were going to demarcate the border “of
the illegally occupied area of Kashmir with Sinkiang”.
India’s claim is that Pakistan had surrendered a large area of
India to China. It is India’s case that “According to the Survey
of Pakistan maps, even those published in 1962, about 11,000
square miles of Sinkiang territory formed part of Kashmir. If
one goes by these maps, Pakistan has obviously surrendered
over 13,000 square miles of territory”.
India protested the matter with China, and registered its
concerns with the United Nations. China however guaranteed
India that it accepted Gilgit Baltistan as a disputed territory
and that the agreement was only provisional in nature and
would be renegotiated once the dispute of Jammu & Kashmir
was resolved.
India’s (then) Minister of State for External Affairs, Smt.
Praneet Kaur’s Statement in the Lok Sabha on 15 July 2009,
which is the latest stated position:
“The Government’s position is that this so-called
‘Boundary Agreement’ is illegal and invalid. This
has been reiterated to the Chinese side in the on-
going discussions on the boundary question.”
84
Under “the so-called ‘Boundary Agreement’ of
1963, Pakistan illegally ceded 5,180 km. of Indian
territory in Pakistan-occupied-Kashmir to China.”
Pakistan, she added, was in “illegal and forcible
occupation of approximately 78,000 square kms.
of Indian territory in Jammu and Kashmir since
1948 while 38,000 square kilometres were under
the occupation of China”.
85
Further References
1. Situation in Pakistani Occupied Kashmir, LAP Lambert

Academic Publishing, 2011.
2. Dani, Ahmad Hasan, History of Northern Areas of Pakistan

(Upto 2000AD) Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2001.
3. Dewan, Pervez, The Other Kashmir, Manas, 2011.
4. Dewan, Pervez, A History of Kashmir, Manas, 2006.
5. Dewan, Pervez, A History of Ladakh Gilgit Baltistan, Manas,

2007.
6. Jha, Prem Shankar, The Origins of a Dispute: Kashmir 1947,

Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2003.
7. Kaul, Hriday Nath, India China Boundary in Kashmir, Gyan

PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009.
8. History, Folklore and Culture of Gilgit Baltistan. Oxford

University Press, London. Frembegen, J. (1964).
9. Gilgit through the ages. Cosmo Publications, Calcutta.

Rehman, Hamud-Ur (2009, July 11).
10. Huma Yusuf, “Sectarian Violence: Pakistan’s Greatest

Security Threat?” (Oslo: Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource
Centre, July 2012), www.peacebuilding.no/var/ezflow_
site/storage/original/application/949e7f9b2db9f947c956
56e5b54e389e.pdf.
86
11. Suroosh Irfani, “Pakistan’s Sectarian Violence: Between
the ‘Arabist Shift’ and Indo-Persian Culture,” in Religious
Radicalism and Security in South Asia, eds. Satu
Limaye, Robert Wirsing, and Mohan Malik (Honolulu:
AsiaPacific Center for Security Studies, 2004), www.
apcss.org/Publications/Edited%20Volumes/Religious
Radicalism/PagesfromReligiousRadicalismandSecurityin
South Asiach7.pdf.
12. Magnus Marsden, “Selves and Others: Representing

Multiplicities of Difference in Gilgit and the Northern
Areas of Pakistan” in Islam and Society in Pakistan:
Anthropological Perspectives, ed. Magnus Marsden and Ali
Khan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 240. See
also Muhammad Feyyaz,
13. “Sectarian Conflict in GilgitBaltistan” (background

paper, Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and
Transparency, Lahore, May 2011), p. 14 www.pildat.
org/publications/publication/Conflict_Management/GB-
SectarianConflit-BackgroundPaperEngMay2011.pdf.
14. Abdul Malik and Izhar Ali Hunzai, “The Promise and
Challenge of Pluralism for Sustainable Development in
Mountain Areas” (paper presented at the international
workshop “Strategies for Development and Food Security in
Mountainous Areas of Central Asia,” Dushanbe, Tajikistan,
June 6–10, 2005), www.akdn.org/ publications/2005_akf_
mountains_paper11_english.pdf.
15. Ismail Salami, “Target Killing, Mass Murder of Shia

Minority in Pakistan,” Global Research, 05 Sep 2012.
www.globalresearch.ca/target-killing-mass-murder-of-shia-
minority-in-pakistan/5303348.
16. Malik and Hunzai, “Promise and Challenge.”
87
17. Feyyaz, “Sectarian Conflict.”
18. Gulmina Bilal Ahmad, “The Cannibal King and the Awaited
Hero,” Daily Times, May 18, 2012, www.dailytimes. com.pk/
default.asp?page=2012%5C05%5C18%5Cstory_18-5-2012_
pg3_6.
19. Aziz Ali Dad, “Anatomy of Sectarian Violence,”

Pamire Times, September 25, 2012, www.pamirtimes.
net/2012/09/25/anatomy-of-sectarian-violence.
20. Jurgen Creutzman, “Gilgit Baltistan: A Land Seldom

Travelled”Gilgit Baltistan Tribune, 23 Aug 2012, http://
gbtribune.wordpress.com/2012/08/23/Gilgit Baltistan-a-
land-seldom-traveled.
21. Shabbir Mir, “Pakistan’s First: GBLA Passes Law to Curb

Sectarianism,” Express Tribune, May 29, 2012, www.
tribune. com.pk/story/385520/pakistans-first-gbla-passes-
law-to-curb-sectarianism.
22. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS) Vol. 30, No. 1

(September 2010), pp. 181-190
23. Dhar, Maloy Krishna. “A Journey through Pakistan

Occupied Kashmir.www.kashmiraffairs.org. (http://www.
kashmiraffairs.org/Maloy%20Dhar%20Journey%20
Through20POK.html) International Crisis Group. 2007,
April 2.
24. Discord in Pakistan’s Northern Areas. Asia Report. N°131.

Brussels, (http://www.crisisgroup.org/ home/index.
cfm?id=4748)
25. “Gilgit’s sectarian conundrum.” Dawn. Kashmir Human

Rights Forum. Azad Kashmir High Court made a landmark
88
verdict on Gilgit and Baltistan. Mirpur, AJK. M. Ismail
Khan. 30 October 2007.
26. Daftary F. 2007. The Ismailis. Their History and Doctrines.

2nd edition.Cambridge University Press.
89
90

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THE GILGIT

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted

R Chandrashekhar, Senior Fellow, CENJOWS

Centre for Joint Warfare Studies

The earlier CENJOWS study on ‘Understanding Baluchistan’

Both regions have an abundant wealth of natural resources

For convenience of reference, the two regions hereafter are

The land of the province lies amidst towering mountains, snow-

Glaciers: Some of the largest glaciers outside the polar

Rivers and Valleys: While the river Indus and its

Burzil Pass An ancient pass on the caravan route between Sri-

Astore Valley Astore district comprises of numerous valleys with

Treaty of Amritsar March 16, 1846

Article 2 The eastern boundary of the tract transferred by the

Article 3 In consideration of the transfer made to him and his heirs

Article 4 The limits of territories of Maharajah Gulab Singh shall not be

Article 7 Maharajah Gulab Singh engages never to take to retain in his

Article 8 Maharajah Gulab Singh engages to respect in regard to the

Article 10 Maharajah Gulab Singh acknowledges the supremacy of

(Signed) H. Hardinge (Seal) (Signed) F. Currie (Signed) H. M. Lawre

TIBETAN LETTER OF LADAKHI LETTER OF

This agreement is made in the Translations of the original

The Ladakhis take an oath before

Sealed by the Wazir, Dewan,

and POK’ by Manoj Joshi, Observer Research Foundation, 26 August 2016 @

The Trans Karakoram Tract (Shaksgam)

Hunza and China

The Heart of a Continent By Francis Edward Younghusband, Asian Education-

al Services, New Delhi & Madras, 1993, Page 186.

History of the state of Hunza @ https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.

Journal Vol. 69, No. 4 (Apr., 1927), pp. 289-323

TThe Shaksgam Valley and Aghil Range: Discussion; Francis Younghusband,

R. C. Clifford and H. WoodThe Geographical Journal Vol. 69, No. 4 (Apr.,

1. Situation in Pakistani Occupied Kashmir, LAP Lambert

2. Dani, Ahmad Hasan, History of Northern Areas of Pakistan

3. Dewan, Pervez, The Other Kashmir, Manas, 2011.

4. Dewan, Pervez, A History of Kashmir, Manas, 2006.

5. Dewan, Pervez, A History of Ladakh Gilgit Baltistan, Manas,

6. Jha, Prem Shankar, The Origins of a Dispute: Kashmir 1947,

7. Kaul, Hriday Nath, India China Boundary in Kashmir, Gyan

8. History, Folklore and Culture of Gilgit Baltistan. Oxford

9. Gilgit through the ages. Cosmo Publications, Calcutta.

10. Huma Yusuf, “Sectarian Violence: Pakistan’s Greatest

12. Magnus Marsden, “Selves and Others: Representing

13. “Sectarian Conflict in GilgitBaltistan” (background

15. Ismail Salami, “Target Killing, Mass Murder of Shia

16. Malik and Hunzai, “Promise and Challenge.”

19. Aziz Ali Dad, “Anatomy of Sectarian Violence,”

20. Jurgen Creutzman, “Gilgit Baltistan: A Land Seldom

21. Shabbir Mir, “Pakistan’s First: GBLA Passes Law to Curb

22. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS) Vol. 30, No. 1

23. Dhar, Maloy Krishna. “A Journey through Pakistan

24. Discord in Pakistan’s Northern Areas. Asia Report. N°131.

25. “Gilgit’s sectarian conundrum.” Dawn. Kashmir Human

26. Daftary F. 2007. The Ismailis. Their History and Doctrines.

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