An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user

and computer hardware. An operating system is a software which

performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System,
Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the
user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds
of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or
Main Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where
each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by
the CPU. For a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An
Operating System does the following activities for memory management
−
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by
whom, what part are not in use.
  In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get
memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or
has been terminated.

Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets
the processor when and for how much time. This function is
called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following
activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program
responsible for this task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their
respective drivers. It does the following activities for device
management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is
known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much
time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation
and usage. These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The
collective facilities are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
  Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System
performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it
prevents unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between
request for a service and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by
various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error
messages, and other debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users −
Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters,
assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation
and they keep evolving with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some
of the important types of operating systems which are most commonly
used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer
directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch
cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up processing,
jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator
then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower
than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at
various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same
time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple
users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and
Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch
systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-
Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but
the switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an
immediate response. For example, in a transaction processing, the
processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a
time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time
is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to
provide each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that
were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-
sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple
real-time applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are
distributed among the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various
communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines).
These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and
function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers,
and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server
the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and
other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network
operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among
multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a
private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows
Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X,
Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the
system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of
systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the
time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it
controls the environment. The time taken by the system to respond to
an input and display of required updated information is termed as
the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as
compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on
the operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems
can be used as a control device in a dedicated application. A real-time
operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints,
otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems,
robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time.
In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and
the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost
never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets
priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft
real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For
example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.