0

RF Systems I

H. Damerau
CERN

Basic CAS Extension

29 June 2021
 1

Copyright statement and speaker’s release for video publishing

The author consents to the photographic, audio and video recording of this lecture
at the CERN Accelerator School. The term “lecture” includes any material
incorporated therein including but not limited to text, images and references.

The author hereby grants CERN a royalty-free license to use his image and name
as well as the recordings mentioned above, in order to broadcast them online to
all registered students and to post them without any further processing on the
CAS website.

The author hereby confirms that the content of the lecture does not infringe the
copyright, intellectual property or privacy rights of any third party. The author has
cited and credited any third-party contribution in accordance with applicable
professional standards and legislation in matters of attribution.
 2
Outline
• Introduction
• Choice of parameters
• Frequency and voltage

• RF cavity parameters
• Shunt impedance, beam loading, power coupling

• Power amplifiers
• Tube or solid state
• Local feedbacks

• Longitudinal beam control system

• Building blocks: RF source and receiver
• Phase, radial and synchronization loops

• Summary
 3

Introduction
 4
Introduction
Beam

• The radiofrequency (RF) system

transforms a string of magnets Cavity
into an accelerator
• Cavity most is the most visible part
of an RF system
Power amplifier
 On top of the RF system food chain
 Interacts directly with beam

 What is below? Low-level RF

system
 How are RF signals generated which
make the beam feel comfortable?
Beam
 5
Frequency and wavelength ranges
PS longitudi- 100 kHz
nal damper 3 km
Long wave

1 MHz
300 m
PS main RF Medium/
system 10 MHz short wave
30 m

100 MHz
3m

SPS 200 MHz 1 GHz

30 cm
VHF

10 GHz
3 cm

100 GHz Microwave

CLIC 12 GHz 3 mm links
 6
Amplitude ranges
Signals from beam
pick-ups 1 mV

1 mV Cooled hadron
beams
LLRF systems (ELENA)
Low/Medium 1V
energy hadron RF
Electron light
SLS 1 kV sources

1 MV

LHC: 16 MV LHC
1 GV

LEP: 3.6 GV total ILC and CLIC: several TV

 7
Particle velocity
• Particle velocity depends on its type:

e- p+

e- p+

• Old television set (30 kV): Electrons at 30% of c0

Protons just at 0.7%
• Small synchrotron (500 MeV): Electrons at 99.99995%
Protons at 75.8%

 Most electron accelerators at ‘fixed’ frequency

 8

Parameter choices
 9
RF system for high-energy accelerators
Accelerator type

Linear Circular
(single pass) (multi-pass)

Electron Hadrons Electron Hadrons

Maximum RF voltage,
Maximum RF voltage,

variable velocity
constant velocity

Compensate

Sweep frequency
synchrotron
radiation losses

with beam
*

*Exceptions (rare) exist

 10

Choice of frequency (range)

 11
Why choose a low RF frequency?
Advantages Disadvantages

• Large beam aperture • Bulky cavities, size scales ∝ 1/f,

volume ∝ 1/f3
• Long RF buckets, large
acceptance • Lossy material to downsize
cavities
• Wide-band or wide range
tunable cavities possible • Moderate or low acceleration
gradient
• Power amplification and
transmission straightforward • Short particle bunches difficult
to generate

 Some hadron linear accelerators

RF frequencies below  Cyclotrons
~200 MHz for  Low- and medium energy hadron
synchrotrons
 12
Why choose a high RF frequency?
Advantages Disadvantages

• Cavity size scales ∝ 1/f, • Maximum beam available

volume ∝ 1/f3 aperture scales ∝ 1/f

• No technology for wide-band or

• Break down voltage increases tunable cavities

• High gradient per length • Power amplifiers more difficult

• Particle bunches are short • Power transmission losses

 Linear accelerators
RF frequencies above  Electron storage rings
~200 MHz used for  High energy hadron storage rings
 13
Limits to maximum gradient
• Surface electric field in vacuum
1000

500
Wang & Loew,
SLAC-PUB-7684, 1997
200
Ecrit [MV/m]

100

50

Kilpatrick 1957,
20

10
f in GHz, Ecrit in MV/m

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

f [GHz]
 High frequencies preferred for large gradient
E. Jensen
 14
Some standard frequencies
If exact RF frequency not critical, choose standard value
Accelerator Frequency
Hadron synchrotrons (PSB, PS, JPARC RCS, MR) <10 MHz
Hadron accelerators and storage rings (RHIC, SPS) ~200 MHz
Electron storage rings (LEP, ESRF, Soleil) 352 MHz
Electron storage rings (DORIS, BESSY, SLS,…) 499.6…499.8 MHz
Superconducting electron linacs and FELs (X-FEL, ILC) 1300 MHz
Normal conducting electron linacs (SLAC) 2856 MHz
High-gradient electron linac (CLIC) 11.99 GHz

 Off-the-shelf RF components easily available in frequency

ranges used by industry
 Exchange of developments and equipment amongst
research laboratories
 15

RF voltage
 16
Minimum voltage requirement

• RF system expected to provide given energy gain

 On-crest acceleration
 Used in some linear accelerators
 Insufficient in a circular accelerator

• More voltage provided to avoid on-crest acceleration

 Off-crest acceleration
 Needed for circular accelerator
 Higher voltage for given energy gain
 17
Bucket area dependence on stable phase

• In a circular accelerator the area in energy-time phase space

(bucket area) depends on the stable phase

Below transition, fS = 0…90° Below transition, fS = 90°…180°

• Typical synchronous phase with respect to 0° or 180°

• Hadron accelerators: < 40°
• Electron storage rings: ~ 20°
 18
Minimum voltage requirement (circular)
The RF system must compensate
1. Energy gain per turn due to changing magnetic field

2. Energy loss, e.g., due to synchrotron radiation (electrons)

 (mp/me)4 = 18364 ~ 1.1 ∙ 1013 times less for protons

 19
RF system overview
Beam

 Convert RF power into

Cavity
longitudinal electric field

Power amplifier  Amplify low-power signal from

beam control to kW, MW or GW

Low-level RF  Provide RF signals with correct

system frequency, amplitude and phase

Beam
 20
RF system overview
Beam

 Convert RF power into

Cavity
longitudinal electric field

Power amplifier  Amplify low-power signal from

beam control to kW, MW or GW

Low-level RF  Provide RF signals with correct

system frequency, amplitude and phase

Beam
 21

RF cavity
 22
Cavity parameters
• The resonance of a cavity can be understood as simple
parallel resonant circuit described by R, L, C

L R C

Z(w)
with
 23
Cavity parameters
• The resonance of a cavity can be understood as simple
parallel resonant circuit described by R, L, C

L R C

Z(w)
with

 Resonant circuit can also be described by R, R/Q, w0 or any

other set of three parameters
 24
Cavity parameters
• The resonance of a cavity can be understood as simple
parallel resonant circuit described by R, L, C

L R C

Z(w)
Dw

 Resonant circuit can also be described by R, R/Q, w0 or any

other set of three parameters
 25
Cavity parameters
• Most common choice by cavity designers w0, R, R/Q – why?

• Resonance frequency, w0
 Exactly defined for given application, e.g. hfrev

• Shunt impedance, R
 Power required to produce a given voltage without beam

• “R-upon-Q”, R/Q
 Defined only by the cavity geometry
 Criterion to optimize a geometry
 Detuning with beam proportional to R/Q
 26
Why R/Q?
 Charged particle experiences cavity gap as capacitor

Cavity Beam induced voltage

 Cavity geometry with small R/Q to reduce beam loading

 27
RF cavities in low frequency range
• RF wavelength large below ~10 MHz: >30 m
 Would need huge cavities  too large for accelerators
 Line resonators: l/4 resonator

Voltage Current

Short-
Z(w) Transmission line, impedance ZL
circuit

l/4 length

 Short circuit on one side  Voltage is zero

 Open end on other  No current but voltage

Why is this resonator so common in particle accelerators?

 28
RF cavities in low frequency range
• Coaxial structure with inner conductor as beam pipe

Short-
Z(w) Beam axis
circuit

Accelerating
gap, isolated

 Still rather long geometry, 7.5 m at 10 MHz

 Add capacitive or inductive shortening

Plate Ferrite
capacitor inductivity
 29
Capacitive loading
 Add capacitor at gap of cavity to shorten the resonator
NSLS, 52.88 MHz DESY PIA, 10.4 MHz, inner cond. Outer cond.

M. Nagl
~1 m

ACOL, 9.53 MHZ

 Significantly reduces cavity size

 Fixed frequency only
 Small losses due to capacitor
 Cavity in vacuum
 30
Inductive loading
 Inductive loading with magnetic material shortens
resonator from tens of meters to a device, lossy though

CERN PSB Finemet cav., 0.6-18 MHz CERN PS, double gap, 2.8-10 MHz

G AP
M. Paoluzzi

BEAM

FN
I EM E T

• Additional advantage: permeability of ferrite can be

controlled by DC bias current  variable inductivity
 Cavity with programmable resonance frequency
 Essential for hadron acceleration in low-energy accelerators
 31
Tunable cavities at higher frequencies
 Remove inductive or capacitive loading
SSC Low Energy Booster, FNAL Booster 2nd harmonic,
~47 MHz to 60 MHz 76 MHz – 106 MHz, 100 kV

C. C. Friedrichs et al., PAC91, p. 1020

R. L. Madrak, IPAC16, p. 130

 Upper frequency limit for cavities with large tuning range
 32
Further increase frequency
 Remove inner conductor from coaxial set-up

Beam axis

 The resonator becomes a pill-box cavity

DORIS cavity
Electric field, Magnetic field,
TM010-mode TM010-mode

Beam axis

E. Jensen

 The basis for cavity resonators

 33
Example: 400 MHz cavities in LHC
 Reduce beam loading in RF cavities
 Shunt impedance, R, low for small R/Q with normal
conducting cavities  superconducting cavities in LHC

Bell shape: R/Q ~ 44 W, 400 MHz

 28 cavities, 5.3 MV/m

~o
 34
RF cavities in linear accelerators
• Beam only passes once  Maximize gradient
• Many accelerating cells to best reuse RF voltage

SuperHILAC, ~70 MHz, Berkley

CLIC, 12 GHz, ~100 MV/m

 Cavity is the contrary to ‘one size fits all’

 Many, many more variants
 35

Coupling power
into a cavity
 36
Coupling power into a cavity
• Attack inductivity or capacitance of resonator, or combined

L R C

RF power Lc M

 Coupling loop forms transformer with resonator inductivity

• Main coupler
PSI cyclotron
 ~1 MW at 50 MHz

L. Stigelin
 37
Coupling power into a cavity
• Attack inductivity or capacitance of resonator, or combined

L R C

Cc

Beam
RF power

 Capacitive divider to gap to transform generator impedance

to cavity shunt impedance

 Beam also couples capacitively via the gap

 38
Coupling power into a cavity
• Attack inductivity or capacitance of resonator, or combined

L R C

Cc
RF power Lc M
RF power

 Combined electromagnetic coupling

 Antenna radiating into cavity
 39
Capacitive or combined coupling
• Some examples of capacitive and antenna couplers
Capacitive coupler of CERN PS 40 MHz Antenna coupler of LHC cavities

 Coupler forms one half of

capacitor with the gap

 Coupler antenna transmits

directly into the cavity
 40
RF system overview
Beam

 Convert RF power into

Cavity
longitudinal electric field

Power amplifier  Amplify low-power signal from

beam control to kW, MW or GW

Low-level RF  Provide RF signals with correct

system frequency, amplitude and phase

Beam
 41

Power amplifiers
 42
How much power is required?
1. Power to accelerate beam  Wanted
2. Compensate beam-induced voltage  Refl. P
3. Compensate electrical losses in cavity  Heat
4. Compensate electrical losses in distribution  Heat

(ideally)
 43
Power amplifiers
• Basically

Pout = g ∙ Pin or Vout = 𝒈 ∙ Vin

• The ideal power amplifier

 Large bandwidth: amplifies all frequencies equally
 No saturation, infinite power
 Zero delay
 No added noise
 Unconditionally stable and resistant to reverse power
 Radiation-hard

 Unfortunately such a device has not been invented yet

 Let us have a look at some real amplifiers
 44
Basics of grid tube
• From diode to tetrode amplifier

• Vacuum tube

Ua*
• Heater + Cathode
anode
e-
e-
e-
e- • Heated cathode
• Coated metal, carbides,
Ia
e-
e-
e- e-
e- e- e-
borides,…
• thermionic emission
Cathode
and
• Electron cloud
filament
• Anode

Diode

*For tube amplifier designs

voltages are named U instead of V E. Montesinos
 45
Basics of grid tube
• From diode to tetrode amplifier

• Vacuum tube

Ua
• Heater + Cathode
anode
• Heated cathode
• Coated metal, carbides,
Ia e- e- e-
borides,…
• thermionic emission
Cathode
and
• Electron cloud
filament
• Anode

Diode

E. Montesinos
 46
Basics of grid tube
• From diode to tetrode amplifier

Triode
Ua • Modulating the grid voltage
anode e-
e-
proportionally modulates the
e-
e-
anode current
• Transconductance
Ug1 • Voltage at grid
control grid e- e- e-
 Current at anode
• Limitations
Cathode • Parasitic capacitor from anode to
and
control grid (g1)
filament
• Tendency to oscillate

E. Montesinos
 47
Basics of grid tube
• From diode to tetrode amplifier

Tetrode
Ua • Screen grid
anode e-
e-
e-
• Positive (lower anode)
e-
• Decouple anode and g1
e- • Higher gain
Ug2 Ug1 e-

Screen grid Control grid e- e- e-

• Limitations
• Secondary electrons
Cathode
• Anode treated to reduce
and
filament secondary emission

E. Montesinos
 48
Tetrode based power amplifier
• Example of SPS 200 MHz amplifier, tetrode RS2004

Grounded
screen grid RF
out
Ua
Anode

RF
in
Ug2
Screen grid
Ug1
Control grid Cathode
and
filament

 Very simplified block diagram

E. Montesinos
 49
Example: Tetrode amplifier driving SPS RF
• Two transmitters, 2  1 MW at 200 MHz (almost continuous)
• Eight tetrodes per amplifier

RS2004 tetrode Amplifier trolley Complete transmitter

 In operation since 1976

E. Montesinos
 50
Tetrode amplifier driving PS RF
 Frequency range 2.8…10 MHz, ~60 kW per cavity, 11 units
 Space constraints to have amplifier installed below cavity

Amplifier trolley

 Tetrode is obvious choice

 High power in small volume
 Operates in radioactive environment
 51
Basics of linear beam tube
• Klystron: a complete mini-accelerator

• Klystrons velocity
Ubeam
modulation
Collector • Converts the kinetic energy
into RF power
• Vacuum tube
Drift • Electron gun
Space
• Thermionic cathode
• Anode
• Electron beam
Electron
Gun • Drift space
Uanode
• Collector
Cathode
and
• e- constant speed until the
filament collector
E. Montesinos
 52
Basics of linear beam tube
• Klystron: a complete mini-accelerator

Ubeam • Cavity resonators and drift

• RF input cavity (Buncher)
 Modulates electron velocity
• Drift space
 Faster electrons catch up
 Slower electrons fall behind
• RF output cavity (Catcher)
• Resonating atsame frequency
as input cavity
Cavity Coupling
loop • At place where electrons are
Uanode maximally bunched
• Kinetic energy converted into
Cathode voltage and extracted
and Accelerating
Beam
filament line gap

E. Montesinos
 53
Basics of linear beam tube
• Klystron: a complete mini-accelerator

• Cavity resonators and drift

• RF input cavity (Buncher)
 Modulates electron velocity
• Drift space
 Faster electrons catch up
 Slower electrons fall behind
• RF output cavity (Catcher)
• Resonating atsame frequency
as input cavity
• At place where electrons are
maximally bunched
• Kinetic energy converted into
voltage and extracted

E. Montesinos
 54
Example: Klystrons driving accelerators
• 2  8 cavities, each driven by separate 400 MHz klystron, 330 kW
 First klystron amplifiers powering a hadron collider

• 12 GHz pulsed
klystron for CLIC
 50 MW in 1.5 ms

G. McMonagle
E. Montesinos
• Significantly more
power was required
to feed LEP (until 2000)
 About 50 MW CW was
installed at 352 MHz
 55
Basics of RF solid state amplifiers
• In a push-pull circuit the RF
VDC
signal is applied to two
devices
NPN BJT • One of the devices is active
on the positive voltage swing
Vin Vout and off during the negative
voltage swing
• The other device works in the
opposite manner so that the
PNP BJT two devices conduct half the
time
The full RF signal is then
amplified
BJT: Bipolar Junction Transistor

Needs two different type of

devices

E. Montesinos
 56
Basics of RF solid state amplifiers
• Another push-pull
Vdc
configuration is to use a balun
(balanced-unbalanced)
0⁰
NPN BJT • Power splitter, equally dividing
the input power between the two
0⁰
Input balun Output balun transistors
(Unbalanced-Balanced) (Balanced-Unbalanced)
• Balun keeps one port in phase
and inverts the second port in
Vin Vout phase

180 ⁰ • Since the signals are out of

180 ⁰ phase only one device is On at a
NPN BJT
time
This configuration is easier to
manufacture since only one type
of device is required

NXP Semi-
conductors AN11325 E. Montesinos
2-way Doherty amplifier with BLF888A
 57
Example: Soleil 45 kW, 352 MHz
Electron storage ring running at 352 MHz

DU1029UK
330 W amplifier module

600 W, 300 VDC/30 VDC converter

 58
Example: Soleil 45 kW, 352 MHz
Large scale solid state amplifier installations

45 kW per tower (2004 and 2007) 150 kW per tower (2012)

 Requires a series of power combiners to moderate power per

amplifier module to several tens of kilowatts
E. Montesinos
 59
Example: BESSY II
500 MHz solid state amplifiers: 4  80 kW for storage ring,
40 kW for booster synchrotron

Amplifier modules 80 kW unit Combiner

 Power per module limited by RF transistors

 Increasing with modern semiconductor devices

B. Schriefer
 60
Example: SPS
200 MHz solid state amplifiers: 2  1.6 MW peak power,
2  16 towers per amplifier

1.6 MW at cavity input

1/16 splitter
From LLRF

 80 modules per tower, 1280 modules with 5120 transistors

per amplifier
 Presently the largest RF installation in a particle accelerator
E. Montesinos
 61
RF power amplifier
Power capability of commercially available amplifier types
Typical ranges (commercially available)
10000
grid tubes

klystrons
1000
CW/Average power [kW]

100

IOT CCTWTs
solid state (x32)

10

1 Transistors

0.1
10 100 1000 f [MHz] 10000
E. Jensen
 62
How to choose the right RF amplifier?
Prefer tube amplifier, when Prefer solid-state amplifier, when

• Amplifier must be installed in • Amplifier can be located in non-

the accelerator tunnel radioactive environment

• Expecting important spikes from • Circulator can be installed to

beam induced voltage protect the amplifier

• Large output power of a single • Delay due to unavoidable

device is required, without combiner stages is little issue
combiners
• Sufficient space can be made
• Not much space is available available

• High peak power in pulsed mode • Continuous operation

• Amplifier must be compact • Amplifier can be separate from

and/or close to cavity the cavity

 Mostly no hard criteria  decide on case by case basis

 63
Summary
• RF system parameters
 Choose frequency and voltage wisely

• Parameters of RF cavities
 R, R/Q
 No ‘one-size fits’ all

• Power amplifier
 Ideal amplifier does not (yet) exist
 Tube or solid-state based

• Feedbacks and longitudinal beam control

 Make the beam feel comfortable in bucket
 Beam phase, radial and synchronization loops
 64

RF Systems II

H. Damerau
CERN

Basic CAS Extension

01 July 2021
 65

Copyright statement and speaker’s release for video publishing

The author consents to the photographic, audio and video recording of this lecture
at the CERN Accelerator School. The term “lecture” includes any material
incorporated therein including but not limited to text, images and references.

The author hereby grants CERN a royalty-free license to use his image and name
as well as the recordings mentioned above, in order to broadcast them online to
all registered students and to post them without any further processing on the
CAS website.

The author hereby confirms that the content of the lecture does not infringe the
copyright, intellectual property or privacy rights of any third party. The author has
cited and credited any third-party contribution in accordance with applicable
professional standards and legislation in matters of attribution.
 66
Outline
• Introduction
• Choice of parameters
• Frequency and voltage

• RF cavity parameters
• Shunt impedance, beam loading, power coupling

• Power amplifiers
• Tube or solid state
• Local feedbacks

• Longitudinal beam control system

• Building blocks: RF source and receiver
• Phase, radial and synchronization loops

• Summary
 67
RF system overview
Beam

 Convert RF power into

Cavity
longitudinal electric field

Power amplifier  Amplify low-power signal from

beam control to kW, MW or GW

Low-level RF  Provide RF signals with correct

system frequency, amplitude and phase

Beam
 68

Local feedbacks
 69
Reduction of cavity impedance
• Energy transfer from cavity to beam, but from beam to cavity
 Both, RF generator and beam can induced voltage in cavity

L R C

Final amp

Beam
Drive

IG IB

1. Reduce beam induced voltage by reducing R, but not efficient

 Obviously needs more power  $$$
2. Feedback to decrease the apparent impedance for the beam
 Use amplifier to counteract beam induced voltage
 70
Reduction of cavity impedance
• Energy transfer from cavity to beam, but from beam to cavity
 Both, RF generator and beam can induced voltage in cavity
V
FB ret.
L R C

Final amp
-

Beam
++
IG IB
Drive

1. Compare drive signal (no beam) with gap (beam and generator)
2. Amplify inverted difference
 71
Example: 10 MHz RF system in CERN PS
Transfer function with
and without feedback
• Feedback gain of 24 dB
 Equivalent impedance,
~24 dB Zeq(w)reduced
Gain [dB]

 Impedance for amplifier

remains unchanged, Z(w)
Cavity,
Z(w) amplifier with Zeq(w)
Frequency [MHz] feedback

Why not further reduction with more gain?

• Subtraction of gap voltage and drive signal imperfect due to
1. Delay of cables and amplifier
2. Parasitic resonances of amplifier and cavity system

Bandwidth   Achievable gain 

 72
Example: 10 MHz RF system in CERN PS
• 10 + 1 ferrite loaded cavities, tunable from 2.8…10 MHz

FB ret.
- Fast wide-band feedback
Final amp.

around amplifier (internal)

Beam
+  Gain limited by delay

+ 1-turn delay feedback

Drive
 73
Example: RF feedback with 1-turn delay
• 10 + 1 ferrite loaded cavities, tunable from 2.8…10 MHz

FB ret.
- Fast wide-band feedback
Final amp.

around amplifier (internal)

Beam
+  Gain limited by delay

- 1-turn delay feedback

 High gain at n  frev
+ 1-turn delay feedback

Drive
 74
Example: RF feedback with 1-turn delay
 Reduce cavity impedance beyond stability limit of wide-band FB
Open/closed loop Spectrum at cavity gap return
transfer functions Feedback off Feedback on

D. Perrelet
10 dB/div 10 dB/div

hRF=8

hRF=8
Log. Amplitude [dB]

Log. Amplitude [dB]

Frequency [MHz] Frequency Frequency

 Important additional impedance

reduction

 Clever usage of beam periodicity

in circular accelerator
Frequency [MHz]
 75
RF system overview
Beam

 Convert RF power into

Cavity
longitudinal electric field

Power amplifier  Amplify low-power signal from

beam control to kW, MW or GW

Low-level RF  Provide RF signals with correct

system frequency, amplitude and phase

Beam
 76

Global feedbacks
Low-level RF beam control
 77
Longitudinal beam control
• Local feedbacks  Act on individual RF stations
• Global feedbacks  Act on all RF stations simultaneously

Df 2
From beam

t12
control

RF
Df 1 t23
source

Df 3
Time of flight
compensation

t31

 RF distribution to compensate time of flight between stations

 Beam control drives all stations like a single one
 78

Basic building blocks

 79
Measure phase differences
• Two signals at different frequencies w1 and w2

 Phase difference, Df, between both signals changes linearly

 Ambiguity to distinguish between Df = -p, p, -3p, 3p,...
 Saw-tooth in phase means constant frequency difference

 Equivalence of
frequency and phase

 80
Mixer or multiplier
• Example: analogue 4 quadrant multiplier and low pass filter

• Signals:
 81
Mixer or multiplier
• Example: analogue 4 quadrant multiplier and low pass filter

Remove ripple  Low-pass filter

• Signals:
 82
How to detect phase differences?
• Example: analogue 4 quadrant multiplier and low pass filter

Remove ripple  Low-pass filter

Relative: arbitrary shift by 90°

• Signals:

• Phase discriminator in approximately +/-90° range

 83

RF sources
 84
RF sources
What finally generates the RF signal to power amplifier and
cavity?
 Need an RF source!

• Electron accelerators
• Off-the-shelf high-performance laboratory generators
as reference: BESSY SR, CERN CTF3
• Dedicated commercial fixed-frequency sources with
low phase noise: free electron lasers, CERN AWAKE
• Proton accelerators
• Special sweeping RF sources, controlled by
beam-based loops: mostly in-house developments
 85
Noisy RF signals
• Degradation of signal quality due to noise
• Amplitude and/or phase jitter
• What is the difference between a coherent signal and noise?

Noise

Noise

 Amplitude of coherent, quasi monochromatic signal (at

200 MHz) is independent of observation bandwidth
 Incoherent noise power (dominated by spectrum analyzer
front-end amplifier/mixer) is proportional to bandwidth
 Thermal noise power
 86
Analysis of phase noise
• Compare noise power with carrier power as reference

Ratio of carrier
to noise: dBc

Bandwidth Df = 1 Hz
Df for normalization

• Noise power density

 Its integral is the phase jitter and using

 the jitter in time becomes

 87
Typical phase noise plots
• Measure phase noise of a synthesized lab generator

Frequency range Dtrms [fs]

10…100 Hz 12.4
100 Hz …1 kHz 5.4
 Note: jitter values can be added as
square root of quadratic sum 1…10 kHz 5.4
10…100 kHz 11.1
100 kHz…1 MHz 13.0
 Convenient split to relevant ranges Total 31.0
 88
Variable frequency: direct digital synthesis
• Generate (almost) any frequency starting
RF signal
from a given clock frequency, fclk
Digital data
• Digitally programmable in frequency

fclk Phase accumu- sin

lator
Frequency sin/cos t
word look-up
cos

f t
2n adder

t
 89
Variable frequency: direct digital synthesis
• Generate (almost) any frequency starting
RF signal
from a given clock frequency, fclk
Digital data
• Digitally programmable in frequency
and phase
Phase offset
word
fclk Phase accumu- sin
lator
Frequency t
CORDIC
word
cos

f f t
2n adder

t t
COordinate Rotation
DIgital Computer

 Two output signals with ideal 90° phase shift

 Output signals are digital data streams
 90

Receivers
 91
I/Q representation of signals
• Any signal can be represented by amplitude A and phase f

A Q
f
I

 In phase, I and quadrature, Q describe the same signal

 Avoids phase discontinuities at 0, 2p, …
 92
Signal receivers
• Radio with listens to beam or cavity signals
• Listens to amplitude and phase

I
Q

 With win ≈ wLO input signal is down-converted to base-band

 Resulting I/Q vector rotates slowly with win - wLO
 93
Digital receivers
• No conceptual difference between analogue and digital
• Digitization can be performed at any level

ADC
I
Q

Q
ADC

 Analog down-conversion of I and Q, then digital processing

 High input frequencies beyond ADC sampling rates
 94
Digital receivers
• No conceptual difference between analogue and digital
• Digitization can be performed at any level

I
Q
ADC
I

 Analogue mixers become digital multipliers

 All digital receiver
 Theoretically perfect I/Q symmetry
 95

Vector modulator
 96
Invers receiver: vector modulator
• Convert I/Q data into modulated RF signal

DAC

Q
 97
Inverse receiver: vector modulator
• Convert I/Q data into modulated RF signal

I DAC

Q DAC

 Perfect I/Q symmetry difficult to achieve

 Up-conversion of digital signal to a high RF frequency
 98

Beam phase loop

 99
Electronic phase-locked loop
• Frequency re-generation and multiplication
• Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) locked in phase to input

Loop
fin, fin Df ~fin - fVCO
filter, VCO fout, fout
H(w)

fVCO
1
n
RF
Slow signal

 Fixed phase relationship: fout/n – fin = const.

 Optional divider: fout = n · fin
 100
Beam phase loop
RF cavity
RF
Phase pick-up
Slow signal
h frev (digital)

Power
Beam
Df Cavity amplifier
phase phase fRF

Digital
DDS synthesizer

Synchronous Loop ferr ~Df

phase, fs -+ filter

h · frev, from B, p
 101
Beam phase loop
RF cavity
RF
Phase pick-up
Slow signal
h frev (digital)

Power
Beam
Df Cavity amplifier
phase phase fRF

Digital
DDS synthesizer

Synchronous Loop ferr ~Df

phase, fs -+ filter
Loop
corr.
fout = fin ± Df

Precision VCO

h · frev, from B, p
 Phase-locked loop with beam phase as reference for RF system
 102
Beam phase loop
RF cavity
RF
Phase pick-up
Slow signal
h frev (digital)

Power
Beam
Df Cavity amplifier
phase phase fRF

Digital
DDS synthesizer

Move the wave!

Synchronous Loop ferr ~Df
phase, fs -+ filter
Loop
corr.
fout = fin ± Df

Precision VCO

h · frev, from B, p
 Fast control of RF frequency to cavities, but no slow corrections
 103
Effect of beam phase loop at injection
• Example: Injection of a bunch from PS Booster into PS
90° error, phase loop off 90° error, phase loop on

 Essential in hadron accelerators to keep RF locked to beam

 How does this look like in longitudinal phase space?
 104
Effect of beam phase loop at injection
 Essential in hadron accelerators to keep RF locked to beam
Bunch in rigid bucket, no loop Injection with phase loop

 Even large transients (injection, transition) are controlled

 Only minor longitudinal perturbation
 105
Beam phase loop during acceleration
 What happens with
Restart End of
phase loop during acceleration acceleration
acceleration? Acceleration to
intermediate plateau

 During plateaus the

phase between RF
and beam is either
0° or 180° Df
1.48 s
 Fast phase changes
well handled, but
need slow frequency
correction
Intermediate Transition
plateau
 Radial or synchro- Injection Ejection
nization loop
 106

Radial loop
 107
Radial loop
Beam RF
Slow signal
Digital signal

D Hybrid S

DDS

D/S

DR
Df
Reference magnet

B+ B
h·frev
B- frev  Slow correction
Frequency of average RF
program frequency
 108
Radial loop
• Slow correction of RF frequency to keep beam centred

Why needed at all with arbitrary

precision synthesizers driving the RF system?

 At transition energy
 Longer path of higher energy particle compensated by
higher velocity
 No revolution frequency change for energy offset

 Need beam-based
frequency correction
 109

Synchro(nization) loop
 110
Beam phase loop
RF cavity
RF
Phase pick-up
Slow signal
h frev (digital)

Power
Beam
Df Cavity amplifier
phase phase fRF

Digital
DDS synthesizer

Synchronous Loop ferr ~Df

phase, fs -+ filter
Loop
corr.
fout = fin ± Df

Precision VCO

h · frev, from B, p
 Fast control of RF frequency to cavities, but no slow corrections
 111
Synchronization loop, internal reference
RF cavity
RF
Phase pick-up
Slow signal
h frev (digital)

Power
Beam
Df Cavity amplifier
phase phase fRF

DDS Df
fRF, ref.

Synchronous Loop ferr ~Df Ref.

phase, fs -+ filter
Loop
corr.
Loop
filter DDS

h · frev, from B, p
 Avoids noise from radial detection when not crossing transition
 112
Synchronization loop, external reference
RF cavity
RF
Phase pick-up
Slow signal
h frev (digital)

Power
Beam
Df Cavity amplifier
phase phase fRF

DDS Df
fRF, ref.

Synchronous Loop ferr ~Df

phase, fs -+ filter
Loop
corr.
Loop
filter
fRF, ref from
another
accelerator

h · frev, from B, p
 Synchronize between accelerators for transfer
 113
Before synchronization
• Simple test case of circumference ratio 2: C2 = 2C1
Target accelerator is Target accelerator is
master at transfer master at transfer

 Synchronize both accelerator to force: frev,1 = 2frev,2

 114
After synchronization
• Simple test case of circumference ratio 2: C2 = 2C1
Source or target accelerator
is master at transfer

 Revolution frequencies coupled: frev,1 = 2frev,2

 Ready to extract during every turn of the target accelerator
 115
Summary
• RF system parameters

• Parameters of RF cavities

• Power amplifier

• Local feedbacks
 Direct and 1-turn delay feedback

• Building blocks of low-level RF systems

 Phase comparison, RF sources and receivers

• Basic global feedback loops

 Beam phase, radial and synchronization loops

 Make the beam feel comfortable!

 116

A big Thank You

to all colleagues providing support, material and feedback

Maria-Elena Angoletta, Philippe Baudrenghien, Thomas Bohl,

Giorgia Favia, Jörn Jacob, Erk Jensen, John Molendijk,
Eric Montesinos, Gerry McMonagle, Mauro Paoluzzi,
Damien Perrelet, Bernhard Schriefer, Lukas Stingelin,
Fumihiko Tamura, Frank Tecker, Daniel Valuch and many
more…
 117

Thank you very much

for your attention!
 118
References
• D. Boussard, Design of a Ring RF System, CERN SL/91-2 (RFS, rev.), 1991,
http://cds.cern.ch/record/1023436/files/CM-P00065157.pdf
• E. Montesinos, Accelerators for Medical Applications - Radio Frequency
Powering, CERN-2017-004-SP,
http://cds.cern.ch/record/2315172/files/1804.08535.pdf
• R. Garoby, Low level rf building blocks, CERN-1992-003, 1991,
http://cds.cern.ch/record/225609/files/CM-P00059483.pdf
• J. W. Wang, G. A. Loew, Field Emission and RF Breakdown in High-Gradient
Room-Temperature Linac Structures, SLAC-PUB-7684, 1997,
http://www.slac.stanford.edu/cgi-wrap/getdoc/slac-pub-7684.pdf
• W. D. Kilpatrick, Criterion for vacuum sparking designed to include both rf
and dc, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 28 (1957), 1957, http://inspirehep.net/record/44645
 119
Normalized Hamiltonian representation
• For a single harmonic RF system

1. with it becomes

2. using

3. this simplifies to
 120
Cascaded integrator-comb filter (CIC)
• Efficient implementation of low pass filter
• Standard form with sampling rate decimation: fclk  fclk/d
Comb stages Integrator stages

#1 #n #1 #n
z-1 z-1 z-1 z-1

-
… -
fclk Fclk/d
+
… +
+ + + +

n: filter order
d: decimation ratio

 Easy to implement in programmable logic: no multipliers

 Only adders and shift registers
 121
Cascaded integrator-comb filter (CIC)
Why particularly interesting for circular accelerators?

• Choose clock frequency, fclk = 2m frev and decimation d = 2m

 Notches at all multiples of frev except zero
 Linear phase f(f)  filter behaves like a constant delay
Amplitude Phase
Example:
fclk = 128frev,
d = 128,
n=3

 Ideal low-pass filter in digital receivers

 Filter selected multiple of frev while suppressing all others
 122
Transmission of reference signals
• Thermal drift of long coaxial cables or optical fibres

Lutes/Diener, NASA TDA Progress Report 42-99

RG223 coaxial cable
• Thermal coefficient of
delay:

• Example: 2 km long RG223 cable with ~10 ms delay

 DT of only 1° C (room temperature) changes delay by ~0.5 ns
 1.8° at 10 MHz (CERN PS), but 73° at 400 MHz (LHC)
• Optical fibres are typically 10…100 times more stable
• What to do if this is still not sufficient?
 123
Simple synchronization process
1. Move beam to off-momentum (B const.):
 Well defined frequency difference between accelerators
2. Measure azimuth error, when beam at correct azimuth
 Close synchronization loop
 Moves beam to ref. momentum frev (h = 1)

Beam azimuth
Df Ref. azimuth
(from phase loop) (from master
divider)
Act on fRF of
slave
Bunch should Df
Locked!
be here

200 ms