Discs

A cross-drilled disc on a modern motorcycle

The design of the disc varies somewhat. Some are simply solid cast iron, but others are hollowed
out with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two contact surfaces (usually included as part
of a casting process). The weight and power of the vehicle will determine the need for ventilated
discs.[10] The "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly
used on the more-heavily-loaded front discs. The front brakes provide most of the stopping
power.

Many higher performance brakes have holes drilled through them. This is known as cross-drilling
and was originally done in the 1960s on racing cars. For heat dissipation purposes, cross drilling
is still used on some braking components, but is not favored for racing or other hard use as the
holes are a source of stress cracks under severe conditions.

Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in removing
dust and gas. Slotting is the preferred method in most racing environments to remove gas,
water, and de-glaze brake pads. Some discs are both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are
generally not used on standard vehicles because they quickly wear down brake pads; however,
this removal of material is beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps the pads soft and avoids
vitrification of their surfaces. As a way of avoiding thermal stress, cracking and warping of the
disc these are sometimes mounted in a half loose way to the hub with coarse splines. This
allows the disc to expand in a controlled symmetrical way and with less unwanted heat transfer
to the hub.

A mountain bike disc brake

On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet conditions because the
holes or slots prevent a film of water building up between the disc and the pads. Crossdrilled
discs may eventually crack at the holes due to metal fatigue. Cross-drilled brakes that are
manufactured poorly or subjected to high stresses will crack much sooner and more severely.

The first motorcycles to use disc brakes were racing machines. The first mass-produced road-
going motorcycle to sport a disc-brake was the 1969 Honda CB750. Disc brakes are now
common on motorcycles, mopeds and even bicycles. Motorcycle disc brakes have become
increasingly sophisticated, partly through marketing. Their discs are usually drilled and
occasionally slotted. Calipers have evolved from simple "single-pot" units to 2-, 4- and even 6-
pot items. It is debatable whether the modern fashions of "radially-mounted calipers" and "wavy
discs" significantly improve braking. Since (compared to cars) motorcycles have a higher centre
of gravity:wheelbase ratio, they experience more weight transference when braking. A modern
sports bike will typically have twin front discs of large diameter, but only a single rear disc that
is very much smaller (or even a small rear drum brake). The front brake(s) provide most of the
required deceleration; the rear brake serves mainly as to "balance" the motorcycle during
braking. If too much braking force is applied to the rear brake, the rear wheel is liable to lock up;
so motorcycles should not have oversize rear brakes.

Mountain bike disc brakes range from simple, mechanical (cable) systems, to expensive and
powerful, 6-pot (piston) hydraulic disc systems, commonly used on downhill racing bikes.
Improved technology has seen the creation of the first vented discs for use on mountain bikes,
similar to those on cars, introduced to help avoid heat fade on fast alpine descents. Although
less common, discs are also used on road bicycles for all-weather cycling with predictable
braking, although drums are sometimes preferred as harder to damage in crowded parking,
where discs are sometimes bent. Most bicycle brake discs are made of stainless steel, although
some lightweight discs are made of titanium or aluminium. Discs are thin, often about 2 mm.
Some use a two-piece floating disc style, others use a floating caliper, others use pads that float
in the caliper, and some use one moving pad that makes the caliper slide on its mounts, pulling
the other pad into contact with the disc. Because the "motor" is small, an uncommon feature of
bicycle brakes is pads that retract to eliminate residual drag when the brake is released. In
contrast, most other brakes drag the pads lightly when released.

Disc brakes are increasingly used on very large and heavy road vehicles, where previously large
drum brakes were nearly universal. One reason is the disc's lack of self-assist makes brake force
much more predictable, so peak brake force can be raised without more risk of braking-induced
steering or jackknife on articulated vehicles. Another is disk brakes fade less when hot, and in a
heavy vehicle air and rolling drag and engine braking are small parts of total braking force, so
brakes are used harder than on lighter vehicles, and drum brake fade can occur in a single stop.
For these reasons, a heavy truck with disc brakes can stop in about 120% the distance of a
passenger car, but with drums stopping takes about 150% the distance.[14] In Europe, stopping
distance regulations essentially require disc brakes for heavy vehicles. In the U.S., drums are
allowed and are typically preferred for their lower purchase price, despite higher total lifetime
cost and more frequent service intervals.

A railroad bogie and disc brakes

Yet larger discs are used for railroads and some airplanes. Passenger rail cars and light rail often
use disc brakes outboard of the wheels, which helps ensure a free flow of cooling air. In contrast,
some airplanes have the brake mounted with very little cooling and the brake gets quite hot in a
stop, but this is acceptable as the maximum braking energy is very predictable.

For auto use, disc brake discs are commonly manufactured out of a material called grey iron.
The SAE maintains a specification for the manufacture of grey iron for various applications. For
normal car and light truck applications, the SAE specification is J431 G3000 (superseded to
G10). This specification dictates the correct range of hardness, chemical composition, tensile
strength, and other properties necessary for the intended use. Some racing cars and airplanes
use brakes with carbon fiber discs and carbon fiber pads to reduce weight. Wear rates tend to
be high, and braking may be poor or grabby until the brake is hot.

Historically, brake discs were manufactured throughout the world with a strong concentration in
Europe, and America. Between 1989 and 2005, manufacturing of brake discs is migrating
predominantly to China.
Racing

A reinforced carbon brake disc installed on a Ferrari F430 Challenge race car

In racing and very high performance road cars, other disc materials have been employed.
Reinforced carbon discs and pads inspired by aircraft braking systems were introduced in
Formula One by Brabham in conjunction with Dunlop in 1976.[15] Carbon-Carbon braking is now
used in most top-level motorsport worldwide, reducing unsprung weight, giving better frictional
performance and improved structural properties at high temperatures, compared to cast iron.
Carbon brakes have occasionally been applied to road cars, by the French Venturi sports car
manufacturer in the mid 1990s for example, but need to reach a very high operating
temperature before becoming truly effective and so are not well suited to road use. The extreme
heat generated in these systems is easily visible during night racing, especially at shorter
tracks. It is not uncommon to be able to look at the cars, either live in person or on television
and see the brake discs glowing red during application.

Ceramic composites
Ceramic discs are used in some high-performance cars and heavy vehicles.

The first development of the modern ceramic brake was made by British Engineers working in
the railway industry for TGV applications in 1988. The objective was to reduce weight, the
number of brakes per axle, as well as provide stable friction from very high speeds and all
temperatures. The result was a carbon fibre reinforced ceramic process which is now used in
various forms for automotive, railway, and aircraft brake applications.

The requirement for a large section of ceramic composite material having very high heat
tolerance and mechanical strength often relegates ceramic discs to exotic vehicles where the
cost is not prohibitive to the application, and industrial use where the ceramic disc's light weight
and low maintenance properties justify the cost relative to alternatives. Composite brakes can
withstand temperatures that would make steel discs bendable.

Mercedes Benz AMG Carbon Ceramic brake

Porsche's ceramic composite brakes, known as PCCB (Porsche Composite Ceramic Brakes), are
siliconized carbon fiber, with very high temperature capability, a 50% weight reduction over iron
rotors (therefore reducing the unsprung weight of the vehicle), a significant reduction in dust
generation, substantially increased maintenance intervals, and enhanced durability in corrosive
environments over conventional iron rotors. Found on some of their more expensive models,
e.g., the Carrera GT, 911 GT2, etc. it is also an optional brake for all street Porsches at added
expense. It is generally recognized by the bright yellow paintwork on the aluminum 6-piston
calipers that are matched with the rotors. The rotors are internally vented much like cast iron
rotors, and also cross-drilled.

Disc damage modes

Discs are usually damaged in one of four ways: scarring, cracking, warping or excessive rusting.
Service shops will sometimes respond to any disc problem by changing out the discs entirely,
This is done mainly where the cost of a new disc may actually be lower than the cost of labour to
resurface the original disc. Mechanically this is unnecessary unless the discs have reached
manufacturer's minimum recommended thickness, which would make it unsafe to use them, or
vane rusting is severe (ventilated discs only). Most leading vehicle manufacturers recommend
brake disc skimming (US: rotor turning) as a solution for lateral run-out, vibration issues and
brake noises. The machining process is performed in a brake lathe, which removes a very thin
layer off the disc surface to clean off minor damage and restore uniform thickness. Machining
the disc as necessary will maximise the mileage out of the current discs on the vehicle.

Excessive lateral run-out (warping)

Measuring this is accomplished using a dial indicator on a fixed rigid base, with the tip
perpendicular to the brake disc's face. It is typically measured about 1/2" (12 mm) from the
outside diameter of the disc. The disc is spun. The difference between minimum and maximum
value on the dial is called lateral runout. Typical hub/disc assembly runout specifications for
passenger vehicles are around 0.0020" or 50 micrometers. Runout can be caused either by
deformation of the disc itself or by runout in the underlying wheel hub face or by contamination
between the disc surface and the underlying hub mounting surface. Determining the root cause
of the indicator displacement (lateral runout) requires disassembly of the disc from the hub. Disc
face runout due to hub face runout or contamination will typically have a period of 1 minimum
and 1 maximum per revolution of the brake disc.

Discs can be machined to eliminate thickness variation and lateral runout. Machining can be
done in-situ (on-car) or off-car (bench lathe). Both methods will eliminate thickness variation.
Machining on-car with proper equipment can also eliminate lateral runout due to hub-face non-
perpendicularity.

Incorrect fitting can distort (warp) discs; the disc's retaining bolts (or the wheel/lug nuts, if the
disc is simply sandwiched in place by the wheel, as on many cars) must be tightened
progressively and evenly. The use of air tools to fasten lug nuts is extremely bad practice,
unless a torque tube is also used. The vehicle manual will indicate the proper pattern for
tightening as well as a torque rating for the bolts. Lug nuts should never be tightened in a circle.
Some vehicles are sensitive to the force the bolts apply and tightening should be done with a
torque wrench.

Often uneven pad transfer is confused for disc warping. In reality, the majority of brake discs
which are diagnosed as "warped" are actually simply the product of uneven transfer of pad
material.

Uneven pad transfer will often lead to a thickness variation of the disc. When the thicker section
of the disc passes between the pads, the pads will move apart and the brake pedal will raise
slightly; this is pedal pulsation. The thickness variation can be felt by the driver when it is
approximately 0.17 mm or greater (on automobile discs).

This type of thickness variation has many causes, but there are three primary mechanisms
which contribute the most to the propagation of disc thickness variations connected to uneven
pad transfer. The first is improper selection of brake pads for a given application. Pads which are
effective at low temperatures, such as when braking for the first time in cold weather, often are
made of materials which decompose unevenly at higher temperatures. This uneven
decomposition results in uneven deposition of material onto the brake disc. Another cause of
uneven material transfer is improper break in of a pad/disc combination. For proper break in, the
disc surface should be refreshed (either by machining the contact surface or by replacing the
disc as a whole) every time the pads are changed on a vehicle. Once this is done, the brakes are
heavily applied multiple times in succession. This creates a smooth, even interface between the
pad and the disc. When this is not done properly the brake pads will see an uneven distribution
of stress and heat, resulting in an uneven, seemingly random, deposition of pad material. The
third primary mechanism of uneven pad material transfer is known as "pad imprinting." This
occurs when the brake pads are heated to the point that the material begins to break-down and
transfer to the disc. In a properly broken in brake system (with properly selected pads), this
transfer is natural and actually is a major contributor to the braking force generated by the
brake pads. However, if the vehicle comes to a stop and the driver continues to apply the
brakes, the pads will deposit a layer of material in the shape of the brake pad. This small
thickness variation can begin the cycle of uneven pad transfer.

Once the disc has some level of variation in thickness, uneven pad deposition can accelerate,
sometimes resulting in changes to the crystal structure of the metal that composes the disc in
extreme situations. As the brakes are applied, the pads slide over the varying disc surface. As
the pads pass by the thicker section of the disc, they are forced outwards. The foot of the driver
applied to the brake pedal naturally resists this change, and thus more force is applied to the
pads. The result is that the thicker sections see higher levels of stress. This causes an uneven
heating of the surface of the disc, which causes two major issues. As the brake disc heats
unevenly it also expands unevenly. The thicker sections of the disc expand more than the
thinner sections due to seeing more heat, and thus the difference in thickness is magnified.
Also, the uneven distribution of heat results in further uneven transfer of pad material. The
result is that the thicker-hotter sections receive even more pad material than the thinner-cooler
sections, contributing to a further increase in the variation in the disk's thickness. In extreme
situations, this uneven heating can actually cause the crystal structure of the disc material to
change. When the hotter sections of the discs reach extremely high temperatures(1200-1300
degrees Fahrenheit), the carbon within the cast iron of the disc will react with the iron molecules
to form a carbide known as cementite. This iron carbide is very different from the cast iron the
rest of the disc is composed of. It is extremely hard, very brittle, and does not absorb heat well.
After cementite is formed, the integrity of the disc is compromised. Even if the disc surface is
machined, the cementite within the disc will not wear or absorb heat at the same rate as the
cast iron surrounding it, causing the uneven thickness and uneven heating characteristics of the
disc to return.

Scarring

Brake discs being polished after scarring occurred

Scarring (US: Scoring) can occur if brake pads are not changed promptly when they reach the
end of their service life and are considered worn out. Once enough of the friction material has
worn away, the pad's steel backing plate (for glued pads) or the pad retainer rivets (for riveted
pads) will bear directly upon the disc's wear surface, reducing braking power and making
scratches on the disc. Generally a moderately scarred / scored disc, which operated
satisfactorily with existing brake pads, will be equally usable with new pads. If the scarring is
deeper but not excessive, it can be repaired by machining off a layer of the disc's surface. This
can only be done a limited number of times as the disc has a minimum rated safe thickness. The
minimum thickness value is typically cast into the disc during manufacturing on the hub or the
edge of the disc. In Pennsylvania, which has one of the most rigorous auto safety inspection
programs in North America, an automotive disc cannot pass safety inspection if any scoring is
deeper than .015 inches (0.38 mm), and must be replaced if machining will reduce the disc
below its minimum safe thickness.

To prevent scarring, it is prudent to periodically inspect the brake pads for wear. A tire rotation
is a logical time for inspection, since rotation must be performed regularly based on vehicle
operation time and all wheels must be removed, allowing ready visual access to the brake pads.
Some types of alloy wheels and brake arrangements will provide enough open space to view the
pads without removing the wheel. When practical, pads that are near the wear-out point should
be replaced immediately, as complete wear out leads to scarring damage and unsafe braking.
Many disc brake pads will include some sort of soft steel spring or drag tab as part of the pad
assembly, which is designed to start dragging on the disc when the pad is nearly worn out. The
result is a moderately loud metallic squealing noise, alerting the vehicle user that service is
required, and this will not normally scar the disc if the brakes are serviced promptly. A set of
pads can be considered for replacement if the thickness of the pad material is the same or less
than the thickness of the backing steel. In Pennsylvania, the standard is 1/32".

Cracking

Cracking is limited mostly to drilled discs, which may develop small cracks around edges of
holes drilled near the edge of the disc due to the disc's uneven rate of expansion in severe duty
environments. Manufacturers that use drilled discs as OEM typically do so for two reasons:
appearance, if they determine that the average owner of the vehicle model will prefer the look
while not overly stressing the hardware; or as a function of reducing the unsprung weight of the
brake assembly, with the engineering assumption that enough brake disc mass remains to
absorb racing temperatures and stresses. A brake disc is a heat sink, but the loss of heat sink
mass may be balanced by increased surface area to radiate away heat. Small hairline cracks
may appear in any cross drilled metal disc as a normal wear mechanism, but in the severe case
the disc will fail catastrophically. No repair is possible for the cracks, and if cracking becomes
severe, the disc must be replaced.

Rusting

The discs are commonly made from cast iron and a certain amount of what is known as "surface
rust" is normal. The disc contact area for the brake pads will be kept clean by regular use, but a
vehicle that is stored for an extended period can develop significant rust in the contact area that
may reduce braking power for a time until the rusted layer is worn off again. Over time, vented
brake discs may develop severe rust corrosion inside the ventilation slots, compromising the
strength of the structure and needing replacement.

From Wikipedia. YFG