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Social Interdependence: Interrelationships Among Theory, Research, and

Practice

Article  in  American Psychologist · December 2003

DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.58.11.934 · Source: PubMed

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Stanne, M., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). So- ment of the theory and new research studies. Increasingly,
cial interdependence and motor performance: A meta-anal- however, the culture of theoretical research appears to be
ysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 133–154. isolating itself from practical application while the culture
of research in practical settings seems to be divorcing itself
from theory (Sternberg & Lyon, 2002).
Social interdependence theory provides an example of
Social Interdependence: Interrelationships the potential contributions of psychology for effective prac-
Among Theory, Research, and Practice tice in a wide range of settings through productive interac-
David W. Johnson tions among theory, research, and practice. Social interde-
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus pendence theory has been used as a guide for creating
concrete practical procedures in education (D. W. Johnson
& Johnson, 1994; D. W. Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec,
1998), business (Tjosvold, 1989), individual and group
psychotherapy (D. W. Johnson & Matross, 1977), family
Social interdependence theory is a classic example of the therapy (D. W. Johnson, 1983), mediation (Kessel, 2000),
interaction among theory, research, and practice. The organizational and community development (D. W. John-
premise of the theory is that the way in which goals are son & Johnson, 1994), international conflict and peace
structured determines how individuals interact, which in building (Deutsch, 1983), and the full range of types and
turn creates outcomes. Over 750 research studies have levels of social systems. It is in education, however, that
been conducted in the past 11 decades on the relative the most systematic and widespread applications have
merits of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic taken place. From a period of relative obscurity in the
efforts and the conditions under which each is appropriate. 1960s, cooperative learning has flourished and is now ap-
These studies have validated, modified, refined, and plied in schools and universities throughout most of the
extended the theory. Social interdependence theory has world in every subject area, from preschool through gradu-
been widely applied, especially in education. The ate school and adult training programs. Its use so pervades
applications have resulted in revisions of the theory and education that it is difficult to find a textbook on instruc-
the generation of considerable new research. tional methods, a teacher’s journal, or instructional materi-
als that do not discuss cooperative learning. The applica-
tion of social interdependence theory represents one of
psychology’s success stories. The purpose of this article
Many funding agencies have concerns about whether psy-
is to describe how psychology has contributed to more
chological research results in valuable practical applica-
effective practice on a wide-scale basis by summarizing
tions. Too often there seems to be a lack of understanding
social interdependence theory, providing an overview of
of how psychology can help practitioners be more effec-
the relevant research, reviewing the application of the
tive. The extent to which psychological theorizing results
theory in education, and discussing the powerful interac-
in more effective practice depends primarily on the rela-
tion among social interdependence theory, research, and
tionship among theory, research, and practice. Ideally, the-
practice.
ory guides and summarizes research, research validates or
disconfirms theory (thereby leading to its refinement and Social Interdependence Theory
modification), and effective practice is guided by validated
theory yet reveals inadequacies that lead to further refine- The historical roots of social interdependence theory can be
traced to a shift from mechanistic to field theories in phys-
ics (Deutsch, 1968; see Figure 1). This shift especially in-
fluenced the emerging school of gestalt psychology at the
Editor’s Note University of Berlin in the early 1900s. As the “field” be-
David W. Johnson received the Award for Distinguished came the unit of analysis in physics, so did the “whole” or
Contributions of Applications of Psychology to Education “gestalt” become the focus of the study of perception and
and Training. Award winners are invited to deliver an behavior for gestalt psychologists. Gestalt psychologists
award address at the APA’s annual convention. A version posited that humans are primarily concerned with develop-
of this award address was delivered at the 111th annual ing organized and meaningful views of their world by per-
meeting, held August 7–10, 2003, in Toronto, Ontario, ceiving events as integrated wholes rather than as a sum-
Canada. Articles based on award addresses are reviewed, mation of parts or properties. One of the founders of the
but they differ from unsolicited articles in that they are gestalt school of psychology, Kurt Koffka, proposed that
expressions of the winners’ reflections on their work and similar to psychological fields, groups are dynamic wholes
their views of the field. in which the interdependence among members can vary.

934 November 2003 ● American Psychologist

Figure 1
Overview of Social Interdependence Theory

Building on the principles of gestalt psychology, Kurt whom they are competitively linked fail to obtain their
Lewin proposed that the essence of a group is the interde- goals. No interdependence exists when there is no correla-
pendence among members, which results in the group be- tion among individuals’ goal achievements; individuals
ing a dynamic whole so that a change in the state of any perceive that the achievement of their goals is unrelated to
member or subgroup changes the state of any other mem- the goal achievement of others. Social interdependence
ber or subgroup. Group members are made interdependent thus creates three psychological processes and determines
through common goals. As members perceive their com- the interaction patterns among individuals.
mon goals, a state of tension arises that motivates move- Deutsch (1949) specified three psychological processes
ment toward the accomplishment of the goals. resulting from interdependence: substitutability (i.e., the
Deutsch (1949, 1962) extended Lewin’s notions by ex- degree to which actions of one person substitute for the
amining how the tension systems of different people may actions of another person), cathexis (i.e., the investment of
be interrelated. He conceptualized two types of social inter- psychological energy in objects outside of oneself, such as
dependence—positive and negative. Positive interdepen- friends, family, and work), and inducibility (i.e., the open-
dence exists when there is a positive correlation among ness to being influenced and to influencing others). He also
individuals’ goal attainments; individuals perceive that they posited that positive interdependence results in promotive
can attain their goals if and only if the other individuals interaction (i.e., individuals encourage and facilitate each
with whom they are cooperatively linked attain their goals. other’s efforts to complete tasks in order to reach the
Negative interdependence exists when there is a negative group’s goals), whereas negative interdependence results in
correlation among individuals’ goal achievements; individ- oppositional or contrient interaction (i.e., individuals dis-
uals engaged in such processes perceive that they can ob- courage and obstruct each other’s efforts to complete tasks
tain their goals if and only if the other individuals with in order to reach their goals).

November 2003 ● American Psychologist 935

 The basic premise of social interdependence theory is vides sufficient empirical research to test the propositions
that the ways in which participants’ goals are structured of social interdependence theory.
determine how they interact, and the interaction pattern The characteristics of the 754 studies that contain
determines the outcomes of the situation (Deutsch, 1949, enough data to compute an effect size (there are many
1962). According to this premise, cause and effect can go more studies from which an effect size cannot be com-
both ways. Deutsch’s (1985) crude law of social relations puted) are as follows: Many of the research studies have
states that the characteristic processes and effects elicited high internal validity, having been carefully conducted by
by a given type of social interdependence also tend to elicit skilled investigators under highly controlled laboratory
that type of social interdependence. Thus, cooperation (31%) and field (65%) settings (see Table 1). When rated
tends to induce and be induced by mutual assistance, ex- on the variables of random assignment to conditions, clar-
change of needed resources, and trust. Competition tends to ity of control conditions, control of the experimenter effect,
induce and be induced by obstruction of each other’s suc- control of the curriculum effect (same materials used in all
cess, tactics of coercion and threat, enhancement of power conditions), and verification of the successful implementa-
differences, deceptive communication, and striving to tion of the independent variable, 51% of the studies met
“win” conflicts. Individualistic efforts tend to induce and the criteria.
be induced by an avoidance of other people. Each process The research on social interdependence has an external
tends to be self-confirming. Any part of the social interde- validity and a generalizability rarely found in the social
pendence process elicits the other parts of the process. Be- sciences. As a rule, the more variations in places, people,
cause each component can induce the others, they are and procedures that the research can withstand and still
likely to be found together. yield the same findings, the more externally valid are the
conclusions. Exemplifying such diversity, the research on
Research on Social Interdependence social interdependence has been conducted over 12 decades
Social interdependence theory has a long history and has by numerous researchers with markedly different theoreti-
been carefully formulated to explain cooperative and com- cal and practical orientations working in varied settings. A
petitive relations among individuals. Theory, however, wide variety of research tasks, ways of structuring social
tends to be of limited value unless it adequately subsumes interdependence, and measures of the dependent variables
the existing research into a meaningful conceptual frame- have been used. Participants in the studies varied from
work and generates further research that validates or dis- three years old to postcollege age and have come from dif-
confirms the theory and establishes the conditions under ferent economic classes and cultural backgrounds. The
which the hypothesized relationships occur. Social interde- studies were conducted with different durations, ranging
pendence theory has done both. The relationship between from 1 to 100 sessions or more. Social interdependence has
theory and research, however, is not unidirectional (Mer- been investigated in numerous cultures in North America
ton, 1957). Empirical research can shape the development (with Caucasian, African American, Native American, and
of theory through the discovery of valid results that are Hispanic populations) and in countries from North, Central,
unanticipated, the accumulation of research findings that and South America, Europe, the Middle East, Asia, the
the theory does not adequately explain, the clarification of Pacific Rim, and Africa. The research on social interdepen-
the nature of theoretical concepts, and the demonstration of dence includes both theoretical and demonstration studies
the relationship between the theory and new dependent conducted in educational, business, and social service orga-
variables. In this section, the number and characteristics of nizations. The diversity of these studies gives social inter-
the research studies focusing on social interdependence are dependence theory wide generalizability and considerable
described, their results are presented, and the variables me- external validity.
diating the relationship between social interdependence and
its outcomes are discussed. Research Findings
The many diverse dependent variables examined in studies
Amount and Characteristics of Research
on social interdependence over the past 110 years may be
The study of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic subsumed within three broad categories (D. W. Johnson &
efforts is commonly recognized as the oldest field of re- R. T. Johnson, 1989, 2003b): effort to achieve, positive
search in American social psychology. In the late 1800s, interpersonal relationships, and psychological health (see
Triplett (1898) conducted a study on the variables associ- Table 2).
ated with competitive performance. Since then, over 754 Effort to achieve. A meta-analysis of all studies found
studies have been conducted on the relative merits of coop- that the average person engaged in cooperative behavior
erative, competitive, and individualistic efforts and the con- performed at about two thirds of one standard deviation
ditions under which each is appropriate. This is one of the above the average person operating within a competitive
largest bodies of research within psychology, and it pro- (effect size ⫽ 0.67) or individualistic (effect size ⫽ 0.64)

936 November 2003 ● American Psychologist

Table 1
General Characteristics of Studies
Characteristic No. % Characteristic No. %

Years Form of report (continued)

1900–1909 0 0.0 Book 5 0.7
1910–1919 1 0.1 MA theses 11 1.5
1920–1929 7 0.9 PhD dissertations 75 9.9
1930–1939 6 0.8 Technical report 59 7.8
1940–1949 5 0.7 Unpublished 22 2.9
1950–1959 25 3.3 Unknown 4 0.5
1960–1969 80 10.6 Type of study
1970–1979 183 24.3 Laboratory 234 31.0
1980–1989 285 37.8 Field 490 65.0
1990–1999 138 18.3 Clinical 3 0.4
2000–2009 21 2.8 Unknown 27 3.6
Unknown 3 0.4 No. sessions
Group assignment 1 216 28.6
No random assignment 280 37.1 2–9 150 19.9
Randomly assigned participants 328 43.5 10–19 98 13.0
Randomly assigned groups, 20–29 57 7.6
participant unit of analysis 98 13.0 30–39 53 7.0
Randomly assigned groups, 40–49 44 5.8
group unit of analysis 44 5.8 50–59 18 2.4
Unknown 4 0.5 60–69 18 2.4
Ages (years) 70–79 6 0.8
3–4 8 1.1 80–89 8 1.1
5–9 85 11.2 90–99 37 4.9
10–12 182 24.1 100⫹ 3 0.4
13–15 106 14.1 Unknown 46 6.1
16–18 55 7.3 Gender of groups
19–22 278 36.9 Homogeneous 145 21
23⫹ 34 4.5 Mixed gender groups 582 74
Unknown 4 0.5 Unknown 27 5
Form of report Total 754 100
Journal article 578 76.7
Note. Only those studies providing enough data for computation of effect sizes are included in this table.

situation. When only studies with high internal validity sizes ⫽ 0.82 and 0.62, respectively) and when those stud-
were included in the analysis, the effect sizes were 0.88 ies are included that focused on relationships between
and 0.61, respectively. Cooperative experiences promote White and minority participants (effect sizes ⫽ 0.52 and
more frequent insight into and use of higher level cognitive 0.44, respectively) and relationships between participants
and moral reasoning strategies than do competitive (effect with and without disabilities (effect sizes ⫽ 0.70 and 0.64,
size ⫽ 0.93) or individualistic (effect size ⫽ 0.97) efforts. respectively). These results validate social judgment theory
Cooperators tend to spend more time on task than do com- (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1989), an extension of social
petitors (effect size ⫽ 0.76) or participants working indi- interdependence theory. The social judgments individuals
vidualistically (effect size ⫽ 1.17), and in turn, competitors make about each other engender either a process of accep-
tend to spend more time on task than do participants work- tance, resulting in mutual liking and respect, or a process
ing individualistically (effect size ⫽ 0.64). of rejection, resulting in mutual dislike and lack of respect.
Positive relationships and social support. Since 1940, Furthermore, since the 1940s, more than 106 studies com-
more than 180 studies have compared the impact of coop- paring the relative impact of cooperative, competitive, and
erative, competitive, and individualistic efforts on interper- individualistic efforts on social support have been con-
sonal attraction. Cooperative efforts, compared with com- ducted. The cumulative findings indicate that cooperative
petitive (effect size ⫽ 0.67) and individualistic (effect experiences promoted greater task-oriented and personal
size ⫽ 0.60) experiences, promoted considerably more lik- social support than did competitive (effect size ⫽ 0.62) or
ing among individuals. This remains true when only the individualistic (effect size ⫽ 0.70) experiences. This re-
methodologically high-quality studies are examined (effect mained true when only the methodologically high-quality

November 2003 ● American Psychologist 937

Table 2
Mean Effect Sizes for the Impact of Social Interdependence on Dependent Variables
Dependent variable Cooperative vs. competitive Cooperative vs. individualistic Competitive vs. individualistic

All studies
Achievement 0.67 0.64 0.30
Interpersonal attraction 0.67 0.60 0.08
Social support 0.62 0.70 ⫺0.13
Self-esteem 0.58 0.44 ⫺0.23
Time on task 0.76 1.17 0.64
Attitudes toward task 0.57 0.42 0.15
Quality of reasoning 0.93 0.97 0.13
Perspective taking 0.61 0.44 ⫺0.13

High-quality studies only

Achievement 0.88 0.61 0.07
Interpersonal attraction 0.82 0.62 0.27
Social support 0.83 0.72 ⫺0.13
Self-esteem 0.67 0.45 ⫺0.25
Note. Data are from Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research by D. W. Johnson and R. T. Johnson, 1989, Edina, MN: Interaction Book. Copyright 1989
by Interaction Book. Adapted with permission.

studies were examined (effect sizes ⫽ 0.83 and 0.72, ful person. Competitive experiences tend to be related to
respectively). conditional self-esteem that is based on whether one wins
Psychological health and self-esteem. Seven studies or loses. Individualistic experiences tend to be related to
directly measured the relationship between social interde- basic self-rejection.
pendence and psychological health (see D. W. Johnson &
Johnson, 1989). Participants studied included such diverse Essential Elements of Cooperation
samples as university individuals, older adults, suburban Applications of social interdependence theory are required
high school seniors, juvenile and adult prisoners, step- to operationalize either positive or negative interdepen-
couples, and Olympic hockey players. The results indicate dence in order to create promotive or oppositional interac-
that working cooperatively with peers and valuing coopera- tion that will lead to the desired outcomes. Operationaliza-
tion result in greater psychological health than does com- tions of positive interdependence have focused both on the
peting with peers or working independently. Cooperative relative efficacy of the ways in which it may be structured
attitudes were highly correlated with a wide range of in- and on increasing the forces for responsibility through indi-
dexes of psychological health, competitiveness was in vidual accountability procedures. Operationalizations of
some cases positively and in some cases negatively related promotive interaction have included an emphasis on social
to psychological health, and individualistic attitudes were skills and group processing. Although the basic theoretical
negatively related to a wide variety of measures of psycho- premise focuses on three variables (interdependence, inter-
logical health. action, and outcomes), the operationalizations of positive
One aspect of psychological health is self-esteem: Since interdependence and promotive interaction have resulted in
the 1950s, over 80 studies have compared the relative im- the emphasis of five variables (interdependence, individual
pact of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic experi- accountability, interaction pattern, social skills, and group
ences on self-esteem. Cooperative experiences promoted processing).
higher self-esteem than did competitive (effect size ⫽ Positive interdependence. In the studies on positive
0.58) or individualistic (effect size ⫽ 0.44) experiences, outcome interdependence, positive interdependence may be
even when only the methodologically high-quality studies confounded with perception of group membership or inter-
were examined (effect sizes ⫽ 0.67 and 0.45, respectively). personal interaction. The evidence indicates, however, that
Norem-Hebeisen and Johnson (1981) conducted four stud- neither group membership nor interpersonal interaction in
ies involving 821 White, middle-class, high school seniors and of itself seems sufficient to generate higher achieve-
in a midwestern suburban community. These authors found ment and productivity; instead, positive goal interdepen-
that cooperative experiences tend to be related to beliefs dence is also required (Hwong, Caswell, Johnson, & John-
that one is intrinsically worthwhile, others see one in posi- son, 1993; Lew, Mesch, Johnson, & Johnson, 1986a,
tive ways, one’s attributes compare favorably with those of 1986b; Mesch, Johnson, & Johnson, 1988; Mesch, Lew,
one’s peers, and one is a capable, competent, and success- Johnson, & Johnson, 1986). Knowing that one’s perfor-

938 November 2003 ● American Psychologist

mance affects the success of one’s group mates seems to sponsibility increase a person’s motivation to perform well.
create forces for responsibility that increase one’s efforts to Responsibility forces are increased when there is group and
achieve. individual accountability. Hooper, Ward, Hannafin, and
A series of studies conducted on the relative efficacy of Clark (1989) found that cooperation resulted in higher
types of positive interdependence found that positive goal achievement when individual accountability was structured
and reward interdependence tend to be additive: Whereas than when it was not. Similarly, Archer-Kath, Johnson, and
positive goal interdependence is sufficient to generate Johnson (1994) found that increasing individual account-
higher achievement and productivity than are engendered ability resulted in increases in perceived interdependence
by individualistic efforts, the combination of goal and re- among group members.
ward interdependence tends to increase achievement more Promotive interaction. Positive interdependence is
than does goal interdependence alone (D. W. Johnson, posited to result in promotive interaction, and negative in-
Johnson, Stanne, & Garibaldi, 1990; Lew et al., 1986a, terdependence is posited to result in oppositional or contri-
1986b; Mesch et al., 1988; Mesch et al., 1986; Ortiz, John- ent interaction. Promotive interaction is characterized by
son, & Johnson, 1996). Positive goal interdependence tends individuals engaging in such actions as providing each
to promote higher achievement and greater productivity other with efficient and effective help and assistance and
than does resource interdependence (D. W. Johnson, John- exchanging needed resources such as information and ma-
son, Ortiz, & Stanne, 1991). Resource interdependence by terials. Negative interdependence typically results in indi-
itself may decrease achievement and productivity compared viduals opposing each other’s success. Oppositional inter-
with individualistic efforts (when individuals need the re- action occurs as individuals discourage and obstruct each
sources of other group members but do not share common other’s efforts to achieve their goals; individuals focus both
goals, they try to obtain resources from others without on being productive and on preventing any other person
sharing their own resources; D. W. Johnson et al., 1990; from being more productive than themselves. Conditions of
Ortiz et al., 1996). Both working to achieve a reward and no interaction occur when individuals work independently
working to avoid the loss of a reward produced higher without any interchange with each other; individuals focus
achievement than did individualistic efforts (Frank, 1984). only on being productive and ignore as irrelevant the ef-
There is evidence that positive interdependence tends to forts of others. Promotive interaction requires the appropri-
motivate individuals to try harder, use higher level reason- ate use of interpersonal and small group skills and regular
ing strategies more frequently, and develop new insights group processing.
and discoveries more frequently (Gabbert, Johnson, & Appropriate use of social skills. Promoting the suc-
Johnson, 1986; D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1981; D. W. cess of other group members requires participants to have
Johnson, Skon, & Johnson, 1980; Skon, Johnson, & John- (or to be taught) the interpersonal and small group skills
son, 1981). The more complex the procedures involved in needed for high-quality cooperation as well as to be moti-
interdependence, however, the longer it will take group vated to use them (D. W. Johnson, 2003; D. W. Johnson &
members to reach their full levels of productivity (Ortiz et F. P. Johnson, 2003). In their studies on the long-term im-
al., 1996). Finally, identity interdependence (i.e., defining plementation of cooperative efforts, Lew, Mesch, and their
oneself in terms of group membership), results in a greater colleagues (Lew et al., 1986a, 1986b; Mesch et al., 1988;
willingness to take less from common resources and to Mesch et al., 1986) found that the combination of positive
contribute more toward the common good (Brewer & goal interdependence, a contingency for high performance
Kramer, 1986; De Cremer & Van Vjugt, 1999; Kramer & by all group members, and a social skills contingency pro-
Brewer, 1984). moted the highest levels of achievement and productivity.
Individual accountability and personal responsibility. Giving participants individual feedback on how frequently
Positive interdependence is posited to create forces for re- they engaged in targeted social skills was more effective in
sponsibility that increase group members’ feelings of re- increasing participants’ achievement and creating more
sponsibility and accountability for (a) completing one’s positive relationships than was group feedback (Archer-
share of the work and (b) facilitating the work of other Kath et al., 1994; Putnam, Rynders, Johnson, & Johnson,
group members. When a person’s performance affects the 1989).
outcomes of collaborators, the person feels responsible for Group processing. Promotive interaction may be en-
their welfare as well as his or her own (Matsui, Kakuyama, hanced by group members periodically reflecting on how
& Onglatco, 1987). Failing oneself is bad, but failing oth- well they are functioning and how they might improve
ers as well is worse. The shared responsibility created by their work processes. Within cooperative groups, group
positive interdependence adds the concept of “ought” to processing (compared with cooperation without group pro-
group members’ motivation— one ought to do one’s part, cessing and individualistic efforts) has been found to in-
pull one’s weight, contribute, and satisfy peer norms crease the achievement of high-, medium-, and low-
(D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Such feelings of re- achieving individuals’ problem-solving success, achieve-

November 2003 ● American Psychologist 939

ment motivation, uniformity of achievement among group alization of effective practices. At the University of
members, and attempts to influence group mates toward Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, the Cooperative Learning
higher achievement (Archer-Kath et al., 1994; D. W. John- Center has worked with school districts and universities
son et al., 1990; Yager, Johnson, Johnson, & Snider, throughout the world in implementing cooperative learning.
1986). Group processing also resulted in more positive re- Such widespread and diverse use of cooperative learning
lationships between participants with and without disabili- has resulted in modifications and extensions of social inter-
ties (which carried over to post-instructional free-time situ- dependence theory and numerous new research studies.
ations), greater self-esteem, and more positive attitudes There is a two-way relationship between theory and
toward the subject area (Archer-Kath et al., 1994; Putnam practice. Practice is guided by validated theory. Operation-
et al., 1989). alizing the theory in practical situations can reveal inade-
Conditions for constructive competition and individual- quacies in the theory that lead to its modification and re-
istic efforts. Social interdependence theory has been ex- finement (which then requires new research studies to
panded in the past few decades to include the conditions validate the changes). Social interdependence theory is an
under which competition may be constructive (D. W. John- example of how a good theory can change the course of
son & Johnson, 1974, 1978, 1989, 1999; R. T. Johnson & everyday life. The clarity of the theory, the amount and
Johnson, 1979; Stanne, Johnson, & Johnson, 1999; Tjos- quality of the research, and the successful application of
vold, Johnson, Johnson, & Sun, 2003). Competition tends the theory indicate that social interdependence theory is
to be more constructive when winning is relatively unim- strategic (i.e., has implications for and applications to a
portant, in situations in which all participants have a rea- wide range of problems and situations), profound (i.e., in-
sonable chance to win, and under circumstances in which dividuals who know the theory understand more about the
there are clear, specific, and fair rules, procedures, and cri- real world and can behave more effectively than can those
teria for winning. Individualistic efforts may be most ap- who do not know the theory), and powerful (i.e., has con-
propriate when cooperation has high costs, the goal is per- siderable validity and generalizes across a wide range of
ceived to be important, participants expect to be successful, individual differences, situational variables, and historical
the task is unitary and nondivisible, directions for complet- periods).
ing the task are simple and clear, and what is accomplished Whereas small group learning has been used since the
will be used subsequently in a cooperative effort. beginning of human existence, the modern use of coopera-
tive learning primarily began in 1966 with the training of
Application of Social Interdependence Theory
teachers at the University of Minnesota in the effective
There is considerable evidence, therefore, that cooperative instructional use of small groups. Since that time, the ap-
efforts tend to promote greater efforts to achieve, more plication of social interdependence theory to education has
positive relationships, and greater psychological health than become one of the most successful and widespread applica-
do competitive or individualistic efforts. Furthermore, the tions of social psychology to practice. Practical procedures
power of cooperation has been shown to depend on the have been created from social interdependence theory for
presence of clear, positive interdependence (which includes structuring cooperative, competitive, and individualistic
individual accountability) that results in promotive interac- efforts at both the classroom and school levels (D. W.
tion (which includes appropriate use of social skills and Johnson & Johnson, 1994; D. W. Johnson et al., 1998).
group processing). These results provide strong confirma- Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small
tion of social interdependence theory, as the validating re- groups designed to encourage students to work together to
search encompasses considerable diversity and generaliz- maximize their own and each other’s learning (D. W. John-
ability. Having a validated theory, however, does not son et al., 1998). The widespread implementation of coop-
signify that it will direct or even influence practice. Effec- erative learning by countless teachers and professors
tive practices can be derived from sound theories, but they throughout the world has resulted in a number of contribu-
can also be validly derived from unsound theories or from tions to social interdependence theory. Some of the more
no theory at all (i.e., through trial and error or luck). More- important are as follows.
over, effective practice can be derived from validated the- 1. Operationalization of cooperative learning by multiple
ory only if the theory is stated with sufficient precision that teachers, in a variety of subject areas and settings, from
effective procedures can be deduced for practitioners to preschool through adult education, across varied tasks and
use. Social interdependence theory has such precision. diverse students, in many different countries and cultures,
Once practical procedures are deduced from a theory, serves to validate the theory and the clarity of the concep-
they must be implemented in a wide range of settings and tual definitions. The correspondence between Deutsch’s
evaluated. A number of conditions, such as inertia, resis- (1949) theoretical definitions and the practical procedures
tance to change, economic conditions, prejudice, and cul- highlights a major strength of social interdependence the-
tural resistance, can preclude implementation or institution- ory. It is noteworthy that after extensive research on social

940 November 2003 ● American Psychologist

interdependence and multiple applications of its principles, 5. The implementation of cooperative learning has fo-
the original definitions have not been revised or modified. cused attention on predispositions for cooperation and com-
2. To implement cooperative learning successfully, edu- petition. In educational situations, some students appear
cators have focused attention on the identification of medi- more predisposed toward cooperation, and other students
ating variables. The need to increase the effectiveness of seem more comfortable with competition. Theoretically,
cooperative learning in dealing with a variety of educa- cooperation and competition are conceptualized as opposite
tional issues, such as increasing achievement, improving ends of a single continuum. Yet predispositions toward
relationships among diverse peers, and improving self- engaging in cooperation or competition may in fact be
esteem, has led to examination of the internal dynamics of somewhat independent of each other (D. W. Johnson &
cooperation and the variables that mediate its effectiveness. Norem-Hebeisen, 1979). Because both cooperative and
Five mediating variables have been identified (positive in- competitive situations involve interaction with other peo-
terdependence, individual accountability, promotive interac- ple, it may be assumed that a person who is high on both
tion, social skills, and group processing; D. W. Johnson & will be a highly social person who enjoys interacting with
Johnson, 1989). The mediating variables have been used others in a variety of ways, whereas a person who is low
and refined to structure cooperative learning more effec- on both will generally be more socially isolated, tending to
tively, to solve problems students have in working to- avoid others across a range of situations.
gether, and to adapt cooperative learning to different stu- 6. The implementation of cooperative learning has di-
dent populations, subject areas, and conditions. rected attention to the relationship between cooperation and
Subsequently, the theory has been modified to include all conflict. Social interdependence theorists have noted that
five of these variables. both positive and negative interdependence creates conflict
3. The implementation of cooperative learning has ex- among individuals (Deutsch, 1973; D. W. Johnson & John-
panded the outcomes considered by social interdependence son, 1995a, 1995b; Tjosvold, 1991). In cooperative situa-
tions, conflicts arise over how best to achieve mutual goals.
theory. Issues of school integration, inclusion of those with
In competitive situations, conflict occurs over who will win
disabilities, and the increased diversity of immigrants have
and who will lose. Two of the conflict resolution programs
led to a focus among schools on the use of cooperative
implemented in schools to teach students how to manage
learning to create positive relationships among diverse stu- conflicts constructively are (a) the Teaching Students to Be
dents. The emphasis on solving social problems has ex- Peacemakers Program, in which students are taught how to
panded the dependent variables to the use of positive peer resolve conflicts of interests constructively by engaging in
pressure to increase prosocial and decrease antisocial be- integrative negotiations and peer mediation (D. W. Johnson
havior (e.g., preventing drug abuse, inculcating academic & R. T. Johnson, 1995b, 2003a), and (b) the Academic
values in at-risk students, enhancing self-esteem, prevent- Controversy Program, in which students are taught how to
ing violence). These and other factors have resulted in the intellectually challenge each other’s ideas, reasoning, and
expansion of the theory to include new dependent vari- conclusions (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1995a). The re-
ables, fermenting considerable new research. search on both programs indicates that conflicts that occur
4. The implementation of cooperative learning has high- within the context of positive (as opposed to negative) in-
lighted the values inherent in social interdependence. Co- terdependence may result in a wide variety of positive out-
operative, competitive, and individualistic efforts have in- comes (such as higher achievement, more frequent use of
herent value systems that are instilled by the flow of day- higher level reasoning, more accurate perspective-taking,
to-day life within schools (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, more integrative agreements, greater liking for each other,
2000). The values inherently taught by cooperative efforts and more positive attitudes toward conflict). These findings
include a commitment to one’s own and others’ success considerably strengthen the relationship between social in-
and well-being, a commitment to the common good, and terdependence theory and constructive conflict resolution.
the view that facilitating and promoting the success of oth-
ers is a natural way of life. Engaging in competitive efforts Return to Theory, Research, and Practice
inherently teaches the values of obtaining more than others Social interdependence theory is an example of how psy-
and beating and defeating others, the importance of win- chological theorizing and research have resulted in valuable
ning, and the view that opposing and obstructing the suc- practical applications and how theory, research, and prac-
cess of others is a natural way of life. The values inher- tice interact in ways that enhance all three. The relation-
ently taught by individualistic experiences are a ship between theory and research has long been under-
commitment to one’s own self-interest and the view that stood. Theory identifies, clarifies, and defines the
the well-being of others is irrelevant. Schools inculcate phenomena of interest and their relationships with each
numerous values in students, and the instructional methods other. In the 1920s and 1930s, some research on coopera-
used influence the values that students develop. tion and competition was conducted, but it was disjointed,

November 2003 ● American Psychologist 941

involved a variety of definitions of cooperation and compe- search conducted in actual classrooms as opposed to psy-
tition (even within the same study), and provided little con- chological laboratories.
ceptual clarity as to the nature of cooperation or competi- Second, in the 1960s and 1970s, there was considerable
tion. Deutsch’s (1949) definitions utilizing positive and pressure on schools (a) to increase achievement in basic
negative correlation among goals as well as the absence of subject areas such as math and reading and (b) to solve
such correlations (a) brought considerable conceptual clar- social problems through such efforts as desegregation, in-
ify to the nature of the types of social interdependence, (b) clusion of students with disabilities in the regular class-
helped reorganize the previous studies by creating a frame- room, prevention of drug abuse, and raising the low self-
work from which to classify the operational definitions in esteem of many at-risk pupils. The application of social
previous studies as to the actual type of social interdepen- interdependence theory in education has resulted in the
dence created, and (c) helped operationalize the types of demonstration that cooperation may be used to involve stu-
social interdependence in future studies (i.e., the rules of dents actively in learning situations and to achieve multiple
correspondence were clear). Thus, social interdependence is educational goals simultaneously while accommodating
a well-formulated theory that clearly defines the relevant individual differences and addressing a variety of social
concepts, summarizes the research, and generates new problems. What resulted was a plethora of research studies
research. with new dependent variables that extended the theory. It
Research validates or disconfirms the theory. More than is primarily the application of social interdependence the-
754 studies have been conducted on social interdependence ory that has generated the numerous research studies con-
in the past 100 years or so, and 97% of them were con- ducted on this topic in the past three decades.
ducted following Deutsch’s development of the basic the- Third, to increase the effectiveness of cooperative learn-
ory. Thus, there is sufficient research to test the theory, and ing, researchers focused attention on the variables that me-
the studies conducted have both high internal and high ex- diate the relationship between positive interdependence and
ternal validity. The amount, quality, and generalizability of desired outcomes (such as increased learning and retention
the research provide strong confirmation of the basic prop- of academic material and positive relationships among di-
ositions of the theory and the effectiveness of cooperative verse students). Investigation of the day-to-day use of co-
operative learning in a setting in which goals are imposed
relative to competitive and individualistic efforts. In addi-
(i.e., students are required to learn how to read and do
tion, these studies have demonstrated relationships between
math whether they want to or not) revealed that in many
the theoretical constructs and new dependent variables and
cases, simply presenting mutual learning goals did not in
have contributed research findings about originally under-
and of itself create a perception of positive interdepen-
developed aspects of the theory. dence. Inventive teachers supplemented and strengthened
In discussions of the relationship among theory, re- positive goal interdependence by giving rewards for group
search, and practice, the role of practice has sometimes as well as individual performance, assigning group roles,
been neglected. Social interdependence theory has been dividing resources among group members, assigning each
applied in many diverse areas, but the most systematic, group a specific workspace, and encouraging groups to de-
widespread, and long-term applications have been in edu- velop their own names and logos. This resulted in theoreti-
cation. The implementation of cooperative learning has had cal distinctions among outcome (goals and rewards), means
profound effects on social interdependence theory and re- (roles, resources, task), and boundary (identity, environ-
search in at least four ways. First, in the mid-1960s, when mental, outside enemy) interdependence. As the focus of
I first started training teachers in the use of cooperative education is on the learning of each individual student,
learning, there was considerable cultural resistance due to teachers also focused on ways to increase the responsibility
the widespread beliefs in social Darwinism (which advo- forces generated within cooperative efforts. Emerging from
cated the use of competition in schools) and operant condi- these emphases were new ways to establish each group
tioning (which advocated individualistic learning and be- member’s individual accountability for learning the as-
havioral modification). The need for a persuasive rationale signed material and promoting the learning of collabora-
for the use of cooperative learning led to comprehensive tors. In implementing cooperative learning, furthermore,
reviews of the research (D. W. Johnson, 1970; D. W. John- teachers found that many students did not know how to
son & Johnson, 1974; D. W. Johnson, Maruyama, Johnson, promote the achievement of their group mates. To teach
Nelson, & Skon, 1981; D. W. Johnson, Johnson, & Ma- them how to do so, teachers emphasized the importance of
ruyama, 1983), which organized the existing research and providing students with the necessary interpersonal and
focused attention on the variety of dependent variables that small group skills (such as leadership, decision-making,
had been investigated. These reviews tended to move the trust-building, communication, and conflict-management
debate about the efficacy of cooperative learning from an skills; D. W. Johnson, 2003; D. W. Johnson & F. P. John-
ideological focus to an empirical basis and stimulated re- son, 2003). Teachers also found that the long-term effec-

942 November 2003 ● American Psychologist

tiveness of cooperative efforts depends on identifying and Motivation (Vol. 10, pp. 275–319). Lincoln: University of
solving problems members have in working together. Nebraska Press.
Group processing was structured to ensure that students
discussed how well they were achieving their learning Deutsch, M. (1968). Field theory in social psychology. In
goals and maintaining effective working relationships G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social
among group members. Further research studies were con- psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 412– 487). Reading, MA:
ducted to determine the impact of these innovations on the Addison Wesley.
effectiveness of cooperative learning.
Fourth, the viability of cooperative learning may have Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict. New Haven,
strengthened the confidence individuals have in social in- CT: Yale University Press.
terdependence theory.
Thus, in the interrelationships among social interdepen-
Deutsch, M. (1983). The prevention of World War III: A
dence theory, research, and practice, it may be practice that
psychological perspective. Political Psychology, 4, 3–32.
has been the most powerful link in the chain. The world-
wide application of cooperative learning may have fueled
much of the interest in and development of social interde- Deutsch, M. (1985). Distributive justice: A social psycho-
pendence theory and generated most of the hundreds of logical perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University
research studies that have been conducted in the past 30 Press.
years. There is nothing so important to a good theory as
the demonstration of its application in an effective practice. Frank, M. (1984). A comparison between an individual and
group goal structure contingency that differed in the be-
Author’s Note havioral contingency and performance-outcome compo-
Most of the work described in this article was conducted nents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
jointly with Roger T. Johnson at the University of Minne- Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus.
sota, Twin Cities Campus. I also thank Morton Deutsch,
Norman Miller, Dean Tjosvold, Peter Coleman, and Laurie Gabbert, B., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1986). Co-
Stevahn for their help and assistance in writing this article. operative learning, group-to-individual transfer, process
Correspondence concerning this address should be sent gain and the acquisition of cognitive reasoning strategies.
to David W. Johnson, Department of Educational Psychol- Journal of Psychology, 120, 265–278.
ogy, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, 159
Pillsbury Drive, SE, 60 Peik Hall, Minneapolis, MN Hooper, S., Ward, T., Hannafin, M., & Clark, H. (1989).
55455– 0298. Email: [email protected] The effects of aptitude composition on achievement during
small group learning. Journal of Computer-Based Instruc-
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