ALTERNATING CURRENT LESSON PLAN

(Approximate lecture time: 3 hours)

Frequency and period [FERM 41:2]

Frequency is how many times the waveform repeats in a second.

Period is how many seconds it takes before the waveform repeats.
Angular frequency is how many radians the waveform covers in a second.

1
ω = 2π f f =
T

Average value [FERM 41:2]

The average value is amplitude integrated over one period divided by the period.
1 T
X ave = ∫ x (t )dt
T 0
where Xave can be voltage or current.

Sine wave: Xave = 0

2 X max
Full-wave rectified: X ave =
π

X max
Half-wave rectified: X ave =
π

Square wave, positive pulse = negative pulse: Xave = 0

tX max
Pulse pattern, positive, all the same: X ave =
T
t is the duration of the pulse and T is the period.

Sawtooth: Xave = ½Xmax

Symmetrical triangular wave: Xave = 0

A DC signal has an average value equal to the DC value. If the signal has a DC component
superimposed on the AC signal, the average value is the sum of the AC average value and
the DC average value. For example,
V = 100 V sin ω t + 10 V
has an average value of 10 V, because a sine wave has 0 average value and the DC part has
an average value of 10 V.

Copyright 2001 Professional Publications, Inc. AC Electricity - 1

 Use the average value whenever electrons are to be “counted,” such as in plating or
charging problems.

Example: Average Value

A plating tank with an effective resistance of 100 Ω is connected to the output of a full-wave
rectifier. The applied voltage is sinusoidal with a maximum of 170 V. How long does it take to
transfer 0.005 faradays?

2V max ( 2)(170 V )
V ave = = = 108.2V
π π
Vave 108.2 V
I ave = = = 1.082 A
R 100 Ω

t=
q
=
(
(0.005 F) 96,487 A • s
F )
I ave 1.082 A

= 446 sec

Effective or Root-Mean-Squared (RMS) value [FERM 41:2]

RMS value is called “effective” because it is equivalent to the DC voltage that would have
the same power dissipation.

1 T 2
T ∫0
X rms = x (t )dt
1
Full-wave rectified sine wave or sine wave: Xrms = Xmax
2

Half-wave rectified sine wave: Xrms = ½Xmax

t
Pulse pattern, positive, all the same: Xrms = Xmax
T
t is the duration of the pulse and T is the period.

1
Symmetrical triangular: Xrms = Xmax
3
1
Sawtooth: Xrms = Xmax
3

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 A DC signal has an RMS value equal to the DC value. If the signal has a DC component
superimposed on the AC signal, the RMS value is the sum of the AC RMS value and the
DC RMS value. For example,
V = 2 V sin ω t + 10 V
has an RMS value of 11 V, because a sine wave has an RMS value of 1 V and the DC part
has an RMS value of 10 V.

Examples: Effective (RMS) values

(1) A 170 V (maximum value) sinusoidal voltage is connected across a 4 Ω resistor. What is the
power dissipated by the resistor?

Vmax 170 V
Vrms = = = 120.2 V
2 2

P=
(Vrms )
=
2
(120.2 V) 2
R 4Ω
= 3.61 × 10 W
3

(2) What is the Irms value for the following wave form?

½I

½T T

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 10 (D) 3

I I I I
4 4 4 2

1 T I 
2

∫ [ I (t )]2 = ∫ ∫T   dt
1 T 1 T2 2
I rms = I dt +
T 0 T 0 T 2 2

I 2  T   1  I 2  T I 2  I 2 T 
=   +   [T ]T = + 
T  2   T  4  2 2  4T   2 

I2 I2 5 2 10
= + = I = I
2 8 8 4

Therefore (C) is correct.

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(3) A sinusoidal AC voltage with a value of Vrms = 60 volts is applied to a purely resistive circuit.
What steady-state voltage would dissipate the same power as the AC voltage?
(A) 30 V (B) 42 V (C) 60 V (D) 85 V

The answer is right in the problem statement. Since the voltage is given as an RMS value,
the equivalent DC voltage is simply 60 V. Therefore (C) is correct.

Phasor transforms [FERM 41:2]

NOTE: The NCEES Handbook uses an unusual notation for the angles in AC signals, so
take special care not to use a more standard notation in your lecture.

Voltage and currents can be written as amplitudes and phase angles.

The NCEES handbook uses φ as the angle between the reference and voltage.

The NCEES handbook uses θ as the angle between the reference and current.

The phase angle is θ - φ .

If the phase angle is positive, the signal is called “leading” or “capacitive.”

If the phase angle is negative, the signal is called “lagging” or “inductive.”

If the phase angle is zero, the signal is called “in phase.”

“ELI the ICE man.”

Impedance definitions [FERM 41:3]

Impedance: Z = R + jX

Resistor: ZR = R

−j −j
Capacitor: Z C = − jX C = =
ω C 2π f C

Inductor : ZL = jXL = jωL = j 2πfL

Impedances combine by complex algebra

Admittance is the inverse of impedance.

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Example: Impedance

For the following circuit: (a) What is the impedance in polar form? (b) Is the current leading or
lagging? (c) What voltage is across the inductor?

( )
Z = 3Ω + j 400 1 s (2.5 mH ) − j
1
+ 9 Ω /40
o

( )
(a)
400 1s (625 µ F)

= 3 Ω + j 1 Ω - j 4 Ω + 9 Ω (cos 40o) +(j 9 Ω) (sin 40o)

= (3 + 6.894) Ω + j (1 - 4 + 5.785) Ω

= 9.894 Ω + j 2.785 Ω

| Z |= (9.894Ω) 2 + (2.785Ω) 2 = 10.28Ω

 2.785Ω 
Phase angle = tan-1 (imaginary/real) = tan −1   = 15.72
o

 9.894Ω 
Z = 10.28Ω /15.72o

(b) I = V/Z = (160 V /0o)/(10.28 Ω /15.72o) = 15.56 A /-15.72o

Therefore, the current is lagging (ELI).

(c) VL = IZL = (15.56 A /-15.72o)(1 Ω /90o)

VL = 15.56 V /74.28o

Ohm’s law for AC circuits [FERM 41:4]

V = IZ
V, I, and Z are all complex numbers

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Example: Ohm’s law

What is the current in the capacitor in the following circuits?

Z = 2 Ω - j 4 Ω = 4.47 Ω /-63.4o Zc = 0.25 Ω /-90o

o o
V 180 V / 0 V 180 V / 0
I= = = 40.3 A / 63.4 I= = = 720 A / 90
o o

Z 4.47 Ω / − 63.4 o
Z c 0.25 Ω /-90o

NOTE: The frequency does not have to be given for capacitors and inductors if the
impedance is given in ohms.

Complex power [FERM 41:4]

NOTE: For complex power, the NCEES Handbook has taken the voltage as the reference
and set φ equal to 0o.

Real power (W)

Reactive power (VAR)
Apparent power (VA)

The “Power Triangle”

Power factor = cos θ where θ is the angle between voltage and current.

Real power is |Vrms| |Irms| cos θ for any periodic function

Real power is ½|Vmax| |Imax| cos θ for a sine wave only
Reactive or imaginary power is |Vrms| |Irms| sin θ for any periodic function
Reactive power is ½|Vmax| |Imax| sin θ for a sine wave only

Example: Complex power

For the following circuit, find the (a) real power, and (b) reactive power. Draw the power triangle.

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 (a) The real power is:
VR2 (120 V) 2
P= = = 1440 W
R 10 Ω

(b) The reactive power is:

V L2 (120 V ) 2
Q= = = 3600 VAR
XL 4Ω

The power triangle is:

Resonance [FERM 41:5]

Z = R, X = 0

1
ω0 = = 2π f 0
LC

1
ω0L =
ω 0C
1
XC = = X L = ωo L
ωoC

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Series resonance
Z = R, X=0
Also known as a band-pass filter.
Quality factor:
X ω0 L 1
Q= = =
R R ω o CR
Bandwidth:
ω0
BW =
Q
Half power point is when R = X:
ω½power = ω0 ± ½BW

Example: Resonance

For the following circuit, find (a) the resonance frequency (rad/s), (b) the half-power points (rad/s),
(c) the peak current (at resonance), and (d) the peak voltage across each component at resonance.

1 1
(a) ω0 = = = 5 × 10 6 rad
−6 s
LC (200 × 10 H)(200 × 10 -12
F)

R 50Ω
(b) ω½power = ω 0 ± ½BW = ω o ± = 5 × 10 6 rad ±
2L s (2)(200 × 10 − 6 H)
= 5.125 × 106 , 4.875 × 106 rad/s

(c) At resonance Z = R
I(resonance) = V/R = 20/0o/50 Ω = 0.4 A/0o
(d) Vr = IoR = 0.4/0o × 50 Ω = 20/0o

VL = Io jXL = IojωL = (0.4 A/0o) (5 × 106 rad/s)(200 × 10-6 H) /90o

= 400/90o

VC = - VL = 400/-90o

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Parallel circuits [FERM 41:5]
Z=R, X=0
Also known as a band-reject filter.

Quality factor:
R R
Q= = = ω o CR
X ωo L
Bandwidth:
ω
BW = 0
Q
Half power point is when R = X:
ω½power = ω0 ± ½Q

Example: Parallel circuits

A parallel resonance circuit with a 10 Ω resistor has a resonance frequency of 1 MHz and
bandwidth of 10 kHz. What resistor value will increase the BW to 20 kHz?

ω0 ω0 1
BW = = =
Q ω 0 RC RC
C remains the same, so for double BW:
Rnew = ½Rold = 5 Ω

Transformers [FERM 41:6]

The turns ratio (transformation ratio) is proportional to the voltages and inversely
proportional to the currents.
Np Vp Is
a= = =
Ns Vs Ip

The impedance “seen” in the primary by the secondary is related by a2

Zp = a2Zs

Ip
Zp

Vp Np Ns Zs

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Examples: Transformers

(1) What is the voltage V3? Disregard losses.

(A) 45 V (B) 65 V (C) 75 V (D) 90 V

120 VAC V3

N1 = 200 N2 = 50 NA = 100 N3 = 300

N2 N3
V2 = 120 V V3 = V2
N1 NA
 N  N   300   50 
V3 =  3   2  120 V =    120 V = 90 V
 N A   N1   100   200 
Therefore (D) is correct.

(2) What is the total impedance in the primary circuit? Assume an ideal transformer.

1Ω 3Ω 12 Ω

4Ω

N1 = 50 N2 = 100

2
 50 
Z total = Z p + Z =   (12 Ω + j 4 Ω) + 3 Ω + j Ω
 100 
Z total = 3 Ω + 3 Ω + j(1 Ω + 1 Ω) = 6 Ω + j 2 Ω

Three-phase power: Although three-phase power was on the FE exam years ago, it is not included
in the latest version of the exam specifications, so it need not be covered in your lecture.

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ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

(1) For the circuit elements shown, draw the conventional impedance diagram.

90Ω

30Ω

50Ω

90Ω

40Ω

30Ω 30Ω
50Ω

(2) What is the steady-state magnitude of the RMS voltage across the capacitor?
(A) 15 V (B) 30 V (C) 45 V (D) 60 V

10Ω

40Vrms -j15Ω

+j15Ω

Z = 10 Ω + j(15 Ω - 15 Ω) = 10 Ω
V 40 V
I rms = rms = =4A
R 10 Ω
V c rms = Irms Xc = (4 A )(15 Ω) = 60 V

Therefore (D) is correct.

NOTE: The voltage across the capacitor is greater than the source voltage. This is possible
because there isn’t any power in this voltage, since the current and voltage are totally out of
phase across the capacitor.

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(3) For the following circuit, the RMS steady-state currents are:

I1 = 14.4 /-36.9o and I2 = 6 /90o.

5Ω I3 I2

I1 4Ω
Vs -j12Ω
+j3Ω

The impedance seen by the voltage source is most nearly:

(A) 9.5 /18.4o Ω (B) 10.0 /36.9o Ω (C) 10.7 /16.0o Ω (D) 11.0 /7.1o Ω

1 Z1 Z2
Z = R+ = R+
1 1 Z1 + Z2
+
Z1 Z2

(4 + j3)( − j12)  36 − j48   4 + j9 

Z =5Ω+ Ω =5Ω+  Ω
4 + j3 − j12  4 − j9   4 + j9 

NOTE: The preceding is an example of rationalizing the denominator of a complex number

without converting to the polar form.

144 + 432 + j ( 324 − 192) 576 132 

Z = 5+ = 5+ + j 
16 + 81 97  97 

Z = 5 Ω + 5.938 Ω + j1.361 Ω = 10.938 Ω +j 1.361 Ω

Z = (10.938Ω ) 2 + (1.361Ω) 2 = 11.0Ω

 1.361Ω 
tan −1   = 7.1
o

 10.938Ω 

Z = 11 Ω /7.1o

Therefore (D) is correct.

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(4) The phasor form of I3 is most nearly:
(A) 10.3 /-32.5o A (B) 11.8 /-12.9o A (C) 18.6 /51.9o A (D) 18.6 /-51.9o A

I3 = I1 + I2

I3 = 14.4 A /-36.9o + 6 A /90o

I3 = 14.4 A cos(-36.9o) + j 14.4 A sin(-36.9o) +j 6 A

I3 = 11.515 A - j8.646 A + j 6 A

I3 = 11.515 A - j 2.646 A

I 3 = (11.515A) 2 + (2.646A) 2 = 11.8A

 − 2.646A 
tan −1   = −12.9
o

 11.515A 

I3 = 11.8 A /-12.9o

Therefore (B) is correct.

END OF AC ELECTRICITY LESSON

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