MEASUREMENT - DEFINITION AND SIGNIFICANCE

: an act or the result of comparison between the quantity and a prede ned standard.

The basic requirements for meaningful measurement

The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately de ned and
should be commonly accepted.

The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

New discoveries are not of any practical utility unless they are backed by actual
CHAPTER 1 measurements. The measurements con rm the validity of a hypothesis but also add
to its understanding.

INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION There are two major functions of all branches of engineering for measurement

Design of equipment and processes.

& MEASUREMENTS Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes.

1 2

METHOD OF MEASUREMENT CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT

The unknown quantity

1. Direct Methods : The measurand is directly compared against a standard, 1. Absolute Instruments : give the magnitude of the quantity under measurements
expressed as a numerical number and a unit. Example the measurement of in terms of physical constants of the instrument. For example Tangent
physical quantities like length, mass and time. Galvanometer and Rayleigh's current balance.

2. Indirect Methods : These will use in case of direct measurements can not be 2. Secondary Instruments : The quantity can only be measured by observing the
done. However, it is quite inaccurate from human factors and less sensitive. output indicated by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by
comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument which
has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.

For engineering applications, measurement systems with indirect methods are used.
Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming, so they are
Transducing element are converts the quantity to be measured in an analogous form.
used mostly by standards institutions. The secondary instruments are most
It is processed and fed to the end devices for presenting the results of the
commonly used in every sphere of measurement.
measurement.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT

Secondary instruments are further classi ed as Instrument can be classi ed in various way - In term of Analog & Digital

Indicating instruments : indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time when it is Analog Instruments : The signals will vary in a continuous fashion and can take on in nite
being measured. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a calibrated scale. number of values in a given range
For Example : Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, frequency meters, power factor For Example : Fuel gauge, ammeter and voltmeters, wrist watch, speedometer .
meters.
Digital Instruments : Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a nite number of different
Integrating Instruments : measure the total amount of either quantity of electricity (ampere- values in a given range are digital signals and the corresponding instruments are of digital type.
hours) or electrical energy supplied over a period of time. The summation is the product of time They have high accuracy, high speed of operation, and might be store result. That help
and an electrical quantity under measurement. eliminating the human operational errors.
For Example : The ampere-hour meters and energy meters. For Example : Digital Multimeter.

Recording Instruments : keep a continuous record of the variation of the magnitude of an

electrical quantity to be observed over a de nite period of time.
For Example : the instruments are generally used in powerhouses where the current, voltage,
power are to be maintained within certain acceptable limit.

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CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT

Instrument can be classi ed in various way - In term of Mechanical, Electrical and Instrument can be classi ed in various way - In term of Self-operated and Power-
Electronics Instruments. operated Instruments.

Mechanical Instruments : suitable for static and stable conditions. They are relatively cheaper in
cost, more durable due to rugged construction, simple in design, easy to use, and no external
Self-operated instruments : no outside power to operate. The output is supply by the input
power supply required. However, They are unable to respond rapidly to the measurement of
measurand. For Example : Dial-indicating type instruments.
dynamic and transient conditions, large force required to overcome mechanical friction,
incompatible when remote indication and control need and cause noise pollution.
Power-operated Instruments : external power such as electricity, compressed air, hydraulic
supply, are needed to operate. The input signal supplies only an insigni cant portion of the
Electrical Instruments : the action of some electrical methods cause the instrument pointer
output power. For Example : Electromechanical instruments.
de ection. Although, the operation time is more rapid, it still depends upon a mechanical
measurement as an indicating device.

Electronic Instruments : The semiconductor devices are used. Since the only movement
involved is that of electrons, the response time is extremely small. Very weak signal can be
detected by using pre-ampli ers and ampli ers.

Both Electrical and Electronic Instruments can operate with non-contact measurement, consume less
power , compact in size and more reliable in operation, greater exibility, good frequency and
transient response, suitable for remote indication and recording, and can apply ampli cation.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT ELEMENTS OF A GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Instrument can be classi ed in various way - In term of De ection and Null Output
Instruments. ampli cation,
attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition
or subtraction.
De ection instruments : the de ection of the instrument indicates the measurement of the
unknown quantity. The measurand quantity produces some physical effect which de ects or
produces a mechanical displacement in the moving system of the instrument. An opposite effect “Transducer” A/D converter Signal Conditioning Terminating Stage

is built in the instrument which opposes the de ection or the mechanical displacement of the
moving system. The balance is achieved when opposing effect equals the actuating cause Primary Variable Variable Data Data
sensing Conversion Manipulation transmission presentation
producing the de ection or the mechanical displacement. The de ection or the mechanical
element element element element element
displacement at this point gives the value of the unknown input quantity. These type of
instruments are suited for measurement under dynamic condition.
For Example : Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron (MI) type instruments. Detector transducer stage

Null Output Instruments : a zero or null indication leads to determination of the magnitude of Data conditioning element
the measurand quantity. The null condition depends upon some other known conditions. These
are more accurate and highly sensitive as compared to de ection-type instruments.
For Example : dc potentiometer.

9 10

UNIT, ABSOLUTE UNIT, FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNIT DIMENSION

The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is called a Unit. Since every quantity has a quality which distinguishes it from all other quantities. This
unique quality is called Dimension. A derived unit is always recognized by its
(Magnitude of a physical quantity) = (Numerical ratio) ✕ (Unit) dimensions.
Numerical Measure or Numerical multiplier
Length - [L] Mass - [M] Time - [T]
An absolute system of units is de ned as a system in which the various units are all expressed in terms
of a small number of fundamental units. This is associated with relating units to the units length, mass
and time. 1 Velocity = length/time [v] = [L]/[T] = [L/T-1]

2 Acceleration = velocity/time [a] = [LT-1]/[T] = [L/T-2}

The Fundamental Units in mechanics are measures of length mass, and time. Since they are
3 Force = mass ✕ acceleration [F] = [M][LT-2] = [MLT-2]
fundamental to most other physical quantities, they are called the Primary Fundamental Units.
4 Work = force ✕ distance [W] = [MLT-2][L] = [ML2T-2]

Measures of certain physical quantities in the thermal, electrical, illumination elds are also 5 Power = work / time [P] = [W]/[T] = [ML2T-3]
represented by fundamental units. These units are used only where these particular disciplines are
6 Energy = power ✕ time [W] = [ML2T-3][T] = [ML2T-2]
involved and therefore they are called Auxiliary Fundamental Units.
7 Momentum = mass ✕ velocity = [M][LT-1] = [MLT-1]

All other units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units with the help of physical 8 Torque = force ✕ distance = [MLT-2][L] = [ML2T-2]
equation are called Derived Units, such as Volume (m3). 9 Stiffness = torque / angle [K] = [ML2T-2]

10 Surface Tension = force / length [ ] = [MLT-2]/[L] = [MT-2]

Volume = lwh
11 Dynamic Viscosity = (force / area) ÷ (velocity / distance) [µ] = [MLT-2]/[L2] ÷ [LT-1]/[L] = [ML-1T-1]

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 SI UNITS SI UNITS
There are several system of units to use in the past. For example - CGS (Centimeter-Gram-Second) Derived Unit
system, M.K.S. System (Giorgi System), Rationalized M.K.S.A system. 1 Area square meter m2
2 Volume cubic meter m3
An international organization called the General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) has 3 Frequency hertz Hz 1/s
been entrusted with the task of prescribing de nitions for fundamental units of weights and measures 4 Density (mass density) kilogramme per cubic meter kg/m3

which are the very basis of Science and Technology today. International System of Units or SI Units 5 Velocity meter per second m/s

are established. 6 Angular velocity rad per second rad/s

7 Accelaration meter per second squared m/s2
SI Pre xs 8 Angular accelaration rad per second squared rad/s2
SI Base units
Factor by which unit is multiplied Pre x Symbol 9 Force newton N kg m/s2
Unit Name Symbol 1024 yotta Y 10 Pressure (Mechanical Tension) newton per square meter N/m2

1021 zeta Z 11 Dynamic viscocity newton-second per square meter Ns/m2

Length metre m
12 Kinematic viscocity square meter per second m2/s
1012 tera T
Mass kilogramme kg 13 Work, energy, quantity of heat joule J Nm
109 giga G
14 Power watt W J/s
Time second s 106 mega M
15 Quantity of electricity couloumb C As
103 kilo k
Intensity of electric current ampere A Potential, potential difference, volt V W/A
16
102 hecto h electromotive force
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K 101 deca da 17 Electric eld strength volt per meter V/m
10-1 deci d 18 Resistance ohm Ω V/A
Luminous intensity candela cd
10-2 centi c 19 Capacitance farad F As/V
Amount of Substance mole Mol 10-3 milli m 20 Magnetic ux weber Wb Vs

10-6 micro µ 21 Inductance Henry H Vs/A

22 Magnetic ux density tesla T Wb/m2
Supplementary units 10-9 nano n
23 Magnetic eld strength ampere per meter A/m
10-12 pico p
Plane angle radian rad 24 Magnetomotive force ampere A
10-15 femto f
25 Luminous ux lumen lm cd, sr
Solid angle steradian sr 10-18 atto A
26 Luminance candela per square meter cd/m2
10-24 yocto y 27 Illuminance lux lx lm/m2

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STANDARDS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION STANDARDS - INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The term 'standard'
is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical quantity.
They are used for the purpose of obtaining the values of the physical properties of
other equipment by comparison methods.
de ned by international agreement.
Standards of Measurement classi ed by their function and application in the
following categories: represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible accuracy that
production and measurement technology allow.
International standards Voltage standards
periodically checked and evaluated by absolute measurements in terms of the
Primary standards Resistance standards
fundamental units as previously shown.
Secondary standards Capacitance standards
maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures only.
Working standards Time and frequency standards

Current standards

For example, unit of mass (SI system) = kilogram (kg)

The mass of the cubic decimeter (x10) of water at maximum temperature = 4°C

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 STANDARDS - PRIMARY STANDARD STANDARDS - SECONDARY STANDARDS

maintained by national standards laboratories in different places of the world.

Secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in the industrial
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in Washington , USA ➡ North America measurement laboratories.

The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) ➡ Great Britain These standards are maintained by the particular involved industry and are
The Physikalisch Technische Reichsanstalt ➡ Germany * the oldest in the world checked locally against other reference standards in the area.

National Institute of Metrology (Thailand) ➡ Thailand The responsibility for maintenance and calibration rests entirely with the industrial
laboratory itself.
The primary standards are independently calibrated by absolute measurements
at each of the national laboratories. Secondary standards are generally sent to the national standards laboratory on a
periodic basis for calibration and comparison against the primary standards.
Primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories.
They are then returned to the industrial user with a certi cation of their measured
One of the main functions of primary standards is the veri cation and calibration
value in terms of the primary standard.
of secondary standards.

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STANDARDS - WORKING STANDARDS STANDARDS - CURRENT STANDARD

The fundamental SI unit of electric current (A) de nition:

“The constant current in two straight parallel conductors with in nite length and negligible circular
cross section placed 1 meter apart in vacuum produce between these conductors a force equal to
Working standards are the principle tools of a measurement laboratory. 2×10-7 N/m.”

They are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for accuracy This type of measurement is rather crude. Instead, the value of the international
and performance or to perform comparison measurements in industrial ampere was based on the electrolytic deposition of silver from a silver nitrate
applications. solution.

It was de ned as that current which deposits silver at the rate of 1.118 mg/s from
For example, A standard resistor is used in the quality control department of precise a standard silver nitrate solution.
resistor manufacturer to check the testing equipment. The manufacturer veri es that
Dif culties were encountered in the exact measurement of the deposited silver
the measurement setup performs within the required limits of accuracy.
and slight discrepancies existed between measurements made independently.

Later, the international ampere was superseded by the absolute ampere and it is
now the fundamental unit of electric current in the SI and is universally accepted
by international agreement.

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 STANDARDS - RESISTANCE STANDARD STANDARDS - RESISTANCE STANDARD

In early times, An electrochemical cell called the saturated standard cell or simply standard cell
are used as standard voltage. It is temperature dependence, and the output voltage changes
about -40 μV/°C from the nominal of 1.01858 volt. The NBS standard 1 ohm resistors are shown on the
right.
In 1962, a new standard for the volt was introduced by Brian Josephson. A thin- lm junction is
cooled to nearly absolute zero and irradiated with microwave energy, voltage can be found by The unit resistance can be represented with a precision
of a few parts in 107 over several years.
Related to standard of time/frequency
Only variable
h = Planck’s constant = 6.63✕10-34 J-s
hf
v= where e = charge of electron = 1.602✕10-19 C
2e
f = frequency of the microwave irradiation
Secondary standards and working standards are available in multiples of 10 ohms. These are
sometimes called transfer resistor and are made of alloy resistance wire, such as manganin or
When the microwave irradiating frequency is locked, the
Evanohm.
accuracy of the standard volt is one part in 108.
The transfer resistor is checked for stability and temperature characteristics at its rated power and
The major method of transferring the volt from the
a speci ed operating temperature (usually 25°C). A calibration report accompanying the resistor
standard based on the Josephson junction to secondary
speci es its traceability to NBS standards and includes the and β temperature coef cients.
standards used for calibration of the standard cell. This
device is called the normal or saturated Weston cell, as
Rt = resistance at the ambient temperature t
shown on the right. where
Rt = R25°C + (t — 25) + β( t —25)2 R25°C = resistance at 25°c
,β = temperature coef cients

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STANDARDS - CAPACITANCE STANDARD STANDARDS - TIME STANDARD AND FREQUENCY STANDARD

For physical measurements, the unit of time interval has been de ned in terms of an atomic
The unit of capacitance (the farad) can be measured standard.
with a Maxwell dc commutated bridge as shown on
The atomic units of the time was rst related to UT (Universal Time) but was later expressed in
the right.
terms of ET. The second de nes in terms of frequency of the cesium transition, 9192631770 Hz to
the hyper ne transition of the cesium atom unperturbed by external elds.

The atomic de nition of second has greater accuracy providing more uniform and much more
convenient time base. An atomic clock with a precision exceeding 1 μs per day is in operation as
a primary frequency standard at the NBS.
The NBS maintains a bank of air capacitors as standards and uses them to calibrate the secondary
Time and frequency standards are unique. Two NBS operated stations, WWVL and WWVB,
and working standards of measurement laboratories and industrial users.
operate 20 and 60 kHz, respectively, providing precision time and frequency transmissions.

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE 1

Accuracy : the closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the variable. The true A moving coil ammeter has a uniform scale with 50 divisions and gives a full-scale reading of 5 A. The
value is not indicated by any measurement system due to the loading effect, lags and mechanical instrument can read up to Vth of a scale division with a fair degree of certainty. Determine the
problems. Accuracy of the measured signal depends upon the following factors: resolution of the instrument in mA.
Intrinsic accuracy of the instrument itself Solution
Accuracy of the observer
Given Full-scale reading = 5 A, Number of division on scale = 50
Variation of the signal to be measured
Convert to mA (✕10-3 A)
Whether or not the quantity is being truly impressed upon the instrument.
5
1 scale division = ✕ 1,000 = 100 mA
50
Precision : a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements. It is indicated from the number of
signi cant gures which convey the information regarding the magnitude and the measurement
100
precision of a quantity. More signi cant gures imply greater precision of the measurement. Resolution = ¼ th of a scale division = = 25 mA
4

Resolution : the smallest change in the input signal which can be detected by the instrument.
Sometimes referred as sensitivity. The dead zone of instrument is the largest change of input
quantity with no output. The sensitivity is de ned as the ratio of output signal or response of the
instrument to a change of input signal or the quantity under measurement.

Speed of Response : The quickness of an instrument to read the measurand variable. It de nes as the
time elapsed between the start of the measurement to the reading taken.

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MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS EXAMPLE 2

In practice, it is impossible to measure the exact value of the measurand. There is always some
A 0-25 A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 percent of full scale reading. The current measured
difference between the measured value and the absolute or true value, known as the absolute error
by this instrument is 10 A. Determine the limiting error in percentage.
of the measurement.
denoted as 0
A = the absolute error of the measurement
Solution
A = Am - A where Am = the measure value
A = the absolute value
Given guaranteed accuracy = percentage reletive error = 1% = 0.01, The full scale value (f.s.d) = 25 A
The relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the unknown quantity to be
The absolute error of full scale (f.s.d.) can be found from r=
A
A= r × Afsd = 0.01×25 = 0.25
measured. Afsd
0.25
Absolute error The measured current is 10 A, the relative error can be found r=
A
= = 0.025
A 0
A 10
In case of very small r= =
A 0
r= = = A
A A True value Am Am
Therefore, the current being measured is between the limit of A = Am ± A= 10 ± 0.25
The relative error is generally expressed as a fraction or in percentage value,
or A = Am ( 1 ± r) = 10 ( 1 ± 0.025) = 10 ± 0.25
Percentage error or accuracy percentage r ✕ 100 =
0
✕ 100
Am
The limit error is r ✕ 100 =
0
✕ 100 0.025 ×100 = 2.5 %
Am
Since the measure value can be more or less than the true value, the manufacturers have to specify the
deviations to make proper selection according to the requirements. The limits of these deviations
from speci ed values are de ned as limiting or guarantee errors. The magnitude of a given quantity
having a speci ed magnitude Am and a maximum or a limiting error ± A must have a magnitude
between the limits

Am - A and Am + A or A = Am ± A

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TYPE OF ERRORS TYPE OF ERRORS

1. Gross Error : The errors occur because of mistakes in observed readings, or using instruments
and in recording and calculating measurement results. These errors usually occur because of
2. Systematic Error : These are the errors that remain constant or change according to a de nite law
human mistakes and these may be of any magnitude and cannot be subjected to mathematical
on repeated measurement of the given quantity. These errors can be evaluated and be eliminated
treatment.
by the introduction of proper correction. There are two types of systematic errors.

Instrumental errors : inherent in the measuring instruments because of their mechanical structure and
calibration or operation of the apparatus used. These can be avoided by selecting a proper measuring
device for the particular application, calibrating the measuring device or instrument against a standard,
and applying correction factors after determining the magnitude of instrumental errors.

Environmental errors : the errors change with time in an unpredictable manner. These errors are
introduced due to using an instrument in different conditions in term of temperature, humidity, altitude,
earth’s magnetic eld, gravity, stray electric and magnetic eld. These errors can be eliminated or
reduced by using the measuring instrument in the same atmospheric conditions, deviation in local
conditions must be determined and suitable compensations are applied in the instrumental reading,
and applying automatic compensation with sophisticated devices for such deviations.

3. Random Errors : The presence of random errors become evident when different results are
obtained on repeated measurements of one and the same quantity. To minimized these type of
error, measuring the given quantity many times under the same conditions and calculating the
arithmetical mean of the results obtained.
To avoid gross error, two or more readings should be taken by different observers. If the readings differ
by an unacceptably large amount, the situation can be investigated and the more erroneous readings
eliminated.

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LOADING EFFECTS

Under ideal conditions, the measurement device should not change the original
signal. However, under practical conditions, the introduction of any element can
cause the distortion in the original signal as attenuation, waveform distortion, phase
shift. Consequently, the ideal measurements become impossible.

The incapability of the system to faithfully measure the input signal in undistorted
form is called loading effect.

The loading effects can occur not only in the detector–transducer stage but also in
signal conditioning and signal presentation stages as well. The loading effect may
occur on account of both electrical and mechanical elements. The mechanical
impedances may be treated similar to electrical impedances.

The loading effect occurs by connecting the measuring instruments improperly as

well.

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